Calculus I

MAT060

NORMALAH S. ABDULCARIM,PhD
Mathematics Department
College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
Mindanao State University-Marawi
normalah.abdulcarim@msumain.edu.ph

February 2, 2024

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Chapter 1 Outline

1.1 Intuitive Idea on Limits

1.2 Limit Theorems
1.3 One-sided Limits
1.4 Infinite Limits
1.5 Limits at Infinity
1.6 Limit Theorems Involving Sine and Cosine Functions
1.7 Continuity of a Function

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Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity
1.1 Intuitive Definition on Limits

Let a be a real number and let f be a function of x given by

y = f (x).
Supposed that f is defined at each x on some open interval I
containing a, except possibly at a itself. When we say that

“L is the limit of f (x), as x approaches a”

or

“ f (x) approaches L as x approaches a”

(written f (x) → L as x → a) we roughly say that f (x) gets close

to L as x gest close to a.
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Notation:
lim f (x) = L
x→a

Example 1.1
Consider the function f defined by f (x) = 2x + 4 and a = 3.
Investigate the function value f (x) when x is close to a = 3 but
not equal to 3.

Example 1.2
x2 − 2x
Consider the function f defined by f (x) = and a = 2.
x−2
Investigate the function value f (x) when x is close to a = 2 but
not equal to 2.

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1.2 Limit Theorems

This section introduces theorems which may be used(as shortcuts)

to simplify the process of evaluating limits.

Theorem 1.2.1 (Uniqueness of a Limit)

If lim f (x) = L1 and lim f (x) = L2 , then L1 = L2 .
x→a x→a

 Theorem 1.2.1 states that if a function has two limits then it

must be of equal value

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Theorem 1.2.2 (Limit of a Constant Function)
If k is a constant, then for any real number a,

lim k = k.
x→a

Illustration:
1 lim (−4) = −4. 2. lim (ln 2) = ln 2.
x→2 x→0

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Theorem 1.2.3 (Limit of Identity Function)
If k is a constant, then for any real number a,

lim x = a.
x→a

Illustration:
1 lim (x) = −4. 2. lim x = π.
x→−4 x→π

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Corollary 1.2.4
If k is a constant and lim f (x) = L, then
x→a

lim kf (x) = k lim f (x) = kL.

x→a x→a

Illustration:
1 lim −2x = −2 lim x = −2(3) = −6.
x→3 x→3
3 3 3
2 lim x = lim x = π
· π = 3.
x→π π π x→π

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Theorem 1.2.5 (Limit of a Linear Function)
If m, b are constants, then

lim (mx + b) = ma + b.
x→a

Illustration:
1 lim (2x − 7) = 2(5) − 7 = 3.
x→5
1
2 lim1 (−2x − 5) = −2 · − 5 = −6
x→ 2 2

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Theorem 1.2.6 (Limit of a Sum)
If lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M , then
x→a x→a

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M.

x→a

That is,
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x),
x→a x→a x→a

(Limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.)

Illustration:

lim [(2x − 7) + (4 − 3x)] = lim (2x − 7) + lim (4 − 3x)

x→1 x→1 x→1
= [2(1) − 7] + [4 − 3(1)] = −5 + 1 = −4.

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Theorem 1.2.7 (Limit of a Product)
If lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M , then
x→a x→a

lim [f (x) · g(x)] = L · M.

x→a

That is,
lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a

(Limit of a product is the product of the limits.)

Illustration:
  
lim [(2x − 7)(−5x + 1)] = lim (2x − 7) lim (−5x + 1)
x→0 x→0 x→0
= [2(0) − 7][−5(0) + 1]
= (−7)(1) = −7.

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Theorem 1.3.8 (Limit of a Quotient)
If lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M , M 6= 0, then
x→a x→a

f (x) L
lim = .
x→a g(x) M

That is,
f (x) lim f (x)
x→a
lim =
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→a

(Limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits.)

x−2 lim (x − 2) 3−2

Illustration: lim = x→3 = = 19 .
x→3 2x + 3 lim (2x + 3) 2(3) + 3
x→3

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The following theorems give us the extended Theorem 1.2.6 and
extended Theorem 1.2.7 respectively:

Theorem 1.2.9
If lim f1 (x) = L1 , lim f2 (x) = L2 ,... and lim fn (x) = Ln , then
x→a x→a x→a

lim [f1 (x) + f2 (x) + ... + fn (x)] = L1 + L2 + ... + Ln .

x→a

Theorem 1.2.10
If lim f1 (x) = L1 , lim f2 (x) = L2 ,... and lim fn (x) = Ln , then
x→a x→a x→a

lim [f1 (x)f2 (x)...fn (x)] = L1 L2 ...Ln .

x→a

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Other Limit Theorems
Theorem 1.2.11
If lim f (x) = L and n is any positive integer, then we have
x→a

lim [f (x)]n = [lim f (x)]n = Ln .

x→a x→a

Illustration:
h i5
lim (2x − 12)5 = lim (2x − 12) = [2(5) − 12]5
x→5 x→5
= [10 − 12]5 = (−2)5 = −32.

Corollary 1.2.12
lim xn = an .
x→a

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Theorem 1.2.13
If f is a polynomial function, then

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

for every real number a.

Theorem 1.2.14
If lim f (x) = L, then
x→a

p
n
q √
n
lim f (x) = n lim f (x) = L,
x→a x→a

√
n
provided L ∈ R.
Illustration:
√ q p √
lim 3 −8 + 21x = 3 lim (−8 + 21x) = 3 −8 + 21(0) = 3 −8 = −2.
x→0 x→0

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Corollary 1.2.15
If q is a rational function and a is in the domain of q, then

lim q(x) = q(a).

x→a

Theorem 1.2.16
If F and G are two functions such that F (x) = G(x) for all
x 6= a, and if lim G(x) exists, then lim F (x) exists. Moreover,
x→a x→a

lim F (x) = lim G(x).

x→a x→a

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 x2 − x x(x − 1)
Illustration: lim = lim = lim x = 1, where
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x − 1 x→1
x2 − x
= x for all x 6= 1.
x−1
• Note that all the illustrations that we have can be done by
direct substitution. So, the first thing to do to evaluate limit of a
function is direct substitution. If the result is a real number, then
that real number is the limit of the function. However, if the
result is 00 , we may simplify the expression by factoring or
rationalizing, whichever is applicable.

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Example 1.2.17
Evaluate the following limits:
3x2 − 17x + 20
1 lim 2
x→4 4x − 25x + 36
√
x−3
2 lim
x→9 9 − x
s
y2 − 9
3 lim
x→−3 2y 2 + 7y − 3
p
5
4 lim (2x − 9)3
x→4
3t2 − 12
5 lim
t→−2 2t2 + 7t + 6
√
2y − 3y + 1
6 lim
y→1 y−1

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1.3 One-Sided Limits

This part of the discusssion of limit concepts is governed by a

special notation.

If we let the arrow → represent the word approach, then the

symbolism x → a− indicates that x approaches a number a
from the left, that is, through the numbers that are less than a.

Also, x → a+ signifies that x approaches a number a from

the right, that is, through the numbers that are greater than a.
Finally, the notation x → a means that x approaches a from
both sides, in other words, from the left and right sides of a on a
number line.

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Remark 1.3.1
The limit theorems discussed earlier still hold if ”x → a” is
replaced by ”x → a+ ” or ”x → a− ”.

Theorem 1.3.2
lim f (x) exists if and only if lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x) both exist
x→a x→a x→a
and are equal. Moreover,

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x).

x→a x→a x→a

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Example 1.3.3
Evaluate the following limits:
√
1 lim− 1 − x
x→1
√
x+1−1
2 lim +
x→−1 x
x−4
3 lim+ √
x→4 x−4
√
4 − x2
4 lim− √
x→2 6 − 5x + x2

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Let us first recall the definition of the absolute value of a
number.That, is, 
x, if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x, if x < 0

Example 1.3.4
|x|
Does lim exist?
x→0 x

Example 1.3.5
Does lim H(x) exist where H(x) is defined as follows:
x→2

3x, if x ≤ 2
H(x) =
10 − x2 , if x > 2

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Exercise
Evaluate the following limits, if it exist.
6 − 2x
1 lim− 2
x→3 x − 2x − 3
√
x
2 lim+
x→0 x 
1 − 2x, x ≤ −2
3 lim F (x), where F (x) = ,
x→−2 3 − x, x > −2
x−2
4 lim
x→2 |2 − x|

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1.4 Infinite Limits
1
Consider the function f (x) = . We now observe the values
x−1
of f as x approaches to a = 1. First, we consider the values of f
when x approaches to a = 1 from the right.

x 2 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001 1.00001

1
f (x) = x−1
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

1
As x approaches to 0 from the right, values of f (x) = x−1 increase
without bound. In this case, we say that f (x) goes to positive
infinity as x approaches 1 from the right, and we write
1
lim+ = +∞.
x→1 x−1

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Now, we take a look on the behavior of f (x) as x approaches from
the left:
x 0 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999 0.99999
1
f (x) = x−1
−1 −10 −100 −1000 −10000 −100000
1
As x approaches to 0 from the left, values of f (x) = x−1 decrease
without bound. In this case, we say that f (x) goes to negative
infinity as x approaches 1 from the left, and we write
1
lim− = −∞.
x→1 x−1

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Definition 1.4.1
Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval
(a, c).
1 If the values of f (x) increase without bound as the values of
x (where x > a) approach the number a, then we say that the
limit as x approaches a from the right is positive infinity and
we write
lim+ f (x) = +∞.
x→a

2 If the values of f (x) decrease without bound as the values of

x (where x > a) approach the number a, then we say that the
limit as x approaches a from the right is negative infinity and
we write
lim+ f (x) = −∞.
x→a

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Definition 1.4.2
Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval
(b, a).
1 If the values of f (x) increase without bound as the values of
x (where x < a) approach the number a, then we say that the
limit as x approaches a from the left is positive infinity and
we write
lim− f (x) = +∞.
x→a

2 If the values of f (x) decrease without bound as the values of

x (where x < a) approach the number a, then we say that the
limit as x approaches a from the left is negative infinity and
we write
lim− f (x) = −∞.
x→a

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Definition 1.4.3
Let f (x) be a function defined for all x 6= a in an open interval
containing a. at all values in an open interval (b, a).
1 If the values of f (x) increase without bound as the values of
x (where x 6= a) approach the number a, then we say that the
limit as x approaches a is positive infinity and we write

lim f (x) = +∞.

x→a

2 If the values of f (x) decrease without bound as the values of

x (where x 6= a) approach the number a, then we say that the
limit as x approaches a is negative infinity and we write

lim f (x) = −∞.

x→a

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Remark 1.4.4
Note that when we write statements such as

lim f (x) = +∞ or lim f (x) = −∞,

x→a x→a

we are describing the behavior of the function, as we have just

defined it. We are not asserting that a limit exists. Rather, what
we mean is that the limit of f does not exist at x = a because f
becomes arbitrarily large (or large negative) as x approaches a.
For the limit of a function f (x) to exist at a, it must approach a
real number L as x approaches a. That said, if, for example,
lim f (x) = +∞, we always write lim f (x) = +∞ rather than
x→a x→a
lim f (x) DNE.
x→a

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Example 1.4.5
Evaluate the following limit, if it exists.
1
1 lim 3
x→0 x
2
2 lim 2
x→0 x

Theorem 1.4.6
If r is a positive integer, then
1
1 lim+ r = +∞
x→0 x

1 −∞, if r is odd
2 lim− r =
x→0 x +∞, if r is even

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Theorem 1.4.7
If a ∈ R, lim g(x) = 0 and lim f (x) = c, where c is a constant not
x→a x→a
equal to zero, then
1 if c > 0 and if g(x) → 0 through positive values of g(x), then

f (x)
lim = +∞
x→a g(x)

2 if c > 0 and if g(x) → 0 through negative values of g(x), then

f (x)
lim = −∞
x→a g(x)

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3 if c < 0 and if g(x) → 0 through positive values of g(x), then

f (x)
lim = −∞
x→a g(x)

4 if c < 0 and if g(x) → 0 through negative values of g(x), then

f (x)
lim = +∞
x→a g(x)

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Notations: For convenient purposes, we will use the following
notations:

If g(x) approaches 0 through positive values as x → a, we write

lim g(x) = 0+ .
x→a

If g(x) approaches 0 through negative values as x → a, we write

lim g(x) = 0− .
x→a

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Thus, the expressions in previous Theorem can be written as
follows:
c
1 For c > 0, + = +∞.
0
c
2 For c > 0, − = −∞.
0
c
3 For c < 0, + = −∞.
0
c
4 For c < 0, − = +∞.
0

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Theorem 1.4.8
1 If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a real number
x→a x→a
, then
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = +∞.
x→a

2 If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a real number

x→a x→a
, then
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = −∞.
x→a

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Theorem 1.4.9
If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a nonzero real
x→a x→a
number , then
1 if c > 0, the lim [f (x) · g(x)] = +∞
x→a
2 if c < 0, the lim [f (x) · g(x)] = −∞
x→a

Theorem 1.4.10
If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is a nonzero real
x→a x→a
number , then

1 if c > 0, the lim [f (x) · g(x)] = −∞

x→a
2 if c < 0, the lim [f (x) · g(x)] = +∞
x→a

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Example 1.4.11
Evaluate the following limits:
 
x −3 x
1. lim + 4. lim− +
x→−4 x + 4 x→3 3−x 2+x
 
x 5x 4
2. lim − 5. lim + −
x→−4 x + 4 x→−1 −1 − x 3x
   
2x −x 1 − x
3. lim− + 5x 6. lim− ·
x→1 x2 − 1 x→2 x−2 x+3

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Exercise
Evaluate the following limits:
5x2
1 lim
x→−3− x + 3
x2 − 3x
2 lim+ √
x→1 x−1
 
x x−1
3 lim ·
x→−1+ x + 4 x2 − 1
 
2x
4 lim + 5x
x→1− x2 − 1
   
x−3 2+x
5 lim ·
x→−3+ 3+x x2 − 4
   
x−3 2+x
6 lim +
x→2− 3−x x2 − 4

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1.5 Limits at Infinity

x2
Consider the function f (x) = . We now observe the values
x2 + 2
of f as x increases without bound.

x 0 1 10 100 1000
x2
f (x) = x2 +2
0 0.33 0.980 0.998 0.99998

We see that as x increases without bound, the function f (x) gets

close to 1. In this case we write
x2
lim = 1.
x→+∞ x2 + 2

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Remark 1.5.1
If, as x both increases and decreases, f (x) approaches L, that is,

lim f (x) = L = lim f (x),

x→−∞ x→+∞

we write
lim f (x) = L.
x→∞

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Theorem 1.5.2
If r is a positive integer, then
1
1 lim r = 0,
x→+∞ x
1
2 lim r = 0, and
x→−∞ x
1
3 lim r = 0.
x→∞ x

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Example 1.5.3
Evaluate the following limits:
3x2 − x
1 lim
x→∞ 5x2 + 4x

5x3
2 lim
x→∞ x + 3

3x + 4
3 lim √
x→−∞ 5x2 − 2
√3
4x3 + 3x
4 lim
x→−∞ 2x + 3

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Exercise
Evaluate the following limits:
 
1
1 lim 2x − 2
x→∞ x
2x − 1
2 lim
x→∞ 2 − 3x − 2x2
2x2 − 5x + 3
3 lim
x→∞ 2 − 3x − 2x2
2x − 1
4 lim
x→∞ 2 − 3x − 2x2
x4 − 16
5 lim
x→+∞ 3x4 + 16

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 1.6 Limit Theorems Involving the Sine and Cosine
Functions

In this section, we will examine limits that involve trigonometric

functions. As the examples in this section will illustrate,
computation of trigonometric limits entails both algebraic
manipulations and knowledge of some basic trigonometric
identities.

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The following theorems are some simple limit results that are
consequences of continuity:

Theorem 1.6.1
For a real number a in the domain of the given trigonometric
function, we have the following:

lim sin x = sin a; lim csc x = csc a

x→a x→a
lim cos x = cos a; lim sec x = sec a
x→a x→a
lim tan x = tan a; lim cot x = cot a
x→a x→a

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Example 1.6.2
Evaluate the following limits:
1 lim cos2 x
x→0
2 lim (1 − sin x)
x→0
3 lim x2 cos πx
x→1
x
4 lim
x→0 cos x

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Theorem 1.6.3 ( Special limits involving sine and
cosine functions)
sin x 1 − cos x
lim = 1 and lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x

Example 1.6.4
Evaluate the following limits:
sin 2x
1. lim .
x→0 3x

sin 5x
2. lim
x→0 sin 3x

4x
3. lim
x→0 sin x

cos x − 1
4. lim
x→0 x2
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Exercise
Evaluate the following limits:
sin 2x + 1
1 lim1
x→− 2 6x + 3
sin(1 + x)
2 lim
x→−1 x+1
2 cos(1 − 2x) sin(1 − 2x) + (2x − 1) cos(1 − 2x)
3 lim
x→ 12 x − 12
tan 2x
4 lim
x→0 x
5 lim+ 3x cot 2x
x→0
tan3 2x
6 lim
x→0 x3

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1.7 Continuity of a Function

In this section, graphically, we consider a function to be

continuous if we can “connect points with a smooth curve”- a
phrase giving an image of a graph that is a nice continuous
curve, or in other words, a curve with no breaks, gap or holes in
it. Indeed, a continuous function is often described as one whose
graph can be drawn without lifting pencil from paper.

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Definition 1.7.1
The function f is said to be continuous at the number a if the
following three conditions are satisfied;
1 f (a) is defined;
2 lim f (x) exists; and
x→a
3 lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

When one of the continuity conditions fails to hold, we say that f

is not continuous at x = a or f is discontinuous at x = a.
Graphically, there is a gap or break in the graph of the function f
when it is not continuous.

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Example 1.7.2
Determine if the given function f is continuous or discontinuous
at x = a.

i. f (x) = 2x + 5 at x = −3.

1 + x, if x ≤ 2
ii. F (x) = at x = 2
2 − x, if x > 2
√
x+1−1
iii. G(x) = at x = 0.
x
The discontinuity is said to be an essential discontinuity, if
condition (2) fails to hold, that is, lim f (x) does not exist. Also,
x→a
the discontinuity is said to be a removable discontinuity, if
condition/s (1) and/or (3) fail/s to hold, that is, f (a) is not
defined or lim f (x) 6= f (a).
x→a

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Example 1.7.3
Determine if the function is continuous at x = a. If discontinuous,
determine if the discontinuity is essential or removable. If the
discontinuity is removable redefine the function to have a
continuous function.
1−x
i. F (x) = at x = 1.
|x − 1|
4x + 4
ii. H(x) = at x = −1.
x2 − 1

3x + 5, if x ≤ −2
iii. f (x) = at x = −2
2x2 − 9, if x > −2

1 − 2x, if x ≤ 4
iv. F (x) = x=4
3 − x, if x > 4

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Remark 1.7.4
If f and g are two functions which are continuous at x = a, then
the following functions are also continuous at x = a.
1 Scalar Multiple: rf for any constant r,
2 Sum and difference: f + g and f − g,
3 Product: f g,
4 Quotient: fg ,provided g(a) 6= 0,
5 Composition:f ◦ g provided g is continuous at a and f is
continuous at g(a).

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Exercise
In each of the following functions, determine if it is continuous or
not at a given x = a. If it is not continuous, determine if the
discontinuity is essential or removable. If the discontinuity is
removable, redefine the function to have a continuous function.

x − 2, x≤3
1 f (x) = 2 x=3
−x + 8x − 14, x > 3
x2 − x − 2
2 h(x) = , x=2
x−2
1
3 g(x) = , x = −1
x+1

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