Journal of Testing and Evaluation
doi:10.1520/JTE20170752
Manuscript received December 19,
2017; accepted for publication
June 25, 2018; published online
November 20, 2018. Issue
published September 1, 2020.
1
Transportation and Traffic
Engineering Department, College
of Engineering, Imam
Abdulrahman Bin Faisal
University, PO Box 1982, 2835
King Faisal Road, Dammam 31451,
Saudi Arabia (Corresponding
author), e-mail: madalhat@iau.
edu.sa, https://orcid.org/
0000-0002-1900-4891
2
Civil and Environmental
Engineering Department, King
Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, University Blvd, Dhahran
31261, Saudi Arabia
Copyright © 2018 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
/ Vol. 48 / No. 5 / 2020 / available online at www.astm.org
M. A. Dalhat1 and H. I. Al-Abdul Wahhab2
Temperature Wave Fatigue Damage and
Dissipated Energy Approach to Flow
Number Estimation of Asphalt Concrete
Reference
M. A. Dalhat and H. I. Al-Abdul Wahhab, “Temperature Wave Fatigue Damage and Dissipated
Energy Approach to Flow Number Estimation of Asphalt Concrete,” Journal of Testing and
Evaluation 48, no. 5 (September/October 2020): 3801–3816. https://doi.org/10.1520/
JTE20170752
ABSTRACT
The effect of sinusoidal temperature on the fatigue life of asphalt concrete (AC) under
continuous loading was investigated. The traditional failure criteria of 50 % loss in stiffness,
stiffness ratio, and dissipated energy ratio were employed to analyze the AC fatigue test
results. Dissipated energy approach and dissipated energy ratio were also extended to esti-
mate the flow number (FN) of AC. The varying temperature induces a continuously changing
temperature gradient across the AC beam. This, in turn, triggers the formation of continuously
alternating weaker and harder outer layer relative to the beam core, thus creating a stiffness
undulation. The combined effect of the load and temperature cycles resulted in a stiffness
diminishing trend similar to that of damped harmonic vibration energy. The bottom of the
beam is subjected to additional tensile strain/stress for a negative temperature gradient, while
the top of the AC beam is subjected to additional compressive strain/stress for a positive
temperature gradient. The temperature amplitude and period have a significant influence
on the diminishing trend of the stiffness. Results from all the fatigue life estimation and
prediction methods employed showed that the fatigue life of AC under variable temperature
is shorter than that under constant temperature. However, the effect of the variable
temperature is felt much more at lower strain loading. Nonrecovered strain energy method
was successfully employed to estimate the AC FN.
Keywords
asphalt concrete, fatigue life, variable temperature, dissipated energy, flow number, strain energy
3801
3802 DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE

Introduction
Both ASTM D7460-10, Standard Test Method for Determining Fatigue Failure of Compacted Asphalt Concrete
Subjected to Repeated Flexural Bending [1], and AASHTO T321, Standard Method of Test for Determining the
Fatigue Life of Compacted Asphalt Mixtures Subjected to Repeated Flexural Bending [2], employ constant temper-
ature and continuous and constant load frequency. The purpose was to simplify and narrow down the test var-
iables. However, the actual service temperature exhibits a daily and seasonal variation, while the loading is
intermittent with varying magnitude and frequency. Previous studies showed that introducing loading disconti-
nuity as a rest period in a fatigue test results in higher asphalt concrete (AC) fatigue life [3,4]. This means that the
widely adopted continuous loading test is underestimating the actual fatigue life of the AC. The current fatigue
and rutting prediction and analysis methods are also associated with some level of inaccuracy [5]. However,
several studies employing these ideal test conditions formed the basis of AC fatigue life prediction and estimation
models used in real projects today [6,7]. The recent advancement in the AC fatigue studies should enable us
estimate the AC fatigue life at conditions much closer to those of its service life.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of varying temperature on the fatigue life of AC under
continuous loading and, secondly, to extend the dissipated energy approach for fatigue life estimation to AC
flow number (FN) estimation.

Fatigue and FN Tests

The following subheadings will summarize existing procedures and some relevant literature related to estimating
the fatigue life and FN of AC.

FATIGUE
Table 1 lists and describes the widely employed failure criteria for analyzing fatigue test data [8–11]. Standard AC
fatigue tests utilize a 50-mm-thick by 63-mm-wide by 380-mm-long beam, loaded at three points and subjected to
repeated flexural loading (10 Hz) under a constant strain or stress until failure [1,2,12]. Indirect tensile strength
methods are sometimes adopted for AC fatigue life estimation [13–15].
A nondestructive method of assessing the fatigue damage of a thin-layer AC using stress wave analysis was
reported [16]. The conventional method of 50 % loss in stiffness limit fatigue life (N_50), the viscoelastic con-
tinuum damage approach (VECD), and the Rowe energy ratio approach (N_DRE) were compared [17]. The
N_DRE approach was found to yield relatively higher fatigue life than both the N_50 and VECD methods.
The combined effect of loading frequency, temperature, and stress level on the indirect tensile stress fatigue life
of AC was investigated [18]. In another study, the cumulative dissipated energy at fatigue failure was found to be
independent of loading mode and test temperature [19]. The effect of mix parameters, like air void and asphalt
content, and of additives like reclaimed asphalt on AC fatigue endurance limit was investigated [20].

FN
AC FN is a measure of rutting resistance of AC and was found to correlate excellently with the field rutting
performance of asphalt mixtures [21]. Fig. 1 shows the permanent deformation curve (PDC) of a typical AC
subjected to an FN test. An unconfined cylindrical AC test specimen (100 mm diameter by 150 mm height)
is subjected to a repeated sinusoidal load cycle (600 kPa deviatory stress), at an adjusted targeted service temper-
ature [22]. The test specimen is loaded for 0.1 second and allowed to rest for 0.9 seconds continuously, until it
flows. The FN is the point (load cycle) at which the tertiary deformation begins. Several methods for estimating
the FN have been proposed; however, the Francken Model (FM) method was recommended by AASHTO because
it yields less variability [22–24]. A simple step-wise approach for estimating FN was proposed [25]. The PDC data

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DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE 3803

TABLE 1
Various AC fatigue life failure criteria and estimation approach.

Approach Equation Summary

Classical method NA Fatigue life (N_50) corresponds to N load cycle at which 50 % loss in AC stiffness was
observed [2] (Fig. 4).
Dissipated energy ratio (DRE) nw RE = the energy ratio; n = number of load cycle; wn = dissipated energy in the nth
RE = o (1)
method (Eq 1) wn cycle; wo = dissipated energy in the initial cycle; εn , σ n , δn , and E
n = strain, stress,
phase angle, and complex modulus at the nth cycle, respectively.
wn = πεn σ n sin δn (2)
For Eq 1, crack begins to initiate at n value (N_DRE) corresponding to the peak of
RE − n plot for controlled stress test, and at n value where the RE − n plots deviate
Rowe Energy ratio method RE = nE
n (3) from straight line for strain-controlled test [8].
(N_DRE) (Eqs 3 and 4) n Eq 1 was later simplified and modified to Eqs 3 and 4. Eqs 3 and 4 for stress and strain
RE =
(4)
controlled test, respectively. The crack initiation point is the same as in Eq 1 [9] (see
En
Fig. 4).

Change in dissipated energy ðwn+1 − wn Þ ΔRE = the dissipated energy change ratio; wn = dissipated energy in the nth cycle;
ΔRE = (5)
ratio method wn wn+1 = dissipated energy in the ðn + 1Þth cycle. The ΔRE − n plot exhibits three
distinct regimes. The first is characterized by rapid and continuous decline in ΔRE
value as n increases. The second regime shows a steady and relatively constant value
of ΔRE with increasing n. Finally, there is a sudden and rapid increase in ΔRE . The
beginning of the last stage signifies the crack initiating point [10].
Stiffness ratio (SR) method nSn n = Number of load cycle; Sn = stiffness at nth load cycle; So = initial stiffness
SR = (6)
So corresponding to the 50th load cycle. The fatigue failure is said to occur at n value
(N_SR) that corresponds to the maximum SR in the SR − n plot [11] (see Fig. 4).

FIG. 1
AC PDC.

are sorted by a simple Excel (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA) function to eliminate the noise in the strain
data. A method for predicting the FN using the secondary deformation rate was also reported [26]. None of the
previously proposed FN estimation methods utilized the dissipated energy approach for FN evaluation.

FM Method
The PDC data are fitted to Eq 7, and the N value at which Eq 8 changes from positive to negative is reported as the
FN (FM_FN). The FN corresponds to the point of minimum strain rate and the point of inflexion of the PDC.
This approach employs the raw permanent deformation sustained by the AC to locate its flow point.

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3804 DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE

εp = A
N B + CðeD
N − 1Þ (7)

εp00 = ABðB − 1Þ
N ðB−2Þ + CD2
eD
N (8)

where:
εp = sustained permanent strain by the AC test specimen,
εp00 = second derivative of εp with respect to N,
N = load cycle in seconds, and
A, B, C, and D are regression constants.

Materials and Method

MATERIAL
Superpave mix design procedure was employed to prepare all AC mixtures. Neat fresh asphalt (FA) with PG
64-20 and modified asphalt (MA) of PG 70-10 were utilized for the fatigue test AC mixtures. In addition to
these mixture types, PG 70-16 MA mixture was designed for the FN test specimens. The gradation and properties
of the aggregates utilized are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.

SPECIMEN PREPARATION, TEST, AND TEMPERATURE

Specimen preparation for the fatigue and FN tests was done according to AASTHO standards for fatigue and FN
tests, respectively [2,22]. Fig. 2 shows the Cooper-made flexural fatigue tester (Fig. 2a) and the ICPC-made
Asphalt Mix Performance Tester (Fig. 2b) that were used to conduct both tests. The FN test was carried
out according to the AASHTO standard for FN determination at 56°C, 60°C, and 64°C service temperatures.
The fatigue test was conducted in controlled strain mode, continuous load cycles (10 Hz), at constant temper-
atures, and at variable temperatures according to the plan shown in Fig. 3. The MA concretes were tested at
400 μst, while the FA concretes were tested at 200, 300, and 400 μst and some at 180 μst.

Fatigue Test Temperature Plans

Two test temperature plans were devised for the variable temperature fatigue test, Temperature Plan 1 (TP-1) and
Temperature Plan 2 (TP-2) as shown in Fig. 3. TP-1: test specimen is conditioned at 20°C for at least 2 h and then
tested under sinusoidal temperature fluctuating ±5°C around 20°C for a period of 50 minutes. TP-2: test specimen is

TABLE 2
Aggregate gradation.

Sieve Size %Passing Asphalt Conc. Control point (Min.) Control Point (max)

19 mm 100 100 –
12.5 mm 95.19 90 100
9.5 mm 81.81 – –
No. 4 44.00 – –
No. 8 31.49 28 –
No. 10 28.49 – –
No. 16 22.11 – –
No. 30 16.11 – –
No. 40 12.40 – –
No. 50 11.30 – –
No. 80 9.00 – –
No. 100 7.89 – –
No. 200 5.19 2 10

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DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE 3805

TABLE 3
Properties of aggregate.

Coarse Aggregate Fine Aggregate Filler Criteria Method

Bulk specific gravity 2.47 2.56 2.75 – ASTM C127 [29]/C128 [30]
Apparent specific gravity 2.74 2.78 2.84 – ASTM C127 [29]/C128 [30]
Absorption 1.73 1.04 – – ASTM C127 [29]/C128 [30]
Los Angeles abrasion (%) 27 % – – ⩽45 ASTM C131/C131M-14 [31]
Flat and elongated particles 0 – – ⩽10 ASTM D4791 [32]
Coarse aggregate Angularity 97/91 – – 95/90 ASTM D5821 [33]
Fine aggregate Angularity – 45 – ⩾45 ASTM C1252 [34]
Sand equivalent (%) – 58 – ⩾45 ASTM D2419 [35]

Note: ASTM C127-15, Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate; ASTM C128-15, Standard
Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Fine Aggregate; ASTM C131/C131M-14, Standard Test Method for Resistance to
Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine; ASTM D4791-10, Standard Test Method for Flat
Particles, Elongated Particles, or Flat and Elongated Particles in Coarse Aggregate; ASTM D5821-13(2017), Standard Test Method for Determining the
Percentage of Fractured Particles in Coarse Aggregate; ASTM C1252, Standard Test Methods for Uncompacted Void Content of Fine Aggregate
(as Influenced by Particle Shape, Surface Texture, and Grading); ASTM D2419-14, Standard Test Method for Sand Equivalent Value of Soils and
Fine Aggregate.

FIG. 2
(a) Fatigue and (b) FN
test machines.

FIG. 3
Temperature plan for
fatigue test under
variable temperature.

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3806 DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE

FIG. 4
Fatigue failure criteria
methods illustration.

conditioned at 23°C for at least 2 h and then tested under sinusoidal temperature fluctuating ±5°C below 23°C with a
period of 60 minutes. Specimens tested at constant temperatures of 20°C and 23°C were compared to those tested
under TP-1 and TP-2, respectively. TP-1 induces both negative and positive temperature differences across the speci-
men as the test progress, while TP-2 induces negative temperature differences only. However, both temperature plans
induce a continuously changing temperature gradient similitude as those to which the AC is exposed during service.

FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION METHOD AND PREDICTION MODELS EMPLOYED

The crack initiation point of each fatigue-tested specimen was obtained using three failure criteria: the classical
method fatigue life (N_50); the stiffness ratio method fatigue life (N_SR); and a new modified energy ratio method
fatigue life (N_RE) as shown in Fig. 4. The classical/traditional and stiffness ratio approaches have been described
in Table 1. It is hard to clearly locate the crack initiation point with certainty for Rowe energy ratio (Eq 4) and the
change in dissipated energy ratio (Eq 5) methods. Therefore, both methods are neglected.

Modified Energy Ratio Fatigue Failure Criteria

The modified energy ratio is a partial reciprocal of the initial energy ratio proposed by Pronk (Eq 1), having wo as
denominator and wn as the numerator (Eq 9). These criteria are meant for the strain-controlled fatigue test only,
as it peaks at the crack initiation point like the stiffness ratio (Eq 6) and Rowe energy ratio (Eq 3). Fig. 4 dem-
onstrates how Eq 9 compares with Eq 6 graphically.
wn
RE = n (9)
wo

Fatigue Life Modeling

The fatigue life of the AC was modeled using S–N curve (Eq 10) and the cumulative dissipated energy model
(Eq 11).

S = aðN f Þb (10)

W N = AðN f Þz (11)

where:
S = the applied strain,
N f = estimated load cycles to failure at the applied strain,
W N = cumulative dissipated energy at failure, and
a, b, A, and z = regression constants obtained from the experimental test results of the AC.

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DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE 3807

FN: Dissipated Energy Approach

The FN test specimen undergoes a continuous dynamic compressive load cycle at constant stress. A major pro-
portion of the work done against the specimen is recovered in each cycle. The unrecovered work done translates
into permanent strain. This results in continuous accumulation of permanent deformation. Strain energy (SE)
stored by a body undergoing deformation is given by Eq 12.

1
U = σVε (12)
2
where:
U = the SE stored by a deforming body,
σ = the applied stress,
V = the volume of the body the work is done against, and
ε = the strain that is due to the applied load.

Now, adjusting Eq 12 to reflect the FN test specimen deformation in terms of nonrecovered energy, we have
Eqs 13 and 14. Eq 13 captures the dynamic nature of the specimen volume as the test progresses with time.

1 p p
U iNR = Aσhð1 − εi−1 ÞΔεi (13)
2

X
n X
n
1 p p
U iNR = Aσhð1 − εi−1 ÞΔεi (14)
i=1 i=1
2

where:
U iNR = the nonrecovered work done that is due to permanent deformation in the ith load cycle,
A = cross-sectional area of the specimen,
h = initial height of the specimen,
p
εi−1 = cumulative permanent strain sustained by the loaded specimen in the previous load cycle,
p p p
Δεi = εi − εi−1 = permanent strain gain in the ith load cycle,
p
εi = permanent strain accumulation as described in Eq 7, with N = i, and
Pn
i=1 U NR = accumulated energy loss that is due to nonrecovered permanent strain, up to n cycles.
i

Fig. 5 shows the plots of U iNR against the load cycle for a typical FN test specimen. The graph shows both the
scattered and the fitted results. It is obvious that the nonrecovered energy per cycle begins a rapid decline at the

FIG. 5
Nonrecovered SE versus
load cycles.

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3808 DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE

initial stage, then reaches a steady state, and then finally gains increasing momentum. This trend accurately
describes the three permanent deformation stages typical of FN test specimens, in terms of nonrecovered SE.
The point of lowest energy loss marks the time at which the material succumbs to the mounting pressures.
This point is the flow point, and the cycle at which this occurs is the SE_FN. The precise value of N can be
p
obtained by first fitting the permanent strain curve data of an AC specimen into Eq 7, which yields εi , followed
by solving for the lowest value of Eq 13, which corresponds to the i value that renders the first differential of Eq 13
as zero.

FN: Energy Ratio Approach

From the nonrecovered energy in Eq 13, it can be deduced that the SE is partly proportional to the square of the
strain. Thus an energy ratio similitude of that proposed by Pronk (Eq 1), but in terms of permanent strain, was
proposed as Eq 15.
 p 2
ε
SER = i 1p (15)
εi

where:
SER = strain energy ratio,
p
ε1 = initial permanent strain, and
p
εi = permanent strain in the ith load cycle.

The relationship between SER, the load, and the accumulated permanent deformation is shown in Fig. 6. As
the FN test progresses and permanent strain accumulates, the SER increases until it reaches a peak value before it
start to decline. The SER FN (SER_FN) is the load cycle that corresponds to the maximum value of SER.

Results and Discussion

FATIGUE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Verification of N_RE
The fatigue lives obtained using the modified energy ratio (N_RE) has been examined by comparing them with
those estimated using the classical (N_50) and stiffness ratio approaches (N_SR). Fig. 7 shows the correlation
between the results from the three fatigue life estimation methods. It can be observed that a good correlation exists
between N_RE and N_50, and, as it is with all other energy ratio methods [17], N_RE is greater than N_50. The

FIG. 6
SER versus load cycle.

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DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE 3809

FIG. 7
Correlation between
N_RE, N_50, and N_SR.

N_RE correlates even better with the N_SR, and the N_RE appears almost the same as the N_SR. Based on these
observations, the N_RE can be said to match fatigue lives estimated with previously established methods.

Effect of Varying Temperature and Its Amplitude on AC Stiffness under Fatigue Load
Fig. 8 shows the combined effect of temperature (TP-1) and loading cycles on the stiffness of the AC. As the
fatigue load cycles take a toll on the stiffness, the varying temperature around the AC beam induces a continuous
change in temperature gradients across the test specimen. The temperature gradients result in either a relatively
weaker or stronger outer layer when compared to the inner core of the beam. The load required to maintain
constant strain decreases or increases, depending on an either weaker or stronger outer layer, respectively. Weaker
outer layer means reduced stiffness, while a stronger crust implies stiffer AC, hence the undulation observed. But
this stiffness undulation has not stopped the usual negative fatigue effect on the stiffness. This is clear as the
stiffness trend observed exhibits a pattern similar to that of a damped harmonic vibration energy [27]. The pos-
itive and negative effect of the temperature change on the stiffness diminishes with time. The dissipated energy is
affected by the temperature change in similar fashion. But for report brevity, no such results have been shown.
However, Eq 2 is valid evidence of how the dissipated energy might be affected by strain/stress change.
The effect of the temperature amplitude and period is displayed in Fig. 9. For the sake of clarity, a slightly
different strain level for a similar AC was selected to avoid graph overlap. Even though TP-1 has a shorter period

FIG. 8
Stiffness versus TP-1
(MA).

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3810 DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE

FIG. 9
Stiffness versus TP-1 and
TP-2.

than TP-2, the resulting period of the stiffness variation trend by TP-1 is higher than that from TP-2. One or all of
the following two reasons should explain these observations: (a) the amplitude of TP-1 (5°C) is higher than that of
TP-2 (2.5°C), or (b) in TP-1, the temperature oscillates above and below the reference temperature, whereas it
only oscillates below the reference temperature in TP-2. However, the damping effect of the load cycle on the
stiffness variation that is due to temperature cycle is not as obvious in TP-2 as it is in TP-1.
The stiffness ratio for the constant and variable temperature tests is shown in Fig. 10. The thermal stiffness
variation observed in Fig. 8 is also reflected in the stiffness ratio. But this has not undermined the ability of Eq 6 in
establishing a global peak. Several peaks could be observed in the variable temperature stiffness ratio plot.

FIG. 10
Stiffness ratio at
constant and variable.

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DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE 3811

However, there is only one global peak, which should correspond to the crack initiation point because, after this
point, the stiffness will diminish faster, such that no amount of temperature change within the range of test
temperature plan could result in a greater peak.

Variable Versus Constant Temperature AC Fatigue Life

The fatigue lives of the FA AC obtained under constant and variable temperature tests are presented in a log-log
scale plot in Fig. 11. Plots for both traditional (N_50) and stiffness ratio (N_SR) approaches have been shown. In
both cases, the fatigue life of the AC under variable temperature (TP-1) appears to be lower than that under constant
temperature. The combined effect of temperature and load cycle resulted in lower AC fatigue life. It can be observed
that the fatigue life difference at lower strain is greater than that at higher strain. This is due to the fact that the AC
fails faster at higher strain, and, as such, the thermal load cycle has a relatively small impact window.
To further confirm the results from Fig. 11, the constant and variable temperature fatigue life results were
modeled in terms of cumulative dissipated energy to failure (Fig. 12). The unique nature of the cumulative dissipated
energy model is such that it is independent of fatigue loading mode (stress or strain controlled) and test temperature
for a given AC [19]. As such, it did not give a distinct trend for the different failure criteria, yet it clearly distinguishes
the constant and variable temperature fatigue lives. It appears that lower cumulative dissipated energy is required for
cracks to initiate under variable temperatures, and vice versa, for constant temperature conditions. This means that
the fatigue life of the AC estimated under variable temperature is shorter than that under constant temperature.
2
Table 4 summarizes the various obtained fatigue models and their R values.
Fig. 13 shows fatigue life estimates for MA at constant and variable temperatures (TP-2) for the various
failure criteria. In all cases the constant temperature fatigue lives are higher than the variable temperature test.
It can also be observed that the difference in fatigue life between the constant and variable temperature test
specimen could be as high as 40 %.

Implication of the Variable Temperature Fatigue Life Results

Previous research shows that rest period (load discontinuity) has a positive impact on the AC fatigue life [3]. This
study found that variable temperature actually has a negative effect on the AC fatigue life. If the magnitudes of
these two effects are close enough, then the consequence of not taking both into consideration by the current
fatigue test method have canceled each other out.

FIG. 11
Constant and variable
temperature test fatigue
life (S–N curve model).

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3812 DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE

FIG. 12
Constant and variable
temperature test fatigue
life (cumulative
dissipated energy
model).

TABLE 4
Constant and variable temperature fatigue models.

ID Model Model Fit Method Conditioning Temp. (°C) Temp. Plan

−0.364
FA-Var S = 17296N R = 0.973
2
N_50 20 TP-1
S = 55812N−0.461 R2 = 0.993 N_SR 20 TP-1
FA-Const S = 3870.5N−0.207 R2 = 0.984 N_50 20 NA
S = 2866.2N−0.177 R2 = 0.981 N_SR 20 NA

FA-Var W = 0.0157N0.64 R2 = 0.971 N_50 20 TP-1

W = 0.1842N 0.4157
R2 = 0.9697 N_RE 20 TP-1
FA-Const W = 0.0037N0.7547 R2 = 0.985 N_50 20 NA
W = 0.0034N0.7623 R2 = 0.992 N_RE 20 NA

FIG. 13
Estimated fatigue life for
MA (constant and
variable temperature).

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DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE 3813

FIG. 14
State of strain/stress
that is due to thermal
and mechanical loading.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Induced Strain/Stress that is due to Temperature Wave

The schematics of the various strain cycles on the AC beam are presented in Fig. 14. During the fatigue test,
the AC beam is clamped at the outer end and at three points within the beam. This setup is adopted to
ensure pure bending at the midsection of the beam. The setup also restricts horizontal movement of the
beam during testing. The temperature gradient between the AC beam core and its crust resulting from the
temperature cycle induces a continuous cycle of tensile and compressive strain/stress around the beam
surface. When the outer crust of the AC beam has a temperature that is relatively lower than that of
the beam core, a negative temperature gradient results in contraction of the outer layer relative to the core.
But the clamps restrict horizontal movement along the beam, thus reaction forces induce horizontal tensile
strain/stress on the surfaces as shown in Fig. 14a. The reverse is the case when the outer layers are exposed
to a higher temperature relative to the beam core; thus, expansion occurs. The hindered expansion generates
horizontal reaction forces that translate into compressive strain/stress around the beam, as shown in
Fig. 14b. In real service condition, the clamping or expansion restriction results are due to the frictional
force (partial or full bond) between AC layers. Recent studies have found that the coefficient of thermal
contraction of AC between 10°C to 40°C to be around 3 × 10−5/°C, and coefficient thermal expansion
to be approximately 2.5 × 10−5/°C [28]. This implies that, as high as 75 μSt, average tensile strains can result
because of a difference of − 5°C between the outer and inner core of the AC beam. In addition, the negative
temperature gradient will induce a higher magnitude of strain than the positive temperature gradient.
Fig. 14c depicts the state of strain/tress in the midsection of the mechanically loaded AC beam. The bottom
is under tension while the top is under compression. When the AC beam is subjected to mechanical loading
as well as temperature cycles (thermal loading), the bottom of the beam is subjected to additional tensile
strain/stress for a negative temperature gradient. The top of the AC beam is subjected to additional com-
pressive strain for a positive temperature gradient. Regardless of the sign of the temperature gradient, one
side of the AC beam (bottom or top) is subjected to additional stress/strain relative to the when the beam is
subjected to only mechanical loading. This explains the lower fatigue life of the AC observed under variable
temperature testing.

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3814 DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE

FIG. 15
Correlation between the
SE_FN and FM_FN.

FIG. 16
Correlation between the
SER_FN and FM_FN.
R

FN RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The correlation between FNs obtained by the SE method and those estimated by the FM approach is shown in
Fig. 15. Excellent correlation was observed, and the SE_FN are almost the same as the FM_FN. This result further
proves that the FN is more than just the point of inflexion of AC PDC but a performance parameter with a strong
tie to the mechanistic response of AC. Additionally, it can be concluded that the SE approach has offered another
alternative for FN estimation. But further studies on variability and reliability when compared to other methods
will help establish where the SE approach rank stands on a general scale. Fig. 16 shows similar plot for SER_FN
versus FM_FN, but with less promising results. The correlation between SER_FN and FM_FN is weak, and the
SER_FN deviates away from the FM_FN significantly for larger FN values.

Conclusions and Recommendation

The effect of sinusoidal temperature on the fatigue life of AC under continuous loading was investigated. Both
neat and polymer-modified AC mixtures were prepared and tested under varying temperatures, and another
similar group was also tested under a reference constant temperature. The traditional failure criteria of 50 %
loss in stiffness, stiffness ratio, and dissipated energy ratio were employed to analyze the AC fatigue test results.
The AC fatigue life was then modeled as an S–N curve and cumulative dissipated energy model for comparison.

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DALHAT AND ABDUL WAHHAB ON VARIABLE TEMP. AC FATIGUE 3815

Dissipated energy approach and dissipated energy ratio were also extended to estimate the FN of AC. Below is the
list of conclusions that were arrived at:

• The sinusoidal temperature induces a continuously changing temperature gradient across the AC test
beam. This, in turn, triggers the formation of a continuously alternating weaker and harder outer layer
relative to the beam core, thus creating a stiffness undulation.
• The combined effect of the load and temperature cycles resulted in a stiffness diminishing trend similar to
that of damped vibration energy.
• The temperature amplitude and period have a significant influence on the stiffness diminishing trend.
• Results from all the fatigue life estimation and prediction methods employed showed that the fatigue life of
AC under variable temperature is shorter than that under constant temperature. In other words, the con-
stant temperature test is overestimating the fatigue life of the AC. However, the effect of the variable tem-
perature is felt much more at lower strain loading. Further study on the effect of variable temperature AC
fatigue damage is recommended.
• When the AC beam is subjected to mechanical loading as well as temperature cycles (thermal loading), the
bottom of the beam is subjected to additional tensile strain/stress for a negative temperature gradient. The
top of the AC beam is subjected to additional compressive strain for a positive temperature gradient.
• Nonrecovered SE method was successfully employed to estimate the AC FN. This further establishes the
deeper ties of the FN as a performance parameter to the mechanistic properties of AC. However, further
studies comparing the variability and reliability of the SE approach with other methods will help establish
where it stands on a general scale. However, the SER employed shows weak connection to the AC FN.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the support provided by King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,
KSA (where the experimental work was carried out), and Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam,
KSA (where the result analysis was conducted), and Engr. Rama Rizana in carrying out this research.

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