Tech Talk
ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEMS - PART 3
Part 2 of this series discussed the physical layouts of typical ABS systems and listed the main components/assemblies and their
tasks. What follows describes the function and operating principles of these components and the system as a whole.
Wheel speed sensors
The wheel speed sensors are probably the
most important components in an anti-lock
braking system, as everything the system
does revolves around them (excuse the pun!)
The majority of ABS sensors detect wheel
speed using an electrical process known as
“inductance”. These inductive sensors are
effectively small electrical generators, operating
in a similar fashion to an alternator. A voltage
is generated in a wire when a magnetic field is
moved or changed in strength whilst in close
proximity to the wire.
The sensor consists of a sealed casing
containing a permanent magnet and a coil
of wire, the ends of which (output signal)
are connected to the ABS ECU.
The sensor is
located in a bracket
in close proximity
to a sensor rotor
mounted on a
driveshaft, hub, or
final drive crown
wheel; in fact,
anything that rotates at a speed
proportionate to the wheel speed will
suffice. The sensor rotor is a series of teeth
(30 to 50 is the norm), which influence the
magnetic field surrounding the tip of the
sensor.
The changing distance between the
peaks and troughs of the sensor rotor teeth
and the sensor influences the magnetic field
- the magnetic field is influenced in a
positive way by the metal construction of
the rotor tooth (stronger) and in a negative
way by the air in between the teeth
3 8 M OTO R I N D U ST RY M AG A Z I N E M A RC H 20 0 6
(weaker), making it alternately strong and
weak. This change in strength changes the
voltage generated in the sensor coil.
A/C Voltage Waveform as
seen on an Oscilloscope
The picture above shows this effect. It
can be seen in this example that the sensor
rotor has only 4 teeth – this configuration
actually represents an engine position
sensor whose operating principle is identical
to that of an ABS wheel speed sensor. In
the diagram it can be seen that in the
‘yellow’ position the voltage generated is
zero. This is because the sensor rotor tooth
is as physically near to the sensor as is
possible so the magnetic field strength has
reached a maximum value. If it is at a
maximum, it is not changing in strength
and therefore no voltage is produced. The
same rule applies in the ‘black’ position –
the magnetic field strength is at its weakest
and therefore not changing in strength – no
voltage generated.
ABS ECU
When the ABS ECU receives a sensor
signal, it uses it to determine individual
wheel speed. When more than one wheel
speed sensor signal is available to the ECU
it can compare the speeds to decide if one
or more wheels are in danger of locking up,
causing skidding.
The ECU has to convert the A/C
analogue signal into a digital signal, because
computers can only work with digital
information in order to compare the wheel
speeds with programmed values and other
signals (brake switch etc.). This process
allows the ECU to make decisions about the
relative speeds of the road wheels.
Note: some recent wheel speed
sensors produce a digital signal. This type
of signal often needs less processing
power in the ECU as it requires no
conversion.
When the decision to intervene in the
braking process has been made, the ECU
takes electrical control of solenoid valves
fitted in the hydraulic brake lines, overriding
the driver’s demands on the brake pedal.
These valves are normally located within the
actuator assembly.
Actuator/modulator assembly
The actuator assembly consists mainly of a
series of electrically operated solenoid valves
to control the hydraulic pressure within the
brake lines. In some versions, each hydraulic
circuit uses solenoid valves that can be
controlled in any one of three positions.
Each valve assembly has two ball valves
separated by a spring within a cylinder and
the two valves can move semi-
independently. The upper valve opens/closes
the port from the master cylinder and the
lower valve opens/closes the port to the
wheel cylinder, as well as a port to a
reservoir (see diagram below).
During normal braking the pressure on
the pedal is increased by the driver. The
solenoid valve is inactive and brake fluid is
forced past the upper ball valve into the
wheel cylinders/callipers. This is known as
the pressure increase phase.
Solenoid Valve
If the if the driver continues to increase
the pressure on the brake pedal, eventually
one or more of the wheels will be at risk of
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 locking. The ECU will sense that a wheel is
rotating much slower than it should be at
that particular road speed and intervene. A
low current signal is sent to the solenoid
valve of the slow wheel, moving the valve
upwards to block the hydraulic pipe from
the master cylinder. The pressure produced
up to this point at the wheel brake is
maintained (held) at that level. The driver
now has little further influence on the
brake pressure, almost regardless of how
hard the pedal is pressed. The pump runs
in preparation for the next part of the
sequence (note that the pump is housed in
the modulator assembly itself).
In this condition, the wheel speed
should be maintained at a point just before
the onset of skidding, proportionate to
vehicle speed, so providing maximum
deceleration. This is the pressure hold
phase, illustrated below.
Unfortunately, a number of factors may
still cause the wheel to slow excessively and
skid. Variations in road surface and brake
lining grip levels, surface irregularities, loads
during cornering and changes in pressure
applied by the driver all conspire to allow
the wheel to lock, causing vehicle instability.
Further measures must be taken to prevent
this effect.
Should the ECU detect that the wheel
is slowing too much, a high current signal
is sent to the solenoid valve in the affected
wheel’s hydraulic circuit. The higher current
lifts the lower ball valve off its seat against
spring pressure, allowing fluid to flow from
the wheel cylinder into the reservoir (note
that the reservoir is also housed within the
modulator). The release of brake pressure
allows the wheel to speed up again,
regaining grip. The pump is running to
return fluid to the master cylinder, pushing
against the driver input and possibly
causing the pedal to rise slightly.
This is the pressure reduction phase,
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illustrated above.
Depending on how much the wheel
speeds up during the pressure release
phase, the ECU reverts to the earlier
pressure hold or increase phase. Should
the wheel attempt to lock again, the cycle
is repeated. This can occur many times per
second and the resulting high frequency
pressure variations are usually felt at the
brake pedal as vibration, in some cases
causing the inexperienced driver to remove
their foot from the pedal with disastrous
consequences!
Summary
In this article we have seen how the wheel
speed sensors actually generate signals
and how the three-position solenoid valve
type ABS modulator controls hydraulic
braking pressure. We will be going on to
describe another common type of actuator
in the next article.
If you would like to study antilock
braking systems in more detail we would
be delighted to provide you with a place on
one of our technical courses. Please see
details below on how to contact us.
ProAuto Limited are an automotive
technical training company based in
Shrewsbury, Shropshire. Our core
business is design and delivery of
technical training to the automotive
industry, which includes vehicle
manufacturers, component
manufacturers, diagnostic equipment
manufacturers and independent
garages. We run courses from
numerous select venues nationally, so
a course is never too far away. For
further details you can visit our
website at www.proautotraining.com,
email us at info@proautotraining.com,
or telephone 01743 709679.
M A RC H 20 0 6 M OTO R I N D U ST RY M AG A Z I N E 3 9
DEAR DAVE…
Q A Rover 75 2-litre 2001 diesel broke
down and refused to restart . We can’t
get any fault codes out of the system as it
refuses to communicate. It will start
briefly using Easy Start into the air intake,
so we know the cause is not associated
with the engine mechanically.
A Have a look at the ECU. A common
fault with the Rover is that the ECU gets
water damaged (it’s located under the
rear bulkhead beneath the windscreen).
The drain hole in the housing tends to get
blocked. Remove the ECU, take off the
outer case and rinse the circuit board
using distilled or deionised water and leave
to dry. If this doesn’t fix the problem, it
may be necesssary to have the ECU
repaired by a specialist, but from my
experience the success rate is not good.
Otherwise it’s a case of getting a new one
- used ones are scarce due to the
common nature of the fault.
Q We’re baffled by an emissions problem
on a Citroen Xantia 1.8 16 valve 1997. It
will run with normal emissions for the
first 10 minutes from a cold start, but the
longer it is left to run the more the CO2
rises – it reaches over 2.0% at idle,
though at 3K it comes down to normal –
below 0.10 %. The lambda sensor and
coolant temperature sensor have been
changed with no improvement.
A This sounds like an inlet air leak problem.
The Xantia uses a Map sensor combined
with a throttle potentiometer to determine
the amount of air being used by the engine.
If there is an air leak into the inlet system
after the throttle butterfly, then the manifold
vacuum will drop causing the calculated air
result from the Map sensor and throttle pot
signals to be erroneously high. Extra fuel is
then injected to go with the extra air
calculation. Finding air leaks is always tricky
and the best approach is to use a
combination of techniques. Ultrasonic
detectors are good (air leaks that go sonic
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