MUHAMAT RIZAL

18018143

STATISTIC FOR ELT RESEARCH

SUMMARY

CHAPTER 2

Organizing Data Using Tables and Graphs

In organizing data, some frequency distributions elaborate on the frequency information to show
further details, while others provide only basic frequency information. A simple frequency
distribution simply lists the frequencies with which each raw score occurs.

To create a simple frequency distribution, Create labels for three columns, as follows: X, Tally, and f.
Locate the highest and lowest scores in the unorganized list of scores. Beginning with the highest
score at the top, list the score values in descending order in the X column of your frequency
distribution. Do not skip any values even if there are no occurrences of some of the values in your list
of scores. Stop at the lowest obtained score. Underline the first score in your unorganized list and
place a tally mark for that score in the Tally column of your frequency distribution. Underlining the
scores helps you to keep track of your place on the list. Continue this process until all the scores in
your list have been underlined. Count the number of tally marks for each score and record this number
in the f column. Total the scores in the f column. The sum should be equal to the total number of
scores (N).

Another type of distribution table is the cumulative frequency distribution, which indicates the
frequency of scores that fall at or below a particular score value. This type of table is useful if you
want to know how many people scored below a certain value on a test. To arrive at the answer, you
simply need to add the frequencies of the scores below the score of interest.

Percentile rank can also include a column for percentile ranks in cumulative frequency distribution
table. Percentile rank (P.R.) gives a bit more information than just frequency by indicating the
percentage of scores that fall at or below a given score in a distribution.

Combining the tables is helpful to create separate frequency distributions when doing first learning
about the various ways in which raw scores can be represented in tables. Discussing the types of
frequency distributions individually allows you to digest one concept at a time before moving on to
the next concept. In reality, it is not necessary or desirable to create separate distributions. Rather, it is
more efficient to simply create one table with a number of different columns.

Ungrouped frequency distributions can be cumbersome if there are too many scores that vary widely
over a large span. The data become unremarkable and any patterns that may exist in the scores are not
readily apparent, as shown below. Grouped frequency distributions, on the other hand, combine scores
into groups, referred to as class intervals, thus condensing the data and making overall trends more
apparent.

The information from a frequency distribution can also be illustrated in the form of a graph, providing
us with a pictorial view of the data. Graphs are usually displayed on two axes, one horizontal and one
vertical. The horizontal axis is the X -axis, also called the baseline or abscissa , and it usually
represents the values or categories of the variable being measured, such as scores on a test or military
rank. The vertical axis is the Y -axis, also called the ordinate , and it usually represents the frequencies
of those values or categories. Three of the most commonly used graphs of distributions are bar graphs,
histograms, and frequency polygons. Which type of graph to use will depend upon the characteristics
of the variable being measured.

Bar graphs are used for qualitative variables that differ in kind. These would include data measured on
nominal or ordinal scales. In this type of graph, the bars are spatially separated to illustrate their
discontinuous, or categorical, nature. The heights of the bars reflect the frequencies of the event.

Histograms are used for quantitative variables that differ in amount. These would include data
measured on interval or ratio scales. Histograms are similar to bar graphs except that the bars touch
each other to reflect the continuous nature of the measured variable (i.e., different amounts of the
same variable).

Thus far, we have been discussing empirical distributions, which are based on frequencies of actual
scores. Theoretical distributions, on the other hand, are based on the mathematical probability of the
frequencies of scores in a population. Theoretical polygons are drawn with smooth lines without dots
because actual scores are not represented. An indispensable theoretical distribution that we will use
extensively throughout this text is the normal distribution curve, sometimes referred to as the bell
curve because it is shaped like a bell.