Chapter 2.

Limits and Derivatives 1

Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives

2.4 The Precise Definition of a Limit

2.5 Continuity

2.6 Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes

2.8 The Derivative as a Function

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 2

§2.4 The Precise Definition of a Limit

Definition 2. Limit of f (x)

Let f be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number a, except
possibly at a itself.
Then we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, and we write

lim f (x) = L
x→a

if for every number  > 0, there is a number δ > 0 such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − L| < 

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 3

Example 1.
Use a graph to find a number δ such that

if 0 < |x − 1| < δ then |(x3 − 5x + 6) − 2| < 0.2

In other words, find a number δ that corresponds to  = 0.2 in the definition of a limit
for the function f (x) = x3 − 5x + 6 with a = 1 and L = 2.
Sol.

Example 2.
Prove that limx→3 (4x − 5) = 7.
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 4

Definition 3 and 4. Left-Hand Limit and Right-Hand Limit

• Left-Hand Limit
lim f (x) = L
x→a−

if for every number  > 0, there is a number δ > 0 such that

if a−δ <x<a then |f (x) − L| < 

• Right-Hand Limit
lim f (x) = L
x→a+

if for every number  > 0, there is a number δ > 0 such that

if a<x<a+δ then |f (x) − L| < 

Example 3.
1
Prove that limx→2 x
= 12 .
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 5

Example 4.
√ √
Prove that limx→a x = a if a > 0.
Sol.

Example 5.
√
Use Definition 4 to prove that limx→0+ x = 0.
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 6

Example 6.
Prove that limx→3 x2 = 9.
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 7

Definition 6. Infinite Limits

Let f be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number a, except
possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a

means that for every positive number M there is a positive number δ such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) > M

Definition 7. Infinite Limits

Let f be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number a, except
possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = −∞
x→a

means that for every negative number N there is a positive number δ such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) < N

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 8

Example 7.
1
Use Definition 6 to prove that limx→0 x2
= ∞.
Sol.

Theorem. Limits Laws

1. If limx→a f (x) = L and limx→a g(x) = M both exists, then

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M

x→a

2. If limx→a f (x) = L and limx→a g(x) = M both exists, then

lim [f (x)g(x)] = LM
x→a

Proof.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 9

§2.5 Continuity

Definition 1. f is continuous at a

A function f is continuous at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

Notice that Definition 1 implicitly requires three things if f is continuous at a:

1. f (a) is defined.
2. limx→a f (x) exists
3. limx→a f (x) = f (a)

Note

f is discontinuous at a (or f has a discontinuity at a) if f is not continuous

at a.

Example 2.
Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?
(
1
x2 −x−2 if x 6= 0
x2
,
(a) f (x) = x−2
(b) f (x) =
1, if x = 0
(
x2 −x−2
x−2
if x 6= 2
,
(c)f (x) = (d) f (x) = [[x]]
1, if x = 2
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 10

Definition 2. Continuous from the right and the left

A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a+

A function f is continuous from the left at a number a if

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a−

Example 3.
At each integer n, the function f (x) = [[x]] [see Figure 3(d)] is continuous from the
right but discontinuous from the left.
Sol.

Definition 3. Continuous on an interval

A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the

interval. (If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the interval, we understand
continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or continuous from
the left.)

Example 4.
√
Show that the function f (x) = 1 − 1 − x2 is continuous on the interval [−1, 1].
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 11

Theorem 5

(a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on R =

(−∞, ∞).
(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined;
that is, it is continuous on its domain.

Example 5.
x3 +2x2 −1
Find limx→−2 5−3x
.
Sol.

Theorem 7

The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their domains:

polynomials rational functions root functions

trigonometric functions inverse trigonometric functions
exponential functions logarithmic functions

Example 6.
ln x+tan−1 x
Where is the function f (x) = x2 −1
continuous?
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 12

Example 7.
Evaluate
sin x
lim
x→π 2 + cos x

Sol.

Theorem 8

If f is continuous at b and limx→a g(x) = b, then limx→a f (g(x)) = f (b).

In other words,
lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x))
x→a x→a

Example 8.  √ 
Evaluate limx→1 arcsin 1−
1−x
x
.
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 13

Theorem 9

If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite function f ◦ g

given by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a.

Example 9.
Where are the following functions continuous?
(a) h(x) = sin(x2 ) (b) F (x) = ln(1 + cos x)
Sol.

Theorem 10. The Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]

and let N be any number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b).

Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N .

Example 10.
Show that there is a root of the equation

4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0

between 1 and 2.
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 14

§2.6 Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes

Definition 1

Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then

lim f (x) = L
x→∞

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x suffi-
ciently large.

Definition 2

Let f be a function defined on some interval (−∞, a). Then

lim f (x) = L
x→−∞

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x suffi-
ciently large negative.

Definition 3

The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L

x→∞ x→−∞

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 15

Theorem 5

If r > 0 is a rational number, then

1
lim =0
x→∞ xr

If r > 0 is a rational number such that xr is defined for all x, then

1
lim =0
x→−∞ xr

Example 4.
Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function
√
2x2 + 1
f (x) =
3x − 5
Sol.

Example 5.
Compute
√
lim ( x2 + 1 − x)
x→∞

Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 16

Example 6.
Evaluate  
1
lim arctan
x→2+ x−2
Sol.

Example 7.
Evaluate
lim e1/x
x→0−

Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 17

Infinite Limits at Infinity

The notation
lim f (x) = ∞
x→∞

is used to indicate that the values of f (x) become large as x becomes large.
Similar meanings are attached to the following symbols:

lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞

x→−∞ x→∞ x→−∞

Example 11.
Find
x2 + x
lim
x→∞ 3 − x

Sol.

Example 12.
Sketch the graph of y = (x − 2)4 (x + 1)3 (x − 1) by finding its intercepts and its limits
as x → ∞ and as x → −∞.
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 18

Definition 7.

Let f be a function defined on some open interval (a, ∞). Then

lim f (x) = L
x→∞

means that for every  > 0 there is a corresponding number N such that

if x>N then |f (x) − L| < 

Definition 8.

Let f be a function defined on some open interval (−∞, a). Then

lim f (x) = L
x→−∞

means that for every  > 0 there is a corresponding number N such that

if x<N then |f (x) − L| < 

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 19

Example 14.
Use Definition 7 to prove that
1
lim =0
x→∞ x
Sol.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 20

§2.8 The Derivative as a Function

Derivative of a function

• Average rate f change of y with repect to x over [x1 , x2 ]

∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
=
∆x x2 − x1
• Instantaneous rate of change

∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
lim = lim
∆x→0 ∆x x 2 →x1 x2 − x1
• The derivative of a function of f

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h

Example 2.
If f (x) = x3 − x, find a formula for f 0 (x).
Sol.

Definition 3

A function f is differentiable at a if f 0 (a) exists. It is differentiable on an open interval

(a, b) [or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a) or (−∞, ∞)] if it is differentiable at every number in the
interval.

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 Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 21

Example 5.
Where is the function f (x) = |x| differentiable?
Sol.

Theorem 4

If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a

Proof.

How can a function fail to be differentiable?

Calculus and Vector Analysis I Hyunsun Song