Limit: Chapter 4: Introduction To Calculus

Outline of Chapter 4
Chapter 4: Introduction to Calculus
4.1 Limit
4.1.1 Intuitive definition of limit
4.1.2 Basic limit theorems
4.1.3 Limits of polynomial, rational, exponential and logarithmic functions
4.2. Continuity of polynomial, rational, exponential and logarithmic func-
tions
4.3. Derivatives
4.3.1. Formal definition of derivative
4.3.2. Basic derivative properties and rules
4.3.3. Derivative of polynomial, rational, exponential and logarithmic functions
4.3. Application of derivative
4.4. Integrals and their applications
Tilahun Abebaw (PhD) (AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 4) May 29, 2021 1 / 44
Definition of Limit (Institutive Approach)
Definition (One-Sided Limits)

Suppose f is a real-valued function and a ∈ R.
( Left Limit): Let f be defined at the left of a (for x < a). If f (x)
approaches a number L as x approaches a from the left, then we say L
is the left hand limit of f at a and write
lim f (x) = L.
x→a−
( Right Limit): Let f be defined at the right of a (for x > a). If f (x)
approaches a number M as x approaches a form the right, then we say
M is the right hand limit of f at a and write
lim f (x) = M.
x→a+
Definition of Limit (Institutive Approach)...
Example
Investigate the left and right hand limits of the following functions at 0 .
√ |x|
1 f (x) = x 2 f (x) =
x
√
1 If we take x = 0.000009, 0.000004, 0.000001, ..., then x = 0.003,
√
0.002, 0.001... respectively which approaches 0. Thus, limx→0+ x = 0.
√ √
However, limx→0− x does not exist because x is not defined for x < 0.

|x| −1, if x < 0
2 f (x) = = .
x 1, if x > 0
Thus, f (x) = −1 for all x < 0 and f (x) = 1 for all x > 0 .
This implies f (x) → −1 as x → 0− .
|x|
Therefore, limx→0− = −1.
x
|x|
We also have f (x) → 1 as x → 0+ , that is, limx→0+ = 1.
x
Definition of Limit (Institutive Approach)...
Definition (Intuitive Definition of a Limit)
Let f be a real valued function defined on both sides of a number a, but not
necessarily at a itself.
If the values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to a single number L as x approaches
a (from both sides), then we say ”the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L”,
and write limx→a f (x) = L.
If the values of f (x) do not become close to a single number as x approaches
a, then we say ”the limit of f (x) at x = a does not exist”.
Remark
Suppose f is function and a is a fixed real number. A real number L is called the
limit of f at a if and only if the following conditions must be satisfied:
(i) limx→a− f (x) must exist (iii) limx→a− f (x) = limx→a+ f (x).
(ii) limx→a+ f (x) must exist
Otherwise, we say limx→a f (x) does not exist.
Examples of Limits ...
Example (Finding Limit by Table)
Find limx→2 (2x + 1).
Solution:
Let f (x) = 2x + 1.
Choose some x-values near 2 (from both left and right sides) and calculate
the corresponding values of f (x) as in the following table.
x →2 from left x → 2 from right

x 2x + 1 x 2x + 1
1.90 4.8 2.10 5.2
1.95 4.9 2.05 5.1
1.99 4.98 2.01 5.02
1.999 4.998 2.001 5.002
From the table, we have that limx→0− (2x +1) = 5 and limx→0+ (2x +1) = 5.
Therefore, we conclude that limx→2 (2x + 1) = 5.
Example
 2
 x + 1, if x < 1
Find limx→1 g (x), when g (x) = 4, if x = 1
x + 1, if x > 1

Solution:
We use g (x) = x 2 + 1 to evaluate the limit as x approaches 1 from the left and
g (x) = x + 1 as x approaches to 1 from the right as in the following table.
x → 1 from left (x < 1) x → 1 from right (x > 1)
x g (x) = x 2 + 1 x g (x) = x + 1
0.95 1.9025 1.05 2.05
0.99 1.9801 1.01 2.01
0.999 1.9980 1.001 2.001
0.9999 1.9998 1.0001 2.0001
From the table, it is evident that limx→1− g (x) = 2 and limx→1+ g (x) = 2.
Hence, we conclude that limx→1 g (x) = 2.
Example
Investigate the left and right limits of f (x) at 0 if
√ |x|
(a) f (x) = x (b) f (x) =
x
(a) When x approaches 0 from the right, say if x = 0.0009, 0.0004, 0.0001...,
√
then x = 0.03, 0.02, 0.01... which approaches 0, too. This illustrate that
√
limx→0+ x = 0.
√ √
However,limx→0− x does not exist because x is not defined for x < 0.
−x, if x < 0 |x| −1, if x < 0
(b)|x| = . implies f (x) = = .
x, if x > 0 x 1, if x > 0
f (x) = −1 for all x < 0 implies f (x) → −1 as x → 0− . That is,
|x|
limx→0− = −1;
x
But f (x) = 1 for all x > 0 implies f (x) → 1 as x → 0+ . That is,
|x|
limx→0+ = 1. Therefore limx→0 f (x) does not exist
x
Limits of Some Basic Functions
Example
1 For a constant c and for any real number a, we have limx→a c = c.
2 For any real number a, limx→a x = a.
√
n
√
n
3 For any positive real number a and positive integer n, limx→a x= a.
4 For any positive real number b and real number a,,
lim b x = b a .
x→a
5 For any positive real number b and for any positive real number a,,
lim logb x = logb a.

x→a
6 For any real number a,, limx→a sin x = sin a.

7 For any real number a,, limx→a cos x = cos a.
Basic Limit Theorems
Theorem (Basic Rules of Limit)

Lat f and g be real valued functions and a be a real number. If
limx→a f (x) = L and limx→a g (x) = M, where L and M are real numbers
and c is any real number, then the each of following hold.
1 Constant Multiple Rule : limx→a (cf )(x) = c limx→a f (x) = cL.

2 Sum Rule: limx→a f + g (x) = limx→a f (x) + limx→a g (x) = L + M
3 Difference Rule:

lim f − g (x) = lim f (x) − lim g (x) = L − M
x→a x→a x→a
4 Product Rule: limx→a (f .g )(x) = limx→a f (x). limx→a g (x) = LM

limx→a f (x)
5 Quotient Rule: limx→a ( gf )(x) = limx→a g (x) = L
M, (if M 6= 0.)
6 Power Rule: For any real number r and any positive real number a,
limx→a x r = ar .
Applications of Basic Limit Theorems
Example
Evaluate the each of the following limits.
2
1 limx→−2 x 5 2 limx→2 x −3 . 3 limx→27 x 3 .
By the power rule, each of these limits can be computed by direct substitu-
tion. That is,
1 limx→−2 x 5 = (−2)5 = −32.
2 limx→2 x −3 = 2−3 = 18 .
2/3
3 limx→27 x 2/3 = 272/3 = 33 = 9.
Applications of Basic Limit Theorems...
Limit of Polynomials: If Pn (x) = cn x n + cn−1 x n−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0 ,

then
lim Pn (x) = cn an + cn−1 an−1 + · · · + c1 a + c0 = Pn (a).

x→a
Therefore, the limit of a polynomial function at a number a is obtained

by simply evaluating the polynomial at a (direct substitution).
Example
Evaluate the limit limx→2 x 5 − 4x 2 + 5x − 6

Solution:
lim x 5 − 4x 2 + 5x − 6 = 25 − 4(22 ) + 5(2) − 6 = 20.

x→2
p(x)
Limit of Rational function: If R(x) = is a rational function
q(x)
(i.e, p(x) and q(x) are polynomials), then by the quotient rule and
limits of polynomials we get
limx→a p(x) p(a)

lim R(x) = = = R(a)
x→a limx→a q(x) q(a)
(provided that q(a) 6= 0). So, finding the limit of a rational function
at a number a is the same as evaluating the function at a when a is in
its domain.
Example
Evaluate the following limits
x 5 −4x 2 +5x−6 25 −4(22 )+5(2)−6 20
limx→2 3x 2 −2
= 3(22 )−2
= 10 = 2.
Example
√
limx→a n x is computed by direct substitution except that a should be
positive if n is even. For instance,
√ √
limx→8 3 x = 3 8 = 2,
√ √
limx→−27 3 x = 3 −27 = −3,
√ √
limx→4 x = 4 = 2,
√ √
limx→16 4 x = 4 16 = 2.
Remark (Limits of Trigonometric Functions)

1 limx→a tan x = tan a ( for a 6= (2n + 1) π2 and n ∈ Z.)
2 limx→a cot x = cot a ( for a 6= nπ and n ∈ Z.)
3 limx→a sec x = sec a ( for a 6= (2n + 1) π2 and n ∈ Z.)
4 limx→a csc x = csc a ( for a 6= nπ and n ∈ Z.)
Squeezing Theorem
Theorem (Squeezing Theorem)
If g (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x in some open interval containing a (except
possibly at a) and
lim g (x) = L = lim h(x),
x→a x→a
then limx→a f (x) = L.
Example
Evaluate the limit limx→0 x 2 sin( x1 ).
Solution:
Since the sine function has range [−1, 1], it follows that 1 ≤ sin x1 ≤ 1, for
x 6= 0. Multiplying both sides by x 2 , we get −x 2 ≤ x 2 sin( x1 ) ≤ x 2 with
limx→0 −x 2 = 0 = limx→0 x 2 Thus, by the Squeeze Theorem, we get
1
lim x 2 sin( ) = 0.
x→0 x
Theorem (Substitution Theorem)
and a ∈ R. If lim
Let f and g be functions x→a g (x) = b and limy →b f (x) =
L then limx→a f g (x) = f limx→a g (x) = f (b) = L.
Example
2
Find limx→2 e x −2x .
2
Let y = x 2 − 2x as x → 2, y → 0 =⇒ limx→2 e x −2x = limy →0 e y = 1.
Remark
The basic limit rules shows that if a function f (x) is defined by an ex-
pression composed of additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions,
powers and roots, then its limit can be evaluated by direct substitution,
i.e., limx→a f (x) = f (a), if a ∈ dom(f ).
f (x)
In evaluating limx→a g (x) , if direct substitution gives the undefined
expression 0 00
(called indeterminate form), then factoring, simplifying,
0
and then using direct substitution may help.
Examples of Limit Calculations
Example
Find each of the following limits:
1 limx→−2 x+2 5x 2 − 10x

x 2 −4 3 limx→2
x −2
x 2 − 4x + 3
2 limx→1 4 limx→9 √x−9
x2 − 1 x−3
1 We factorize the denominator and simplify it as,

x +2 x +2 1
= = , for x 6= −2.
x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x −2
x+2 1 1
Therefore, limx→−2 x 2 −4 = limx→−2 x−2 = −2−2 = − 14 .
2 We factorize the numerator and simplify it as:
5x 2 −10x 5x(x−2)
x−2 = x−2 = 5x, for x 6= 2.
5x 2 −10x
Therefore, limx→2 x−2 = limx→2 5x = 10.
Examples of Limit Calculations...
Example (... Continued)

3. Using the Factor Theorem for a polynomial, we have
x 2 − 4x + 3 = (x − 1)(x − 3) and x 2 − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1)
x 2 − 4x + 3 (x − 1)(x − 3) x −3
. This implies 2
= = .
x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x +1
x 2 − 4x + 3 x −3 1−3
Therefore, limx→1 2
= limx→1 = = −1.
x −1 x +1 1+1
√ 2 √ √
4. We can factorize x − 9 = x − 32 = ( x − 3)( x + 3).
√ √
x −9 ( x − 3)( x + 3) √
Thus, √ = √ = x + 3.
x −3 x −3
Therefore,
x −9 √ √
lim √ = lim ( x + 3) = 9 + 3 = 6.
x→9 x − 3 x→9
Some Special Limits
Theorem
sin x 1
limx→0 = 1.
1

x
x 4 limx→0 1 + x = e.
cos x − 1
2 limx→0 = 0.
x x ex − 1
3 limx→±∞ 1 + x1 = e. 5 limx→0 = 1.
x
Example
1
x
Evaluate limx→0 1 + x2 .
Solution:
Let h = x2 . Then h → 0 as x → 0 and x = 2h or 1
x = h1 . 12 .
With this we obtain
x x1 1.1 h
h 2 1 i 12 1 √
lim 1 + = lim 1 + h = lim 1 + h h = e 2 = e.
x→0 2 h→0 h→0
| {z }
=e
Some Special Limits...
Example
x
Evaluate limx→∞ 1 − x5 .
Solution:
Let t = − x5 . Then x = − 5t and as x → ∞, we have t → 0.
x − 5t 1t −5
So, limx→∞ 1 − x5 = limt→0 1 + t = limt→0 1 + t = e −5 .
Remark
x
For a ∈ R, limx→∞ 1 + xa = e a .
Example
sin (ax)
For a ∈ R, evaluate limx→0 .
x
Solution:
sin (ax) sin (ax) sin (ax)
limx→0 = aa limx→0 = a limx→0 = a(1) = a.
x x ax
Infinite Limits
Definition
Let f be a function defined in an interval about a, except possibly at a.
i) We say that the left-hand limit of f (x) at a is infinity (negative
infinity), and write limx→a− f (x) = ∞, (limx→a− f (x) = −∞) if for
every real number M, we have f (x) > M(f (x) < M) for every x close
to a from the left side.
ii) We say that the right-hand limit of f (x) at a is infinity (negative
infinity), and writelimx→a+ f (x) = ∞, (limx→a+ f (x) = −∞) if for
every real number M, we have f (x) > M(f (x) < M) for every x close
to a from the right side.
iii) We say that the limit of f (x) at a is infinity (negative infinity)
and write limx→a f (x) = ∞, (limx→a f (x) = −∞) if and only if
limx→a− f (x) = ∞(−∞), and limx→a+ f (x) = ∞(−∞)
Example
(1.) For f (x) = x1 , and for x 6= 0,
limx→0+ x1 = ∞ and limx→0− x1 = −∞ Hence limx→0 x1 does not exist.
Whereas for f (x) = x12 , and for x 6= 0,
limx→0+ x12 = ∞ and limx→0− x12 = ∞ Hence limx→0 x1 = ∞
Remark
1
In general, for any real number a and f (x) = x−a we have
1
limx→a+ f (x) = limx→a+ x−a = ∞ and
1
limx→a− f (x) = limx→a− x−a = −∞
Definition (Vertical Asymptote)

The vertical line x = a is called a vertical asymptote to the graph of f if
limx→a+ f (x) = ±∞, or limx→a− f (x) = ±∞
Example
x+2
Find the vertical asymptote to the graph of f (x) = x 2 −1 . If a ∈ R\{−1, 1},
x +2 a+2
then by the quotient rule limx→a f (x) = limx→a 2
= 2 ∈ R Thus
x −1 a −1
candidates for vertical asymptotes are −1 and 1. So, we check whether a
limit of f at each of these points is ±∞.
x +2 x +2 1
For a = 1 lim f (x) = lim = lim = −∞
x→1− x 2 − 1 x→1− x + 1
x→1− x −1

x +2 x +2 1
lim+ f (x) = lim+ 2 = lim+ =∞
x→1 x→1 x − 1 x→1 x +1 x −1

x +2 x +2 1
For a = −1 lim + f (x) = lim + 2 = lim + =∞
x→−1 x→−1 x − 1 x→−1 x +1 x −1

x +2 x +2 1
lim f (x) = lim = lim = −∞
x→−1− x→−1− x 2 − 1 x→−1− x +1 x −1
Hence the lines x = 1 and x = −1 are vertical asymptotes of the graph of the
function f (x)
Definition (limit at infinity)
i) Suppose f is a function defined on an interval of the form (a, ∞),
for some a ∈ R. We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches to
infinity is the number L, and write limx→∞ f (x) = L if the values of
f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to L (f (x) → L) as x tends to ∞.
ii) Suppose f is a function defined on an interval of the form (−∞, a)
for some a ∈ R. We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches to
negative infinity is the number L, and write limx→−∞ f (x) = L if the
values of f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to L (f (x) → L) as x tends
to −∞.
iii) If either limx→∞ f (x) = L or limx→−∞ f (x) = L, then the horizontal
line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote (HA) to the graph of f .
Example
1
Find (a) limx→±∞
x
As x goes to ∞, x > 0 so that f (x) = x1 . Thus, limx→∞ x1 = 0 When x
goes to −∞, x < 0 so that f (x) = x1 . Thus, limx→−∞ x1 = 0.
(b) limx→∞ e 1/x Letting t = x1 , x → ∞ ⇒ t → 0. Hence, limx→∞ e 1/x =
1
limt→0 e t = 1. Equivalently, limx→∞ e 1/x = e limx→∞ x = e 0 = 1.
3x 2 − x + 1
(c)Find the horizontal asymptote to the fraph of f (x) = since
2x 2 + 5
we are interested with the behavior for large values of |x|,we divide both
numerator and denominator of f by the leading exponent
3x 2
3x 2 − x + 1 x2
− xx2 + x12
= 2x 2
When x is arbitrarily large (positive or nega-
2x 2 + 5 + x52
x2
tive), then the function
3x 2 − x + 1 3 − x1 + x12 3x 2 − x + 1 3 − x1 + x12 3
= lim = lim = .
2x 2 + 5 2 + x52 x→∞ 2x 2 + 5 x→∞ 5
2 + x2 2
Definition
Let f be defined on an interval of the form (a, ∞), for a ∈ R. We say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches to infinity is infinity, written limx→∞ f (x) = ∞
whenever x is assigned sufficiently large positive values, the corresponding
values of f (x) increase without bound.
Remark
Analogous definitions can be given for limx→∞ f (x) =
−∞, limx→−∞ f (x) = ∞ and limx→−∞ f (x) = −∞
Example
Example
(a) limx→∞ x 3 = ∞ limx→−∞ x 3 = −∞.
x 4 − 3x + 2 1 − x33 + x24
(b) limx→∞ = limx→∞ 2
= ∞.
2x 2 + 1 x2
+ x14
Continuity of Functions
Definition
A function f is said to be continuous at a number a if a ∈ dom(f ) and
lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
That is, for f to be continuous at a:

1 f (a) is defined; that is, a is in the domain of f ;
2 limx→a f (x) exists; and
3 limx→a f (x) = f (a).
Equivalently, a function f is said to be continuous at a number a if and
only if
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = f (a).
x→a− x→a
If any of the these three conditions fails, then we say that the function is
not continuous (or discontinuous) at a.
Continuity of Functions
Example
Determine whether f is continuous at x = 0 or not, if

 3x, for x <0
f (x) = 2, for x =0
 2
x , for x >0
Solution:
f (0) = 2, limx→0− f (x) = limx→0− 3x = 0 and limx→0+ f (x) = limx→0+ x 2 = 0.
Thus limx→0 f (x) = 0.
But since limx→0 f (x) 6= f (0) , f is not continuous at 0.
Theorem
If f and g are functions that are continuous at a and c is any real number, then
each one of the following combinations of the functions is also continuous at a :
1 f +g 3 cf f
5 , for g (a) 6= 0.
g
2 f −g 4 fg
Continuity...
Remark
Polynomial functions, rational functions, root functions, trigonometric functions,
exponential functions, logarithmic functions are all continuous at every number a
in their domains.
Theorem (Substitution Theorem)

Let f and g be functions and a ∈ R.
1 If limx→a g (x) = L and f is continuous
at L, then
limx→a f g (x) = f limx→a g (x) = f (L).
2 If g is continuous at a and f is continuous
at g (a), then the composite function
given by (f ◦ g )(x) = f g (x) is continuous at a.
Example
√
Evaluate limx→0 3 + cos x.
Solution: √
Let y = 3 +√cos x. Since y → 4 as x → 0, we get limx→0 3 + cos x =
√
Example
Find thevalue of the constant k so that f is continuous at 1.
3a − x,

 x <1
f (x) = k + 1, x =1

 ax 2 ,

x >1
The function is defined in different function on both sides of the function

hence
Left hand Limit atx = 1 lim 3a − x = 3a − 1

x→1−
Right hand Limit atx = 1 lim ax 2 = a
x→1+
functional value atx = 1 f (1) = k + 1
For the function f (x) to be continuous at x = 1 we need

3a − 1 = a, ⇒ a = 12
Next k + 1 = a = 12 ⇒ k = − 21
Theorem (Intermediate Value Theorem (IMVT))
Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. Let L be any number
between f (a) and f (b), (either f (a) ≤ L ≤ f (b), or f (b) ≤ L ≤ f (a). Then
there exists a number c in [a, b] such that f (c) = L
Example
Let f (x) = x 2 . Then f is continuous on [0, 3] with f (0) = 0 and f (3) =
9. By the Intermediate Value Theorem f assumes (takes on) every value
between 0 and 9. For instance
√ √ have 2 ∈ [0, 3] with f (2) = 4,
for L = 4, we
and for L = 7, we have 7 ∈ [0, 3] with f ( 7) = 7.
Theorem (Corollary of Intermediate Value Theorem)

Suppose f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b] and
f (a).f (b) < 0; that is, f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs (one is posi-
tive and the other is negative). Then, there is a number c ∈ (a, b) such
that f (c) = 0.This means that the equation f (x) = 0 has at least one root
in the interval (a, b).
Example
Let f (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 + x = 4 on [−2, 1]. Show that there exists some
c ∈ [−2, 1] such that f (c) = 4.
f is continuous on [−2, 1] with f (−2) = 2 and f (10) = 8. Since 2 ≤ 4 ≤ 8,
it follows, by the Intermediate Value Theorem that there exists c ∈ [−2, 1]
such that f (c) = 4. i.e. f (c) = c 3 + 2c 2 + c + 4 = 4. In this case we can
find such c by solving
c 3 + 2c 2 + c + 4 = 4
⇔c 3 + 2c 2 + c = 0
⇔c(c 2 + 2c + 1) = 0
⇔c(c + 1)2 = 0
which gives either c = 0 or c = −1 Since both of these values are in [−2, 1],
for this particular case we have two values in [−2, 1] with image under f
equal to 4.
Example
The function f (x) = x 3 x2 is continuous on [1, 2].
f (1) = −2 < 0 and f (2) = 4 > 0. Thus there is a number c in (1, 2)
such that f (c) = 0 or c 3 c2 = 0.
Show that the graphs of y = e x and y = 3x intersect in the interval
[0, 1]
Define the function f (x) = e x − 3x. Then f is continuous on [0, 1]
with f (0) = e 0 − 3(0) = 1 − 0 = 1 > 0 and f (1) = e 1 3(1) = e3 < 0.
Thus there is a number c ∈ (0, 1) such that f (c) = e c 3c = 0 and the
graphs of y = e x and y = 3x intersect at c ∈ (0, 1).
4.3. Derivatives of Functions
Definition (Derivatives)
f (x) − f (a)
Let a be a number in the domain of a function f . If limx→a
x −a
exists, we call this limit the derivative of f at a, and denote it by f 0 (a), so
f (x) − f (a)
that f 0 (a) = limx→a .
x −a
Remark
f (a+h)−f (a)
1) Observe that we can alternatively write f 0 (a) = limh→0 h
since for h = xa, we have x = a + h and as x → a, h → 0.
2) The notation f 0 (a) is read as the derivative of f at a or for short f prime
df
at a.Other notations are given by dx (a) or Df (a)
3) The quantity f 0 (a) describes the rate of change of the function f around
the point (a, f (a)).
Example
Let f (x) = 3x 2 + 5. find f 0 (x)
To use the definition, first simplify the quotient f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
:
2 2 2
f (x + h) = 3(x + h) + 5 = 3(x + 2xh + h ) + 5 ⇒ f (x + h) − f (x) =
3(2xh + h2 ) = 3h(2x + h)
⇒ f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
= 3h(2x+h)
h = 3(2x + h)
0 f (x+h)−f (x)
Thus, f (x) = limh→0 h = limh→0 3(2x + h) = 6x
0
Therefore, f (x) = 6x.
Example
Let f (x) = x1 . Find f 0 (1).
To use the definition of derivative first simplify the quotient:
1 1
f (x) − f (1) −1 (1 − x) 1
= x = x = − , for x 6= 1.
x −1 x −1 x −1 x
0 f (x) − f (1) 1
Therefore, f (1) = limx→1 = limx→1 − = −1.
x −1 x
Theorem (Rules of Differentiation)
Derivative of a Constant Function: The constant function f (x) = c,
where c is a fixed real number (constant). Then by the definition of deriva-
tive f 0 (x) = limh→0 f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
= limh→0 c−c
h = limh→0 0 = 0.
d
Therefore, dx (c) = 0
Derivative of a Power Function: f (x) = x n , where n ∈ R, is called
power function.Then the derivative is f 0 (x) = nx n−1 .
Theorem (Basic Rules (Properties) of Derivatives)
Let f and g be both differentiable functions at x and any constant (number)
c,. Then the following equations hold.
d
cf (x) = cf 0 (x).

1 Constant Multiple Rule:
dx
d
f (x) + g (x) = f 0 (x) + g 0 (x)

2 The Sum Rule:
dx
d
f (x) − g (x) = f 0 (x) − g 0 (x)

The Difference Rule:
dx
d
f (x).g (x) = f 0 (x).g (x) + f (x).g 0 (x)

3 The Product Rule:
dx
f 0 (x).g (x) − f (x).g 0 (x)

d f (x)
4 The Quotient Rule: =
dx g (x) [g (x)]2
d 0 0

5 The Chain Rule:
dx f g (x) = f g (x) .g (x)
Theorem
Derivative of Exponential Functions:
An exponential function is f (x) = e x . So, by definition:
f (x + h) − f (x) e x+h − e x ex eh − ex
f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
e x (e h − 1) e h−1
= lim = e x lim
h→0 h h→0 h
eh − 1
= ex × 1 because, lim =1 )
h→0 h
= ex
d x
Therefore, e = ex
dx
In general, using directly the definition of derivative and some properties
of exponential functions,we can obtain the following formula for any a > 0
d x d ln(ax ) d x ln a
a = e = e = ax ln a
dx dx dx
Theorem
Derivative of Logarithmic Functions:
The formula for derivative of natural logarithm, y = ln x (base e).
Using the rule for differentiating ln x is as follows:
d 1
ln x = (1)
dx x
we derive this derivative using the relationship between e x and ln x . In
particular, note that e ln x = x. ( differentiate both sides of this)
d ln x
⇒ dx e = dx
dx
⇒ e (ln x)0 = 1
ln x (because dxd f (x)
e = e f (x) .f 0 (x)
⇒ x(ln x)0 = 1 ⇒ (ln x)0 = x1
d 1
Therefore, dx ln x = x . for f (x) = loga x then using base changing rule
ln x 1 1
we can write f (x) = = ln x Then f 0 (x) =
ln a ln a x ln a
Higher Derivatives
If a function f is differentiable at a point x in its domain, we denote its

derivative by f 0 (x)
f 0 (x) = limh→0 f (x+h)−fh
(x)
provided the limit exists. This derivative
is usually called the first derivative of f at x.
If the new function f 0 is differentiable at a point x, then we can repeat the
process and find its derivative as
0 0 (x)
(f 0 (x))0 = f 00 (x) = limh→0 f (x+h)−f
h provided the limit exists. we call
f 00 (x) the second derivative of f at x, and it is often read as f double
prime of x. We can similarly find the derivative of f 00 (x) to get
00 00 (x)
f 000 (x) = limh→0 f (x+h)−fh provided the limit exists. , and so on,
and call this the third derivative of f at x.
These derivatives when they exist are called higher derivatives (or
derivatives of derivatives) The nth derivative f [n] (x) can also be denoted
d nf
by .
dx n
Example
For instance, if f (x) = x 4 + 2x + 1 , then
0 d
f (x) = dx f (x) = 4x 3 + 2. (First derivative of f )
d 0
f 00 (x) = dx f (x) = 12x 2 . (Second derivative of f )
000 d 00
f (x) = dx f (x) = 24x. (Third derivative of f )
Application of Derivative
Definition
Extreme values of a function Let f be a function defined on an interval I .
If there is a number d in I such that f (x) ≤ f (d) for all x in I , then f (d)
is called the maximum value of f on I .
Similarly, if there is a number c in I such that f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in I ,
then f (c) is called the minimum value of f on I .
A value of f that is either a maximum value or a minimum value of f on I
is called an extreme value of f on I.
Theorem (Maximum-Minimum Theorem)

Let f be continuous on a closed bounded interval [a, b]. Then f has a
maximum and a minimum value on [a, b].
Definition
Suppose f is a function defined on an interval I.
1 f is said to be increasing on I if f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2
2 f is said to be decreasing on I if f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2
3 f is said to be monotonic on I if f is either increasing or decreasing on
I.
Remark
we can similarly define the terms strictly increasing, strictly decreasing and
strictly monotonic by replacing ≤ by < and ≥ by > .
Theorem
Suppose f is continuous and differentiable on an interval I .
1 If f 0 (x) > 0, for every x ∈ I , then f is strictly increasing on I .
2 If f 0 (x) < 0, for every x ∈ I , then f is strictly decreasing on I.
Theorem (The First Derivative Test)
Let f be continuous on an interval I , and let c ∈ I .
1 If f 0 (x) changes its sign from positive to negative at c i.e. if f 0 (x) > 0
to the left of c and f 0 (x) < 0 to the right of c, then f has a relative
maximum value at c.
2 If f 0 (x) changes its sign from negative to positive at c, then f has a
relative minimum value at c.
Theorem (The Second Derivative Test)

Let f be differentiable in an interval I and let c ∈ I with f 0 (c) = 0.
1 If f 00 (c) < 0, then f (c) is a relative maximum value of f .
2 If f 00 (c) > 0, then f (c) is a relative minimum value of f .
If f 00 (c) = 0, then we can not draw any conclusion about f (c).
Integrals
Definition
A function F (x) is called an anti-derivative of a continuous function f (x) if
and only if F 0 (x) = f (x) for every x in the domain of f .
Theorem
If F (x) is an anti-derivative of f (x), then F (x) + c, where c is an arbitrary
constant, is also an anti-derivative of f (x).
Remark
R
Given a function f , the symbol f (x)dx stands for any (and hence all)
Ranti-derivatives of f . i.e. if F (x) is an anti-derivative of Rf (x), we write
f (x)dx = F (x) + c, for any constant c. The symbol is called the
integral sign. The function f (x) is called the integrand, x is called R the
variable of integration, and c is called a constant of integration. f (x)dx
is also called the indefinite integral of f with respect to x.

Limit: Chapter 4: Introduction To Calculus

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Limit: Chapter 4: Introduction To Calculus

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Outline of Chapter 4

Chapter 4: Introduction to Calculus

Definition (One-Sided Limits)

x →2 from left x → 2 from right

lim logb x = logb a.

6 For any real number a,, limx→a sin x = sin a.

Theorem (Basic Rules of Limit)

4 Product Rule: limx→a (f .g )(x) = limx→a f (x). limx→a g (x) = LM

Limit of Polynomials: If Pn (x) = cn x n + cn−1 x n−1 + · · · + c1 x + c0 ,

lim Pn (x) = cn an + cn−1 an−1 + · · · + c1 a + c0 = Pn (a).

Therefore, the limit of a polynomial function at a number a is obtained

lim x 5 − 4x 2 + 5x − 6 = 25 − 4(22 ) + 5(2) − 6 = 20.

limx→a p(x) p(a)

Remark (Limits of Trigonometric Functions)

then limx→a f (x) = L.

1 limx→−2 x+2 5x 2 − 10x

1 We factorize the denominator and simplify it as,

Example (... Continued)

x 2 − 4x + 3 = (x − 1)(x − 3) and x 2 − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1)

Definition (Vertical Asymptote)

lim f (x) = f (a).

That is, for f to be continuous at a:

Theorem (Substitution Theorem)

The function is defined in different function on both sides of the function

Left hand Limit atx = 1 lim 3a − x = 3a − 1

For the function f (x) to be continuous at x = 1 we need

Theorem (Corollary of Intermediate Value Theorem)

If a function f is differentiable at a point x in its domain, we denote its

Theorem (Maximum-Minimum Theorem)

Theorem (The Second Derivative Test)

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