CHAPTER II

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Introduction

A literature survey was conducted to learn the state-of-art of

hardfacing process with respect to the materials, process details,

deposition methods and their quality improvement. The literature search

revealed that very few scientific papers on hardfacing by GTA welding

have been published through the years. Most of the literature was on the

analysis of the process on flat specimens and very little emphasis was

given on the hardfacing of seat rings and also on the effect of process

variables on the weld bead quality.

2.2 Hardfacing

The American welding society defines hardfacing as a form of

surfacing in which a coating or cladding is applied to a substrate for the

main purpose of reducing wear or loss of metal by abrasion, erosion,

galling and cavitation. Budinski [6], in his work described that hardfacing

should be a part of the repertoire of tools used by engineers who would

encounter wear problem.

2.3 Hardfacing alloys

Wu et al [8] reviewed various cobalt and nickel alloys, their

available product forms and the corresponding hardfacing methods.

7
Foroulis [11], compared the wear and corrosion properties of three classes

of alloys: Cobalt base alloys, Nickel base alloys and Tribaloys.

He presented that alloys T- 400 and ST-6 exhibited excellent galling

resistance in addition to good wear resistance and very good corrosion

resistance in a variety of environments. Nickel base alloys generally have

inferior galling resistance.

2.3.1 Early materials for Hardfacing

Since the emphasis was generally on achieving hardness in early

surfacing, the utilization of hard substances included diamonds. These

were of great importance in the petroleum industries for drilling of oil wells.

But the cost of using natural diamonds was extremely high, and the

accelerated exploitation of oil fields during and after World War I led to the

investigation of extremely hard materials, which could serve as substitutes

for the costly diamonds in routine drilling operations. Metal carbides

proved to be the solution [4]. Of all the metal carbides, tungsten carbide

had the least number of unfavorable properties [12, 13]. It was easy to

manufacture. It did not oxidize as rapidly as most other carbides and was

more dense as well as less friable. Historically the patented cobalt base

alloys were developed between 1913 and 1917.

The inclusion of tungsten carbide tubular rods was a notable

addition to the list of hardfacing materials in the late 1920’s.

With martenstic steels, highly alloyed cast iron, cobalt and nickel base

alloys in the form of welding rods, castings or pastes, the hardfacing

8
industry came through the depression years of the 1930’s and during the

war years of the early 1940’s it expanded and although it was somewhat

more varied but essentially similar to its make-up of the late 1920’s.

Hardfacing expanded in all directions but developments in the automatic

and semiautomatic areas accounted for the greatest increase. Thus by

1958, the hardfacing industry had increased to approximately four times its

1946 volumes. Hardfacing powders for application by spray gun and torch

methods were developed and these include tungsten carbide among a

wide range of nickel, cobalt and iron base alloys.

In the relatively short period of its existence, the surfacing

industry has been spurred by these [5] major events which had

considerable effects in determining its future course:

• The cobalt base alloys with their great versatility

• The introduction of tungsten carbide with extreme hardness and

great usefulness

• The introduction of mechanized processes which led to high volume

consumption

The cobalt base alloys are indispensable for heat and corrosion

applications.

2.3.2 Hardfacing material for Valve Seat Rings

Among the materials used to improve the surface properties of

metallic parts, cobalt-base alloys enjoy a leading position. About 1910,

Cobalt-chromium-tungsten alloys were found to be possessing unique

9
combination of properties, i.e. resistance to heat, abrasion and corrosion

and designated as Stellite a trademark registered throughout the world [2].

In valve industries, stellite grade 6 is being deposited on the seat face of a

steam globe valve. Grade 6 is chosen for its excellent resistance to

corrosion and erosion at steam temperatures of 565°C and above. Due to

the presence of chromium carbides and tungsten the deposits retain a

high degree of hardness and strength at elevated temperatures [14,15].

The valve wedge is made of ASTM-A105 low carbon steel.

The depositing material is stellite grade 6, a cobalt base alloy (Co-Cr-A,

AWS 5.13).

2.3.3 Cobalt base alloys

Muysen [12] stated that Elwood Haynes registered the applications

of Co:Cr:X (X stands for both carbon and other alloying elements, such as

W, Ni, Mo, Ta and Fe) alloys, designated Stellites, back in 1913. Haynes

and Farmer [14], mentioned that cobalt base alloys were extensively used

for sliding wear applications with high resistance to wear and plastic

deformation at temperatures excess of 750°C. The three compositions of

Cobalt base alloys standardized in United States (AWS 5.13,70) and

Germany for gas and arc (manual and GTAW) welding processes are:

Co:Cr:A, Co:Cr:B and Co:Cr:C corresponding to types grade 6, grade 12

and grade 1 respectively.

Jong-Ning Aoh et al [16] asserted that the stellite 6 with

approximate composition of Co-28Cr-4.3W-1.1 (wt%) was the most used

widely because of its good wear and corrosion resistance and especially

10
its good weldability to different steels. He predicted that carbon had the

greatest influence on the microstructure of stellite. It combines with

chromium to form very hard carbides, which are responsible for the high

room temperature hardness. Tungsten is indispensable to ensure that the

alloys retain high hardness at elevated temperatures. The tungsten

addition must be higher in high carbon alloys than in low carbon ones,

since any carbon that does not combine with the chromium will combine

with some of the tungsten and cobalt in the solid solution to form carbides

of the r|-Co3 W3C type. And it is the tungsten that remains in solid solution,

which appears to be responsible for the high temperature properties of the

alloys. Grainger [2] presented the history, composition and properties,

deposition of hardfacing, hardfacing applications and problems in

hardfacing of cobalt base alloys. He also reported that the stellite alloys, in

addition to being stainless, are non-toxic and are safely used for food

processing machinery and in the form of cast components for surgical

implants in the human body. Nadkarni [17] provided information regarding

typical applications of various grades of stellite and the depositing

processes. Stellite grade 6 is recommended for valve seats and discs for

chemical, petrochemical and food processing industrial applications. Alloy

rods can be deposited easily by Oxyacetylene or GTA Welding. For small

jobs of low carbon base metals upto 0.40% carbon preheating is not

necessary. Although there is no pickup of carbon the hardness of the

deposit is affected, as the base metal dilution is higher. DC current with

reverse polarity is preferable, as it is more stable. Cobalt base alloys

11
contain Carbon, Chromium, Tungsten, Silicon, Nickel, Molybdenum and

Iron. The microstructure consists of hard needles of Tungsten and

Chromium carbides embedded in a tough matrix of cobalt. Dawson et al

[18] found that by varying the proportions of various elements, different

grades having specific end use were produced.

2.4 Weld Geometry and Dilution

2.4.1 Weld bead geometry

The weld bead parameters are shown in Fig. 2.1. Quality of the

welded material can be evaluated by many characteristics, such as bead

geometric parameters (penetration, width and height) and deposition

efficiency (ratio of weight of metal deposited to the weight of electrode

consumed). These characteristics are controlled by a number of welding

parameters, and, therefore, to attain good quality, is important to set up

the proper welding process parameters.

Fig. 2.1. Weld bead geometry

P = Penetration, R = Reinforcement, W = Bead Width

Percentage Dilution, D = B X100 %

A+B

A-Area of Reinforcement, B- Area of Penetration

12
2.4.2 Dilution

Wu and Redman [8] noted that different application methods result

in different dilution levels with the base metal and this changes the

chemistry and hence the properties. Probably the single biggest difference

between a joint and surfacing is that the base metal and the weld overlay

will have very different compositions. Obviously, one of them (usually the

base metal) will dilute the other material (usually the surfacing deposit).

The surfaced layer will not have the required properties if there is more

dilution.

The dilution of deposit with substrate material depends on welding process

and parameters used. With cobalt and nickel base alloys deposited on

steels, the pickup of iron causes a drop in hardness, an increase in

toughness, a drop in erosion resistance and some change in corrosion

resistance depending on the corrosive medium involved. These changes

are relatively small in the region of 5% a level commonly achieved in good

quality deposits. For many purposes upto 8 - 10% dilution can prove

acceptable in service. Edward and Rieber [19] stated that in hardfacing

dilution must be kept as low as possible by limiting penetration and base

metal melting.

2.5 Hardfacing valves

Wear and corrosion are the principal causes of failure in many parts

of industrial equipment and machinery such as valves and pumps where

lubricants often cannot be used and a steam may be the only fluid present.

13
The form of wear, which is generally considered to apply in these systems,

is that due to the sliding motion between two metallic surfaces. Wu and

Redman [8] mentioned that the cobalt and nickel hardfacing alloys were

used for hardfacing valves considering the exceptional wear and corrosion

resistance characteristics at high temperatures. Understanding the

fundamental behaviors, past performance in a similar service environment,

and proper alloy selection will result in prolonged service life and financial

benefits. Ravi Menon [9] recommended cobalt base alloys for valve

industries due to their excellent properties at elevated temperatures. The

process selection depends on the size and complexity of the component to

be surfaced, level of dilution that can be tolerated, deposition rate and

thickness of surfacing required. The properties of the deposits may differ

depending on the process employed due to varying dilution levels as well

as cooling rates that may change the microstructure of the deposit.

Brennan [20] presented that transformation of manual welding to

machine operated welding improved the applications including repairs of

valve bodies and components. Krishnamurthy et al [21] analyzed the

problems in hardfacing of mechanical seals with stellite-1 in place of

stellite-6. Grainger [2] illustrated a steam globe valve setup for the

deposition of stellite grade 6 on the seat face with the oxy acetylene torch.

Grade 6 was chosen for its excellent resistance to corrosion and erosion at

steam temperatures of 565°C and above.

14
2.6 GTAW Process

Albert et al [4] found that defect free deposits could be made

without any preheat by the GTAW process and the deposits had a more

uniform and predominantly dendritic microstructure, presumably due to its

faster and less complex solidification process compared to that of the OA

deposits. Stava [22] mentioned that in DC GTAW, instead of pure tungsten

electrodes as used in AC GTAW 2% thoriated tungsten electrodes were

recommended to overcome the difficulty in starting the arc. Dennis

Destefan [23] analyzed the various power sources and concluded that the

constant current characteristic was typically advantageous for automatic

welding, to provide sufficient accuracy and repeatability in current level

from weld to weld. Various processes such as spray and fusion, gas

tungsten arc welding, and submerged arc welding process have been

applied to the surfacing of the wear resistant layer on the valve seat

surface. Barr and Rogers [24] recommended that GTAW was the best

suited for hardfacing small parts as it produced high quality deposits.

2.7 Welding variables and their effects in surfacing

Stanley Merrick [25] investigated that correct selection of process

parameters not only determined the weld quality, but also took full

advantages of the process. According to Quaas [26] welding variables

such as welding current, filler rod feed rate, welding speed and even

15
 current mode have effect on surfacing deposit irrespective of process as

shown in Table 2,1.

Table 2.1 GTAW Process Parameters and their influence on

Bead geometry

% Dilution Penetration Reinforcement Bead width

Factors
(D) (P) (R) (W)

Welding Current
Increases Increases Decreases Increases
(When increases)
Filler rod Feed rate
Decreases Decreases Increases Decreases
(When increases)
Welding Speed
Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases
(When increases)

2.8 Automatic welding machine

The need for manufacturing large batch quantities as efficiently as

possible led to mechanized surfacing processes. Important benefits of

mechanized process are as follows:

a) greater precision of weld bead shape and position

b) reduction in surfacing material used

c) greater productivity

d) smaller machining allowance needed, and possible saving on

machining time

e) improved product uniformity and performance

f) fewer rejects and rework

g) less operator skill needed

16
 h) reduced operator fatigue and discomfort.

The processes those most suitable for mechanization are

GTAW/TIG, PTA, SAW, GMAW/MIG and FCAW. The first two are non­

consumable electrode processes and require separate adjustment of

welding current and filler rod feed rate. The principal items of additional

equipment required to mechanize a process are those which provide

relative movement between torch and workpiece. A positioner is used to

rotate a circular or cylindrical workpiece at the required surface speed [27].

2.9 Design of Experiments

Adler et al [28] observed that statistically designed experiments

provided plans for conducting experiments to collect data from which valid

statistical analysis of results could be carried over. Box and Youle [29],

Cochran and Cox [30], Davis [31] and Myers and Montgomery [32]

presented the various techniques available from the statistical theory of

experimental design, which were well suited to engineering investigations.

One such important technique known as Box-Behnken design, which is a

central composite, rotatable type design favorable for the exploration of

quadratic response surface was selected for the present investigation.

2.10 Mathematical Models

The underlying mechanism connecting the welding parameters and

quality characteristics is usually not known. The experimental optimization

of any welding process is often a very costly and time consuming task, due

17
to many kinds of non-linear events involved. One of the most widely used

methods to solve this problem is the Response Surface Methodology [33],

Knowledge of statistical experimental design fundamentals, regression

modeling techniques and elementary optimization methods are required to

develop mathematical models using RSM. Montgomery and Peck [34] and

Lawson and Erjavec [35] presented the regression method for developing

mathematical models.

2.11 Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)

Freeman and Skapura [36] mentioned that the neural networks was

a powerful modeling tool with ability to learn and interpolate the complex

relationships between input and output variables. Rangawala and

Dornfeki [37] found that the neural networks were superior to traditional

approaches used for the modeling of manufacturing process. Gao and Wu

[38] stated that the neural networks had the characteristics of self learning

and self organization for information processing, and had a strong self

learning ability to obtain knowledge directly from experience or process

performance. However, to speed up convergence fuzzy system was used

as a pre and post processor to a neural net work model.

2.12 Optimization of Bead Parameters

Main objective of any welding process is to achieve a sound and

defect free weld at reasonably lower cost. Since any welding process is a

multi objective problem (minimum dilution, reinforcement, bead width, low

cost, maximum productivity etc.,) the optimum solution is a compromise.

18
As the amount of data generated in ttie iterative process for optimization

are enormous and may require substantial calculations, the conventional

optimization process is time consuming [39]. Also, when the objective

function is a nonlinear equation with number of constraints, the number of

iterations will be more [40]. Hence the optimization was done using the

optimization module available in the tool box of the MATLAB 6.1 software

package. The results of the optimum values of dilution, penetration,

reinforcement and bead width and the corresponding optimum process

variables in their coded form as well as natural scales are presented.

2.13 Sensitivity Analysis

Predictions from a nonlinear regression model are subject to

uncertainties propagated from the estimated parameters in the model.

Parameters exerting the strongest influence on model predictions could be

identified by a sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity Analysis, also known as the

post optimality analysis, is the study of what happens to the value of the

objective function if the limit of the constraints is changed from optimum

value. Sulieman and McLellan [41] stated that poor precision in parameter

estimates leads to poor precision in predicted responses when sensitivities

are large. This analysis helps to reduce uncertainties in further

experimentation. Gill and Murray [42] studied the impact of relaxing the

lower or upper limits of various constraints individually and collectively on

the objective function. Kim et al [43] found that the sensitivity equations

obtained by differentiating mathematical models with respect to the

19
process variables give a picture of the qualitative and quantitative

effectiveness of process parameters. Marimuthu and Murugan [44]

compared the relative impact of five PTAW process parameters on bead

geometry in order to verify the measurement errors on the values of the

uncertainty in estimated parameters. The results obtained indicated that

developed mathematical models could be applied to estimate the

effectiveness of the process parameters for a given bead geometry.

2.14 Metallurgical Studies

Jong-Ning Aoh et al [16] reported Co-based alloys had revealed

superior wear resistance with those microstructures, which possessed

coarse carbide morphologies. More over, the existence of chromium

carbide phases provided good wear resistance even at elevated

temperatures. Jong-Choul Shin et al [45] investigated the effect of addition

of Mo and they found that the hardness increased from 41 to 51 HRC as

the content of Mo increased and also induced microstructural changes in

stellite 6. The hardness originated principally from the hard M7C3, M23C6

and M6C type carbides. Albert et al [4] compared the microstructures of

GTAW and OA processes and stated that the GTA deposits showed

uniform microstructure where as the microstructure of OA deposits was

non-homogenous and showed bead to bead variations.

20
2.15 Wear Studies

It is essential to carry out the wear tests to confirm the wear

behavior of stellite, deposited at optimum GTAW process parameters and

to establish the working conditions for minimum wear. Bullock and

Henderson [46] recommended stellite grade 6 for valve industries. The

principal factors which affect wear are normal load, sliding speed, material

hardness, surface roughness and temperature. Since valve seats are

circular ring in addition to normal load and sliding speed the track radius

was also considered for this research work.

The wear test was carried out on a computer interfaced TR-20

controller wear testing machine. WINDUCOM software was used for data

acquisition during the tests. Mathematical models relating wear (W) and

normal load (P), sliding velocity (S), and track radius (R) were developed

by response surface methodology. To enhance the life of the stellite

hardfaced valves the working condition for minimum wear was located by

optimization of the model developed. The optimization employing genetic

algorithm is a new approach.

2.16 Genetic Algorithm

Genetic algorithms are inspired by Darwin's theory about evolution.

Genetic Algorithms (GA) were invented by John Holland and developed by

him and his students and colleagues. Genetic algorithm is a search and

optimization procedure that arrives at an optimal solution by generating a

rich child from a parent mating pool. It mimics the principles of natural

21
genetics to arrive at the optimal solution. GA operates on the principle of

the ‘survival of the fittest’ where weak individuals die before reproducing,

while stronger ones survive and bear many offspring and breed children

who often inherit the qualities that enabled their parents to survive [47].

Genetic Algorithm starts with a set of solutions (represented by

chromosomes) called population. Solutions from one population are taken

and used to form a new population. This is motivated by a hope, that the

new population will be better than the old one. Solutions that are selected

to form new solutions (offspring) are selected according to their fitness -

the more suitable they are the more chances they have to reproduce.

The selected pairs reproduce, creating offspring whose genetic structures

share the characteristics of both parents. Some mutations may take place

in the creation of child in nature, and this is also reflected in Genetic

algorithm. This is repeated until some condition (for example number of

populations or improvement of the best solution) is satisfied.

Goldberg [47], Busacca et al [48] and Kim and Kim [49] tried to

establish a new approach for experimental optimization. Genetic

algorithms (GAs) could be used to sweep a region of interest and select

the optimal (or near optimal) settings to a process. Kim and Rhee [50]

used genetic algorithm to optimize the parameters of gas metal arc

welding process in order to obtain the desired weld bead geometry.

The GA is a global optimization algorithm, and the objective function does

not need to be differentiable. This allows the algorithm to be used in

solving difficult problems, such as multimodal, discontinuous or noisy

22
systems. The GA and RSM techniques were compared to determine the

optimal GMAW process parameters such as reference voltage, wire feed

speed and welding speed.

2.16.1 Basic Genetic Algorithm

1. Generating random population (Pop) of n chromosomes.

2. Evaluating the fitness of each chromosome in the population.

3. Saving the best solution.

4. Selection: Selecting two parent chromosomes from a population

according to their fitness (the better fitness, the bigger chance to be

selected).

5. Crossover: With a crossover probability, cross over the parents to

form a new offspring (children). If no crossover was performed,

offspring is an exact copy of parents.

6. Mutation: With a mutation probability, mutate new offspring.

7. Evaluating the offspring and updating the best solution.

8. If termination criteria reached go to 9, otherwise go to 2.

9. Printing the solution.

2.16.2 Representation

The bits or the genes in the chromosomes can be represented as

binary, real integer numbers, or a combination of characters.

23
2.16.3 Decoding

The randomly generated binary strings are decoded and the real

value of the variables are obtained as shown below.

The equation to calculate the decoded value of the variable P is given as:

Decoded P (2.1)

Where

P - Randomly generated value of the

variable P,

PL - Lower bound of the variable P (1)

Pu - Upper bound of the Variable P (3)

EP - Equivalent integer of the generated binary

number of binary P

Length of the string

Similarly, the decoded values of any other variable could be

obtained.

2.16.4 Initialization and Reproduction

The first step in a GA is to initialize the population, i.e. to create an

initial population. In this work, an initial population of the desired size is

generated randomly. For crossover and mutation, the strings are selected

using the reproduction operator. According to Darwin's evolution theory the

best ones should survive and create new offspring. There are many

methods to select the best chromosomes, viz. roulette wheel selection,

24
Boltzman selection, tournament selection, rank selection, steady state

selection and some others.

In this work, the roulette-wheel selection strategy is employed.

Fitness value is evaluated using the following equation.

Fitness of ith string (Ft) =

w. ................... (2.2)
ix
i=l

Where

Wj - Response value of i*h string or solution

The probability of selection is calculated as shown below.

p
Probability of Selection of ith String PSi = .......... (2.3)
2X
i=1

Where

F, - Fitness of the ith string

A roulette wheel is then created based on the fitness scores.

A random number between 0 and 1 is generated and the chromosome

occupying the portion of the roulette wheel covered by the randomly

generated percentage is selected to be a parent. This method can lead to

slower convergence, because the best chromosomes do not differ so

much from other ones.

2.16,5 Crossover

The main purpose of the crossover is to search the parameter

space. There are many types of crossover operators available. In this

25
work, single point crossover technique is used. The crossover is carried

out with a probability called crossover probability. A random number is

generated for each chromosome. If the random number generated for that

chromosome is less than the crossover probability, then the chromosome

is chosen for crossover with the parent previously chosen. For crossover a

crossing point is chosen randomly.

Considering two parent chromosomes with a random crossover

point as 4; the crossover operator generates two offspring’s as shown in

Fig.2.2.

( Vm-wm-v

Fig.2.2. Crossover of a two parent chromosomes

with crossover Point 4

2.16.6 Mutation

After a crossover is performed, mutation takes place. This is to

prevent falling all solutions in population into a local optimum of solved

problem. Mutation operator alters a chromosome locally to hopefully

create a better string. Mutation occurs only if the random number

generated is less than the mutation probability. In this work, swapping

operator is used. In this case, two random numbers (swap points) are

26
generated and then the genes corresponding to the swap points are

interchanged.

Considering the chromosome for mutation as

1110 10 0 1

and the swap points selected for the mutation as 3 and 6, then the

corresponding genes representing the swap points are interchanged as:

110 0 110 1

2.16.7 GA Parameters

Quality of the solution and rate of convergence of the solutions are

affected by the process parameters. The GA parameters are

1. Population Size

2. Crossover Probability

3. Mutation Probability

4. Termination Criteria

2.16.8 Population Size

Population size says how many chromosomes are in population in

one generation. If there are too few chromosomes, GA has a few

possibilities to perform crossover and only a small part of search space is

explored. On the other hand, if there are too many chromosomes, GA

slows down.

27
2.16.9 Crossover Probability

Crossover probability says how often crossover operation will be

performed. If there is no crossover, offspring is the exact copy of parents.

If there is a crossover, offspring is made from parts of parents'

chromosomes. Crossover is made in hope that new chromosomes will

have good parts of old chromosomes and maybe the new chromosomes

will be better. However it is good to leave some part of population survive

to next generation.

2.16.10 Mutation Probability

Mutation probability says how often the chromosomes will be

mutated. If there is no mutation, offspring is taken after crossover (or copy)

without any change. If mutation is performed, part of chromosome is

changed. Mutation is made to prevent falling GA into local optima, but it

should not occur very often, because then GA will in fact change to

random search.

2.16.11 Termination Criterion

Termination criterion for the GA is generally 10000 iterations.

2.17 Corrosion Studies

During welding, several other problems such as porosity, cracking,

residual stresses, secondary phases etc., may be introduced which have a

strong influence on the corrosion behavior of the deposits [51]. It is

expected that the deposited layer will have the required corrosion

28
resistance. To confirm with the same it was felt essential to carry out

corrosion testing. Pitting corrosion test under 3 percent sodium chloride

environment using the standard ACM computer interfaced system was

used for data acquisition and plotting the corrosion curves to depict

corrosion behavior. Matthews et al [52] reported in their work that

chromium, molybdenum and tungsten provided corrosion resistance in the

Cobalt based alloy. Chromium is of benefit in oxidizing acids, and

molybdenum and tungsten are of benefit in nonoxidizing media, and all

three elements are influential in resisting environments contaminated with

chlorides. Foroulis [11] in his work reported that Stellite 6 exhibited

outstanding resistance to corrosion. Malayoglu et al [53] found that

corrosion initiated first at the carbide/metal interfaces.

2.18 Conclusions

The various research papers on the hard facing of Stellite using

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding process, design of experiments, Mathematical

Models, ANN, Optimization, sensitivity analysis, wear study and GA are

vividly discussed. The results of various research works are studied. It was

observed that proper selection of process parameters are essential for

obtaining minimum dilution and good quality weld beads. The research

problem was formulated considering various drawbacks. The experiments

were carried out and presented in Chapter 4. In the forth coming chapter a

detailed study on the design of experiment is presented.

29