TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

TOPIC 3: Limits and Continuity

A. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

1. Definition of Limit

Intuitive Definition:
Let f be a function defined on an open interval ( a , b ) containing c , except possibly at c
itself. If f ( x) gets arbitrarily close to a number L for all x sufficiently close to c (on
either side of c ) but not equal to c , then we say that f approaches the limit L as x
approaches c , and we write
lim f ( x) = L or f ( x) → L as x → c .
x →c

and say “the limit of f (x) , as x approaches c , equals L ”.

(Sometimes, we even say in a shorter form: the limit of f at c is L.)

Example: Find the limit of 3 x 2 − 1 as x approaches 0.

X f(x) x f(x)
-0.1 -0.97 0.1 -0.97
-0.01 -0.9997 0.01 -0.9997
-0.001 -0.999997 0.001 -0.999997
-0.0001 -0.99999997 0.0001 -0.99999997

As x → 0, f(x) → − 1 . So, lim(3 x 2 − 1) = −1

x →0

If no such number L exists, we say that f has no limit at c (i.e. lim f ( x) does not exist).
x→c

Notice that the limit does not depend on how the function is defined at c . The limit may
exist even if the value of f at c is not known or undefined.

Example:
x2 , x ≠ 2  x2 , x ≤ 2
Find the limit of g ( x) =  and the limit of h( x) =  , as x approaches 2.
 2, x = 2 3x, x > 2
Solution:

lim g ( x) = 4 lim h( x) does not exist

x→2 x→ 2

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

Example:

(T*)
lim f ( x) = 2 , lim g ( x) = 2 , lim h( x) = 2
x →1 x →1 x →1

Definition:
More formally, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches c is L if for every number
ε > 0 there is a corresponding number δ = δ ε > 0 such that
f ( x) − L < ε whenever 0 < x − c < δ

[For our course, this formal definition will not be used.]

2. Limit Laws

Suppose lim f ( x) = L and lim g ( x) = M .

x →c x →c

1. Uniqueness: lim f ( x) = K implies K = L , i.e. a function has at

x →c
most one limit at a particular number

2. Sum Rule: lim[ f ( x) + g ( x)] = lim f ( x) + lim g ( x) = L + M

x →c x →c x →c

3. Difference Rule: lim[ f ( x) − g ( x)] = lim f ( x) − lim g ( x) = L − M

x→c x →c x →c

4. Product Rule: lim[ f ( x) g ( x)] = lim f ( x) ⋅ lim g ( x) = L ⋅ M

x →c x →c x →c

5. Constant Multiple Rule: lim kf ( x) = k ⋅ lim f ( x) = k ⋅ L for any k ∈ R

x →c x→c

lim f ( x)
f ( x) x →c L
6. Quotient Rule: lim = = provided M ≠ 0
x→c g ( x) lim g ( x) M
x →c

7. Power Rule: lim[ f ( x)]n = Ln , n a positive integer

x →c
1
8. Root Rule: lim n f ( x) = n L = Ln , n a positive integer
x →c

[ If n is even, we assume that lim f ( x) = L > 0 ]

x →c

(Can you state the above rules verbally?)

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

Some easy and useful limits:

a) lim a = a
x →c

b) lim x = c
x →c

c) lim x n = c n , where n is a positive integer

x →c

d) lim n x = n c , where n is a positive integer

x→c

(and if n is even, we assume that c > 0)

We shall try to use the above rules and easy limits in the following examples.

Example:
Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.
x−2 x−2
a) lim(x 2 − 4 x + 1) b) lim c) lim
x→2 x →3 x + 2 x→2 x 2 − 4

x−2 x3 + 2x 2 − 1 x −1
d) lim 2 e) lim f) lim 2
x →3 x − 4 x → −2 5 − 3x x →1 x − 1

2x + 1 x + 1 −1
g) lim 2 h) lim 4 x 2 − 3 i) lim
x →1 4 x − 1 x → −2 x →0 x
(4 + x) 2 − 16
j) lim
x →0 x
k) lim 2 x 2 − 3
x→2
l)
x →1
(
lim x 2 − 2 )
1/ 3

Solution:
Warning: If the instruction requires you to show some steps, you must do so or else
you would lose marks.

( )
lim x 2 − 4 x + 1 = lim x 2 − lim 4 x + lim 1
a) x→ 2 x →2 x→ 2 x →2
[ lim x 2 = lim x ⋅ lim x = 2 ⋅ 2 = 4 ]
x →2 x →2 x →2
= 2 − 4(2) + 1 = ... = −3
2

b) lim( x − 2) = lim x − lim 2 = 3 − 2 = 1

x →3 x →3 x →3

lim( x + 2) = lim x + lim 2 = 3 + 2 = 5 ≠ 0

x →3 x →3 x →3

x − 2 lim ( x − 2) 1
lim = x →3 =
x →3 x + 2 lim( x + 2) 5
x →3
Sometimes, when you feel confident that the quotient rule can be applied, you may write
the steps as:
x − 2 lim ( x − 2) lim x − lim 2 3 − 2 1
lim = x →3 = x →3 x →3
= =
x →3 x + 2 lim( x + 2) lim x + lim 2 3 + 2 5
x →3 x →3 x →3

(Sometimes one skips even more steps.)

x − 2 lim ( x − 2) 1
A shorter way : lim = x→3 = [This way shows only one intermediate step.]
x →3 x + 2 lim( x + 2) 5
x →3

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

x−2 1
The shortest way: lim = [This way does not show any step at all; only the
x →3 x+2 5
final answer is shown.]

Compare c) and d).

x−2 x−2 1 1
c) lim = lim = lim = =4
x→ 2 x − 4 x→2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) x→2 x + 2 2 + 2
2

x−2 lim( x − 2) 3− 2 1
d) lim = x→3 2 = 2 =
x→3 x − 4 lim( x − 4) 3 − 4 5
2
x →3

x−2 x−2 1 1 1
Compare with lim = lim = lim = =
x→3 x − 4 x→3 ( x − 2)( x + 2) x→3 x + 2 3 + 2 5
2

e)
x −1
f) lim (Why can’t the quotient rule be applied?)
x →1 x2 −1

x −1 ( x − 1) 1 1 1
lim = lim = lim = =
x →1 x − 1 x →1 ( x + 1)( x − 1) x →1 x + 1 lim( x + 1) 2
2
x →1

g)

h) lim 4 x 2 − 3 = 4(−2) 2 − 3 = ... = 13

x→−2

x +1 −1 x + 1 −1 x + 1 +1
i) lim = lim ⋅ (A critical step used)
x →0 x x →0 x x +1 +1

???
= lim
x→0 x( x+1+1)
???
= lim =
x→0 ???

( 4 + x ) 2 − 16 16 + 8 x + x 2 − 16
lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x
??
j) = lim
x→0 ??
= lim ( )=
x→0

k)

l)

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

Direct Substitution Property

Limits of Polynomials
If p ( x) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + L + a 0 is a polynomial, then
lim p( x) = p(c) = a n c n + a n −1c n −1 + L + a0 .
x →c

Limits of Rational Functions

If p (x) and q (x) are polynomials and q (c) ≠ 0 , then
p ( x) lim p ( x ) p (c )
lim = x→c =
x → c q( x) lim q ( x) q (c)
x →c

Example: p ( x) = 4 x 3 − 5 x 2 + 3 x − 4
( )
lim 4 x 3 − 5 x 2 + 3x − 4 = 4(2)3 − 5(2) 2 + 3(2) − 4 = 14 , which is p (2) .
x→2

lim p ( x) = p (2)
x→2

Examples: ‘Good case’

4 x3 − 5 x 2 + 3x − 4
lim = ??? .
x→2 2x − 1
lim(2 x − 1) = 3 ≠ 0
x→2

4 x 3 − 5 x 2 + 3x − 4 lim (4 x 3 − 5 x 2 + 3x − 4) 4(2)3 − 5(2) 2 + 3(2) − 4 14

lim = x→2
= =
x→2 2x − 1 lim(2 x − 1) 2(2) − 1 3
x→2

4 x3 − 5 x 2 + 3x − 4
‘Bad cases’ (i) lim = ???
x→2 2x − 4

lim(2 x − 4) = 0
x→2

x2 − 4
(ii) lim = ???
x→2 2 x − 4

Another useful limit

sin x
lim = 1 (see note 1) Reminder:
x→0 x

1
The derivation of this limit can be found in Stewart’s Calculus, Thomas’ Calculus and also other textbooks.

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

Example:
Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.
sin x ( x − 2) sin x
a) lim b) lim
x →0 2 x x →0 3x

3. Sandwich Theorem (Also known as Squeezing Theorem or Pinching Theorem)

Sandwich Theorem

If f ( x) ≤ g ( x) ≤ h( x) for all x in an interval containing a number a , except possibly at

a , and lim f ( x) = lim h( x) = L , then
x→a x→a

lim g ( x) = L .
x→a

Example:
a) If x − x 2 ≤ g ( x) ≤ 4 − 3 x for all x , find lim g ( x) .
x→2

1
b) Evaluate lim x 2 sin .
x→0 x
Solution:
a) Since lim( x − x 2 ) = −2 , lim(4 − 3 x) = −2 , and x − x 2 ≤ g ( x) ≤ 4 − 3 x ,
x→2 x→2

by the Sandwich theorem, lim g ( x) = −2 .

x→2

1
b) −1 ≤ sin ≤ 1 , for all x except x = 0. Hence
x
1
− x 2 ≤ x 2 sin ≤ x 2
x
Since lim(− x ) = 0 = lim x 2 , by the Sandwich theorem,
2
x→0 x →0

1
lim x 2 sin = 0.
x →0 x

A more general example

For any function, lim | f ( x ) | = 0 implies lim f ( x) = 0

x→c x→c

Since − | f ( x) | ≤ f ( x) ≤ | f ( x) | and lim − | f ( x) | = lim | f ( x) | = 0 ,

x→c x →c

by the Sandwich theorem, lim f ( x) = 0 .

x→c

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

3. One-sided Limits

Let f be a function defined on an open interval (c, d ) . If f (x) gets arbitrarily close to a
number L as x approaches c from within (c, d ) , i.e. x approaches c from the right,
then we say that f has a right-hand limit L at c , and we write

lim f ( x) = L or f ( x) → L as x → c + .
x →c +

Note that how f (x) is defined for x ≤ c plays no role in this case.
“ x → c + ” means that we consider only values of x that are greater than c.

Similarly, if f is defined on an open interval (b, c ) and gets arbitrarily close to a number
M as x approaches c from within (b, c ) , i.e. x approaches c from the left, then we say
that f has a left-hand limit M at c , and we write

lim f ( x) = M or f ( x) → M as x → c − .
x→c −

As in the previous case, how f ( x) is defined for x ≥ c plays no role in this case.
“ x → c − ” means that we consider only values of x that are greater than c.
Theorems:
a) The Limit Laws and The Sandwich Theorem are also valid for one-sided limits if
x → c is replaced by x → c − or x → c + respectively

b) lim f ( x) = L if and only if lim− f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) = L .

x →c x→c x →c
[This would be very useful when dealing with piecewise-defined functions,]

Example:
Determine if the limits exist.
 x + 2, x ≤ 0
(i) f ( x) =  a) lim− f ( x) b) lim+ f ( x) c) lim f ( x)
 x − 1, x > 0 x→0 x→0 x→0

 5 x − 1, x < 4
(ii) f ( x) =  a) lim− f ( x) b) lim+ f ( x) c) lim f ( x)
4 x + 3, x ≥ 4 x→ 4 x →4 x→ 4

Solution:
 x + 2, x ≤ 0
詃阒扩턈 f ( x) = 
 x − 1, x > 0
a) lim− f ( x) = lim− ( x + 2) = 2 b) lim+ f ( x) = lim+ ( x − 1) = −1
x→0 x →0 x→0 x→0

c) Since lim− f ( x) ≠ lim+ f ( x) , lim f ( x) does not exist.

x→0 x →0 x→ 0

 5 x − 1, x < 4
(ii) f ( x) =  a) lim f ( x) = lim− (5 x − 1) = 20 − 1 = 19
4 x + 3, x ≥ 4 x→ 4 − x→4

b) lim+ f ( x) = lim+ (4 x + 3) = 16 + 3 = 19
x→ 4 x→4

c) Thus, lim f ( x) exists because lim− f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) .

x→ 4 x→4 x→4

lim f ( x) = 19
x→4

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

For a real number x , x  is the largest integer less than or equal to x . For example,
2 = 2, 2.5 = 2, − 2.5 = −3. The function f ( x) = x  is called the floor function.

For a real number x , x  is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x . For example,
2 = 2, 2.5 = 3, − 2.5 = −2. The function f ( x) = x  is called the ceiling function.

The floor function The ceiling function

(T*) (T*)
The graph of the least integer function The graph of the least integer function
y = x  lies on or above the line y = x , so y = x lies on or above the line y = x , so
 
it provides an integer floor for x. it provides an integer ceiling for x.

Example:
Evaluate each of the following limits, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.
| x−2|
a) lim b) lim x  c) lim x 
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x→2

Solution:
| x−2| − ( x − 2), if x < 2
a) lim | x−2| = 
x→2 x − 2
 x − 2, if x ≥ 2
| x−2| − ( x − 2)
lim = lim− = lim− (−1) = −1
x→ 2 − x−2 x → 2 x−2 x→2

| x−2| x−2
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1
x→ 2 x−2 x→2 x − 2 x→2

| x−2|
lim does not exist. (Why?)
x→2 x − 2

b) lim x 
x→2

For x < 2 and near 2, x  = 1 . So lim− x  = lim− 1 = 1

x→ 2 x→2

For x > 2 and near 2, x  = 2 So lim+ x  = lim− 2 = 2

x→2 x→ 2

c) lim x 
x→2

For x < 2 and near 2, x  = 2 . So lim− x  = lim− 2 = 2

x→2 x→ 2

For x > 2 and near 2, x  = ? So lim+ x  = ??

x→ 2

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

B. CONTINUITY

1. Continuity Test

For a function f that is defined at least on an open interval about a number c , we say that
f is continuous at c if and only if

1. f (c) exists (i.e., the value of f (c) is defined ; this condition is not necessary
for the existence of limit);
2. lim f ( x) exists; and
x→ c

3. lim f ( x) = f (c) .
x →c

[Summarized: “limit of f at c equals f (c) ”]

If f is not continuous at c , we say that f is discontinuous at c . In this case, c is said to

be a discontinuity of f .

When a function f is discontinuous at c, what sort of situation could occur?

Example:
Determine whether the following functions are continuous at x = a.
2x + 3
a) f ( x) = 4 x 3 + 2 x + 1 ; a = 0 b) f ( x) = ; a = 23
3x − 2
1
 if x ≠ 0 x2 − x − 2
c) f ( x) =  x 2 ;a=0 d) f ( x) = ;a=2
1 if x = 0 x − 2

 x2 − x − 2
 if x ≠ 2;
e) f ( x) =  x − 2 ;a = 2
3 if x = 2.

Solution:
a) f ( x) = 4 x 3 + 2 x + 1 ; a = 0
Since (i) f (x) is defined at x = 0 with f(0) = 1,
(ii) lim f ( x) exist with lim f ( x) = 1 , and
x →0 x →0

(iii) lim f ( x) = f (0) ,

x →0

f ( x) = 4 x + 2 x + 1 is continuous at a = 0.
3

2x + 3
b) f ( x) = ; a = 23 f ( 23 ) undefined. Conclusion?
3x − 2
1
 if x ≠ 0
c) f ( x) =  x 2 ;a=0 f (0) = 1 [f(0) is defined]
1 if x = 0
1
lim 2 does not exist. Conclusion?
x→ 0 x

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

x2 − x − 2
d) f ( x) = ;a=2 f (2) undefined. Conclusion?
x−2

This function is not the same as g ( x) = x + 1 . Why???

 x2 − x − 2
 if x ≠ 2;
e) f ( x) =  x − 2 ;a = 2
3 if x = 2.

[This function is the same as g ( x) = x + 1 .Why???]

x2 − x − 2
f (2) = 3 , lim f ( x) = lim = ... = lim( x + 1) = 3
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2

2. Continuity Rules

Theorem
If the functions f and g are continuous at a , then the following functions are
continuous at a.
1 Sum: f +g
2 Difference: f −g
3 Product: f ⋅g
4 c ⋅ f for any c ∈ R
Constant Multiple:
f
5 Quotient: provided g (a ) ≠ 0
g
Theorems and Observations:
1. Any polynomial is continuous everywhere, i.e., it is continuous on R = (−∞, ∞) .
2. The functions sin x and cos x are continuous at any number c .
π 3π 5π
3. The function tan x is continuous everywhere EXCEPT at ± ,± ,± ,L
2 2 2
1
4. f ( x) = is continuous everywhere except at the number c .
x−c
Indeed, lim f ( x) does not exist.
x→c
5. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is continuous
on its domain.

6. The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their domains:
polynomials rational functions
root functions trigonometric functions

Examples: On what intervals is each function continuous?

x +1 x cos x
f ( x) = x 2012 − 12 x 57 + 1900 , g ( x) = , h( x) = x + , m( x ) =
x − 2x
2
x−2 3 + sin x

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

3. Composite of Continuous Functions

Theorem:
If f is continuous at a , and g is continuous at f (a ) , then the composite g o f is
continuous at a .

This theorem is often expressed informally by saying “a continuous function of a

continuous function is a continuous function.”

Example:
Determine whether the following functions are continuous.
1
a) h( x) = cos( x 2 ) b) k ( x) =
x +9 −5
2

Solution:
a) We have h( x) = g ( f ( x)) , where
f ( x) = x 2 and g ( x) = cos x
Now f is continuous on R since it is a polynomial, and g is also continuous everywhere.
Thus, h = g o f is continuous on R by the above theorem.
b) Notice that k can be written as the composition of four functions:
k = r o h o g o f or k ( x) = r (h( g ( f ( x))))
1
where r ( x) = , h( x) = x − 5, g ( x) = x, f ( x) = x 2 + 9
x
We know each of these functions is continuous on its domain, so by the above theorem, k
is continuous on its domain, which is
{x ∈ R | x 2 + 9 ≠ 5} = {x | x ≠ ±4} = (−∞,−4) ∪ (−4,4) ∪ (4, ∞)

Example:
Find the following limits if they exist. (Here, try to make use of continuity of a function.)
a) lim 5 cos( x 2 − 9) b) lim 2 sin 2 x − 3
x →3 x →π

4. Continuity on an interval

Before discussing the continuity of a function on an interval, we need to discuss one-sided

continuity.

Definition: Continuity from the left and right (One-sided continuity)

A function f is continuous from the left at the point a if the following conditions are
satisfied:
1. f (a ) is defined.
2. lim− f ( x) exists.
x→ a

3. lim f ( x) = f (a )
x→ a −

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

Similar definition for

- f is continuous from the right at the point a

Definition: Continuity on an interval

- A function f is continuous on the open interval (a,b) if f is continuous at all points

of the open interval (a,b) .
- A function f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] if f is continuous on the
open interval (a,b), continuous from the right at a and continuous from the left at b.
- “f is continuous on (−∞, ∞) ” means “ f is continuous everywhere”.

Example
−x if x < 0

f ( x) =  x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
x + 1 if x > 1

Find each of the following, or, if it does not exist, explain why.
(a) lim f ( x) (b) lim f ( x) (c) f (1) (d) lim+ f ( x)
x→ 0 x→1 x →1
Discuss continuity of f on intervals.

Example

Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

 x2 − x − 2
x −x−2
2  if x ≠ 2;
(a) f ( x) = (b) g ( x) =  x − 2
x−2 2 if x = 2.

 x2 − x − 2
 if x ≠ 2;
(c) h( x) =  x − 2
3 if x = 2.


Discuss continuity of the functions on intervals.

5. Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions

Suppose f is a continuous function on a closed
interval [a, b] . If k is a number such that
f (a ) < k < f (b) or f (b) < k < f (a ) , then there is
a number c ∈ (a, b ) with f (c) = k .

[Note: This theorem does not tell us what c is. ]

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

Example:
Show that there is a root of the equation 4 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 3 x − 2 = 0 between 1 and 2.
Solution:
Let f ( x) = 4 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 3 x − 2 .
f is continuous on the closed interval [1, 2]. [f is continuous since it is a polynomial.]
f (1) = 4 − 6 + 3 − 2 = −1 < 0
Take k = 0 in the theorem.
f (2) = 32 − 24 + 6 − 2 = 12 > 0
Since f (1) < 0 < f (2) , [ 0 is a number between f (1) and f (2) .]
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is a number c between 1 and 2 such that
f (c ) = 0 .
Therefore, the equation 4 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 3 x − 2 = 0 has at least one root c in the interval
(1, 2).

C. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

1. Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes

Definition: Limits at Infinity

We say that f (x) has the limit L as x approaches infinity (∞) and write
lim f ( x) = L or f ( x) → L as x → ∞
x→∞

if, as x moves further and further away from the origin in the positive direction, f (x)
gets arbitrarily close to L .

Analogously, we say that f (x) has the limit M as x approaches minus infinity (−∞) and
write lim f ( x) = M or f ( x) → M as x → −∞
x → −∞

if, as x moves further and further away from the origin in the negative
direction, f ( x) gets arbitrarily close to M.

Definition
A line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function y = f ( x) if either
lim f ( x) = L or lim f ( x) = L
x →∞ x →−∞

Example

5 5
lim =0 lim =0
x →∞ x x→−∞ x

The line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of

5
the curve y =
x

What can you say about

1 1
lim 2 and lim 2 ?
x →∞ x x→−∞ x

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

Limit Laws
Suppose lim f ( x) = L and lim g ( x) = M , and lim means lim or lim .
x →c x →c x→c x →∞ x → −∞

1. Uniqueness: lim f ( x) = K implies K = L , i.e. a function has at

x →c

most one limit as x → ∞ (or as x → −∞ ).

2. Sum Rule: lim[ f ( x) + g ( x)] = lim f ( x) + lim g ( x) = L + M
x →c x →c x →c

3. Difference Rule: lim[ f ( x) − g ( x)] = lim f ( x) − lim g ( x) = L − M

x→c x →c x →c

4. Product Rule: lim f ( x) g ( x) = lim f ( x) ⋅ lim g ( x) = L ⋅ M

x→c x→c x →c

5. Constant Multiple Rule: lim kf ( x) = k ⋅ lim f ( x) = k ⋅ L for any k ∈ R

x →c x→c

f ( x) x →clim f ( x)
L
6. Quotient Rule: lim = = provided M ≠ 0
x→c g ( x) lim g ( x) M
x →c

7. Power Rule: lim[ f ( x)] = L , n a positive integer

n n
x →c
1
8. Root Rule: lim n f ( x) = n L = Ln , n a positive integer
x →c

[ If n is even, we assume that lim f ( x) = L > 0 ]

x →c

Example
(a)
When x becomes large, both the numerator and the denominator of
3 x 2 − x − 2 become large, so it is not obvious what happens to the
5x 2 + 4 x + 1
ratio.
3x 2 − x − 2 1 2
3− − 2
3x − x − 2
2 2
lim 2 = lim 2 x = lim x x
x →∞ 5 x + 4 x + 1 x →∞ 5 x + 4 x + 1 x →∞ 4 1
5+ + 2
x2 x x
 1 2
lim 3 − − 2  lim 3 − lim 1 − lim 2
x →∞
 x x  x →∞ x →∞ x x →∞ x 2 3−0−0 3
= = = =
 4 1  4
5 + lim + lim 2
1 5 + 0 + 0 5 3
lim 5 + + 2  lim → ∞ → ∞ → ∞
y= is a horizontal asymptote of
x →∞
 x x  x x x x x 5
3x 2 − x − 2 3 3x 2 − x − 2
Show steps to arrive at lim = . the curve y = .
x→−∞ 5 x 2 + 4 x + 1 5 5x 2 + 4x + 1
(b)
3x + 2 3 2  3 2 3 2
+ 3 xlim  2 + 3  lim 2 + lim 3
3x + 2 3 2 → −∞
x x  x→−∞ x x →−∞ x 0+0
lim = lim x3 = lim x x = = = =0
x→−∞ 5 x 3 − 4 x →−∞ 5 x − 4 x→ −∞ 4  4 4 5 − 0
5− 3 lim  5 − 3  lim 5 − lim 3
x →−∞ x→−∞ x
x3 x x→−∞
 x 
2x2 + 5
(c) lim
x→∞ 3 x + 1

[Note: In (a) the numerator and the denominator of the rational function have the same
degree; in (b) the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator.
In example (c), the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator;
it will be discussed in the next subsection under infinite limits.]

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

Example
Use the rules for limits at infinity to evaluate the following limits.
3x + 2 2x 2 + 8x + 6
a) lim b) lim 2
x→∞ 5 x − 4 x →∞ x − 3 x + 1

Solution:
2
3+
3x + 2 x
lim = lim
x →∞ 5 x − 4 x →∞ 4
5−
x
 2
a) lim  3 +  lim 3 + lim 2
=
x →∞
 x  x →∞
=
x →∞ x

 4 4
lim  5 −  lim 5 − lim
→∞ →∞
x →∞
 x x x x
3+0 3
= =
5−0 5

2. Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes

1
Example (a) Let’s try to decide if lim exists.
x→0 x2
1
As x approaches 0, x 2 also becomes close to 0 and becomes very large; the values of
x2
1 1
f ( x) = 2 do not approach a number. We conclude that lim 2 does not exist.
x x→0 x

1
However in this example, the values of f ( x) = 2 can be made arbitrarily large by taking
x
x close enough to 0.
1 1
We write lim 2 = ∞ in addition to the information that “ lim 2 does not exist ”.
x →0 x x→0 x

 1 if x > 0
x 
Example (b) Consider s ( x) = =  −1 if x < 0
|x| 
undefined if x = 0
x
lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1
x →0 | x | x →0

x
lim− = lim− − 1 = −1
x →0 | x | x →0

x
lim does not exist.
x→0 | x |

x
But lim = ∞ [We cannot write this
x →0 | x |

way.]

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

Definition of infinite limits

We say that f (x) approaches infinity as x approaches c , and we write

lim f ( x) = ∞
x →c

if for every positive real number B there exists a corresponding δ > 0 such that for all x
0 < x − c < δ ⇒ f ( x) > B
Analogously, we say that f ( x) approaches minus infinity as x approaches c , and we
write
lim f ( x) = −∞
x→c

if for every positive real number B there exists a corresponding δ > 0 such that for all x
0 < x − c < δ ⇒ f ( x) < − B

One-sided infinite limits like lim+ f ( x) = ∞ , lim+ f ( x) = −∞ , lim− f ( x) = ∞ and

x →c x →c x →c

lim f ( x) = −∞ , are similarly defined by confining values of x to one side of c.

x →c −

Infinite limits at infinity

There are also situations where lim f ( x) = ∞ , lim f ( x) = −∞ , lim f ( x) = ∞ or
x →∞ x →∞ x→−∞

lim f ( x) = −∞ ,
x→−∞

Definition

A line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function y = f ( x) if

either lim f ( x) = ∞ or − ∞ or lim f ( x) = ∞ or − ∞

x →c + x →c −

Remark: ∞ and − ∞ are not real numbers; they are symbols. Writing lim f ( x) = ∞ or
x →c

lim f ( x) = −∞ does not mean that the limit exists, although these are given the names
x→c
infinite limits.

Example
2x2 + 5 5
2x +
2x + 5
2
(2 x + 5) / x
2
x x =∞
lim = lim = lim = lim
x →∞ 3 x + 1 x →∞ (3 x + 1) / x x →∞ 3 x + 1 x →∞ 1
3+
x x

2x2 + 5
What about lim ?
x →−∞ 3 x + 1

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TMA1101Calculus, Trimester2, 2015/2016 Topic 3: Limits and Continuity

Example:
The following limits do not exist (as real numbers). Write each limit as ∞ or − ∞ .
−6 2 −3
a) lim+ b) lim c) lim−
x →3 x − 3 x →1 ( x − 1) 2
x →2 x − 2

x2 − 3 −1
d) lim e) lim 2 f)
x→−∞ 2 x − 4 x → 0 x ( x + 1)

Solution:
−6
a) lim+
x →3 x − 3

Since for x > 3, ( x − 3) > 0 and lim+ ( x − 3) = 0 thus

x →3
−6
lim = −∞
x →3+ x−3

3. Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes

Finding horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of a rational function is quite
easy.

Example:

(i). Determine the horizontal asymptote(s) for the graph of each function defined below.
2x + 1 8x 2 − 1
a) f ( x) = b) f ( x) =
x−4 1 + 4x + 6x 2
(ii) Determine the vertical asymptote(s) for the graph of each function defined below.
−3 2 1
a) f ( x) = b) f ( x) = c) f ( x) = 2
x+2 1− x x − 5x + 4

Solution:
2x + 1
(i) a) f ( x) =
x−4
2x + 1
lim f ( x) = lim = ... = 2
x→∞ x →∞ x − 4

Thus the horizontal asymptote is y = 2.

(ii) For vertical asymptote: consider lim+ f ( x) and lim− f ( x)

x→c x→c
−3
a) f ( x) =
x+2
−3 −3
lim− = ∞ or − ∞ ??? lim+ = ∞ or − ∞ ???
x → −2 x+2 x → −2 x+2

Since f(x) → ∞ as x → − 2 − [or f (x) → −∞ as x → −2 + ],

the vertical asymptote is x = −2.
(nby, Nov 2015)

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