CHAPTER-ONE

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Introduction: Calculus is the study of how rapidly or slowly one-quantity changes as another vary. If
you drop a stone, its height varies and you may want to know how rapidly that height is changing. The
height depends on time: so does the speed. Height and speed are functions of time.
Thus we need to study the notion of functions and see how functions can be built-up from simpler
functions to study calculus.

An intuitive idea of limit

When we say that “ L is the limit of f(x) as x approaches a ”, we mean, roughly speaking, that f(x) gets
close to L as x gets close to a . We express this idea symbolically by the notation
lim (x) = L
xa

Now consider the following examples:

Example: Let (x) = 2x + 1, what happens to (x) as x is chosen closer and closer to 1?
Solution: Let us make a table of values of (x) for some choices of x near1:
X 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1
(x) 2.8 2.98 2.998 3.002 3.02 3.2

When x is close to 1, 2x+1 gets close to 3. Thus we say that “the limit of
2x +1 as x approaches 1 is 3” and we write
lim (2 x  1) =3.
x 1

The values of some limits are easy to guess, for instance in the above example, if x gets close to 1, then
2x+1 gets close to 3. In such case we can evaluate the limit of any function without any difficulty.
However, finding certain limits require some ingenuity.
 x2 1
Example: Let f ( x)  . What will happen to f (x) as x gets close to 1? In other words evaluate
x 1
x2 1
lim .
x 1 x 1
Solution: We cannot evaluate the limit of this function by direct substitution. However, by factoring the
numerator and canceling, we obtain

x2 1 ( x  1)( x  1)
lim  lim  lim ( x  1)  2
x 1 x  1 x1 ( x  1) x 1

Though correct, the second equality in the above calculation needs some justification. Notice that
( x  1)( x  1)
( x  1) and differ at x  1 only, so their limits as x approaches 1 are the same.
( x  1)
Generally, we say “L is the limit of (x) as approaches a”, if (x) gets close to L as x gets close to a.

Activity: Evaluate the following limits?

x2  9
a) lim (2x-5) b) lim x 2  2 c) lim
x 2 x1 x 3 x3

x 1 x2  x x3 1
d) lim e) lim f) lim 2
x 1 x  1 x 0 x x 1 x  1

( x  3) 2  9 x 2  4x  4
g) lim h) lim
x 0 x x 2 x2  x  6

NOTE: If the limit of a function  at a exists, then this limit is unique.

That is; if lim (x)= L and lim (x) = M, then L = M
xa xa

It has been shown that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a does not depend on the value of the function f
at a . There are situations when the limit is precisely 𝑓( a ) and we can say that the limit is evaluated by
the process of direct substitution as:
lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a

Limit theorems
Introduction: In the previous sections we have been discussing about techniques to verify limit value of
a function at a given point. Next we will discuss about limit theorems and techniques to evaluate limits of
functions applying these theorems.
Theorem: Suppose lim (x) = L and lim g (x) = M and k be a real number. Then
xa xa
 a) lim k = k
xa

b) lim (k(x)) = k lim ((x)) = kL

xa xa

c) lim [(x)+g(x)] = lim (x) + lim g(x) = L + M

xa xa xa

d) lim [(x)-g(x)] = lim (x) - lim g(x) = L – M

xa xa xa

e) lim (x)g(x) = lim (x) lim g(x) = LM

xa xa xa

f ( x) lim f ( x) L
f) lim = x a  (M  0)
xa g ( x ) lim g ( x) M
x a

Note:
If p is a polynomial function and a is a real number, then lim p( x)  p(a)
x a

If r is a rational function given by r ( x)  p( x) q( x) and a is a real number such that q(a)  0 ,

p(a)
then lim r ( x)  r (a) 
x a q(a)
Example: Evaluate the following limits.

a) lim x 3 b) lim ( x  cos x)

x 2 x 0

Theorem(Squeezing theorem): Assume that (x)  g(x)  h(x) for all x in some open interval I about a
except possibly at a itself.

If lim (x) = lim h (x) = L, then lim g(x) exists and lim g(x) = L
xa xa xa xa

1  cos x
Example: Show that lim =0
x 0 x
Solution:
1  cos x (1  cos x)(1  cos x) 1  cos2 x
lim  lim  lim
x 0 x x 0 x(1  cos x) x 0 x (1  cos x )

sin 2 x  sin x  sin x 

= lim  lim   
x 0 x(1  cos x) x0  x  1  cos x 

 sin x   sin x 
= lim   lim   = (1)(0) = 0 (by product rule of limits)
x 0
 x  x0  1  cos x 
sin 2 x
Exercise: Evaluate lim
x 0 1  cos x
One sided limits

Introduction: So far we have been discussing about techniques of evaluating limit of functions at given
points. In this section we will discuss about one-sided limits, functions that have infinite limits and limits
of functions at infinity.
Definition
(i) Let  be defined on some open interval (a, c) . A number L is the limit of (x) as x approaches a

from the right (or the right-hand side limit of  at a ) if for every  > 0 there is a number  > 0 such that
if 0 < x – a < , then |(x) – L| < . In this case, we write lim (x) = L and we say that the right-hand
x a

side limit of  at a exists.

(ii) Let  be defined on some open interval (c, a) . A number L is the limit of (x) as x approaches a from

the left (or the left-hand side limit of  at a ) if for every  > 0 there is a number  > 0 such that
if -< x – a <0, then |(x) – L| < 
In this case, we write lim (x) = L and we say that the left-hand side limit of  at a exists.
x a

Theorem: Let  be defined in an open interval about a , except possibly at a itself. Then lim (x) exists
xa

if and only if both one-sided limits,

lim (x) and lim (x) exist and lim (x) = lim (x).
x a  x a x a x a

In that case lim (x)= lim (x) = lim (x)

xa x a x a

1 x
Example 1) Find lim
x 2 ( x  2)( x  1)
1 x
Solution: Obviously lim = -
x 2 ( x  2)( x  1)

1 x 1 x
and lim = , Thus lim does not exist
x 2 ( x  2)( x  1) x  2 ( x  2)( x  1)

 x 2 1 x2
2. Find lim (x) where (x) = 
x 2
 2x  5 x2

Solution: lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  5  lim 2 x  5  9 = 3

x2 x2 x2

And lim f ( x)  lim x2 -1 = 3 , Therefore, lim f ( x) = 3

x 2 x 2 x 2
Continuity

Introduction: In the previous lessons we saw some functions, which have limits, which are exactly the
same as the value of the function at the same point. Next we will characterize such functions, along with
this we will see the intermediate value theorem.

Continuity

Definition : A function  is continuous at a point a in its domain if

i. F(a) is defined
ii. lim (x) exists
xa

iii. lim (x) = ( a ).

xa

A function  is discontinuous at a point a in its domain if  is not continuous at a .

Note: The graph of a continuous function can be traced without lifting pencil off paper.
Theorem: If  and g are continuous at a and c is any number then +g, c and g are continuous at a .
If g ( a ) 0, then /g is continuous at a .
Definition: A function  is continuous from the right at a point a in its domain if lim (x) = ( a )
x a

A function  is continuous from the left at a point a in its domain if lim (x) = ( a )
x a

2 x  1 x  1
Example: Show that (x) =  is continuous at x = 1
 3x x 1

Solution: lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  1 = 3 = (1)

x 1 x 1

And lim f ( x)  lim 3x = 3 = (1) , Therefore,  is continuous at x = 1

x 1 x 1

Definition (i) A function is continuous on an open interval (a, b) or simply continuous on (a, b) , if it is
continuous at every point in (a, b) .
(ii) A function is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] , or simply continuous on [a, b] , if it is continuous
at every point in (a, b) and is continuous from the right at a and continuous from the left at b.

Exercise: For what values of the constant k is the function f continuous?

 kx  1 if x  3
f ( x)   2
kx  1 if x  3
Summary

 We write lim f ( x)  L and say that “ the limit of f (x) , as x approaches a , equals L” if we can
x a
make the value of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a but not equal to a .
 We write lim f ( x)  L and say the right hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or the limit of
x a

f (x) as x approaches a from the right) is equal to L if we can make the value of f (x) arbitrarily
close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x > a .
 We write lim f ( x)  L and say the left hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or the limit of
x a

f (x) as x approaches a from the left) is equal to L if we can make the value of f (x) arbitrarily
close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x < a .
 A function f is continuous at a if lim f ( x)  f (a) .
x a

Review Exercises
1. Find the limit if it exists. Explain why there is no limit if it does not exist.

x2  x  2 1
a) lim x4 b) lim c) lim
x 13 x  1 x 1 x 0 x4
 x if x  0

2. Let f ( x)   x 2 if 0  x  2 . Evaluate each of the following limits if it exists
 8  x if x  2

a) lim f ( x) b) lim f ( x) c) lim f ( x)
x 0 x0 x 2

d) lim f ( x) e) lim f ( x)
x 2 x2

CHAPTER TWO
DERIVATIVES & APPLICTION OF DERIVATIVES

Tangent line

What is a tangent line to the curve of f and the equation of the tangent line to the curve at a given point?

Consider two points P and Q on a given curve as shown in the Figure below and let
ℓ - be the secant line ( a line that crosses the curve at two points) passing through P and Q. Let P: = (x0 ,
(x0 )) and Q: = (x1 , (x1 )) where  is a function
y = (x) for the curve .Then
 f ( x1 )  f ( x 0 )
Slope of ℓ = .
x1  x 0
If Q is allowed to move along the curve y = (x) toward P, then we expect the secant line to rotate toward
a “limiting position”, which can be regarded as the tangent line to the curve at the point P. This means, if
we let x1 approach x0 , then Q will approach P along the graph of f and the secant line through P and Q
will approach the tangent line at P. Hence the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = (x) at P can be
explained as limit as follows:
f ( x1 )  f ( x0 )
mtan = lim , provided this limit exists.
x1  x0 x1  x0

Based on the above discussion, let us have the following definition.

Definition: If P (𝑥 0 , 𝑦0 ) is a point on the graph of a function , then the tangent line to the graph of  at P
is defined to be the line through P with slope
f ( x)  f ( x0 )
Or slope = lim
x  x0 x  xo
For brevity, the tangent line at P (𝑥 0 , 𝑦0 ) is often called the tangent line at x0 . Using point- slope form of
the equation of the line, the equation of the tangent line at x0 is
y – y0 = mtan (x – x0 ) or y = mtan (x – y0 ) + y0.
Activity: Describe the different forms of equation of a line.

The following examples illustrate the above limit ideas.

Example: a) Find the slope and an equation of the tangent line to the graph of
f(x) = x2 at the point P(3, 9).
Solution: We have x0 = 3 and y0 = 9 (x) = x 2
f (3  h)  f (3)
So slope = lim
h0 h (3,9)
(3  h)  9
2
(9  6h  h  9)2
 lim  lim
h0 h h0 h
h 2  6h
= lim  lim (6  h) = 6
h0 h h0
Hence slope of tangent = 6,
and using the point – slope form, the equation of the tangent line is
 y – 9 = 6(x – 3) = 6x – 18 .
This implies that 𝑦 = 6𝑥 – 9, is the equation of the tangent line.
Exercise: Find the slope and the equation of the tangent line of the graph of (x) = x at 𝑥 = 4.

Definition of derivative

What does it mean by f is differentiable at x0 where x0 is in the domain of f and explain its geometrical
meaning?

Introduction: From above topic, we saw that the slope of the tangent line to a curve with equation y=
f(x) at the point where 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑜 is

f ( x 0  h)  f ( x 0 )
mtan = lim , provided this limit exists.
h0 h
f ( x 0  h)  f ( x 0 )
In fact limits of the form lim arise whenever we calculate the rate of change of a
h0 h
quantity in the field of sciences or engineering, such as rate of reaction in chemistry or a marginal cost in
economics. Since this type of limit occurs widely, it is given a special name, called derivative. Therefore,
in this lesson we will see the definition of derivative and its interpretation, and how to find the derivative
of functions using the definition. Finally the relationship between continuity and differentiability will be
discussed.

Definition: Let  be a function and x 0 be a number in the domain of f. Then

the derivative of  at x 0 , denoted by f ' ( x 0 ) defined as:

f ( x 0  h)  f ( x 0 )
f ' ( x 0 ) = lim , provided this limit exists.
h0 h

In this case, we say that  is differentiable at x0. If the above limit doesn’t exist , we say that f is non-
differentiable at x0 .

Example: Let  (x) = mx + b. Find f ' ( x)

Solution; By definition of derivative, we have

f ( x  h)  f ( x ) m( x  h)  b  (mx)  b
f ' ( x) = lim  lim
h0 h h0 h
mx  mh  b  mx  b mh
= lim = lim m
h 0 h h0 h
Hence f ' ( x) = m
Example: Let (x) = x . Find f ' ( x)
Solution: applying the definition of derivative,
 xh  x lim ( x  h  x )( x  h  x ) h
f ' ( x)  lim   lim
h0 h h0 h( x  h  x ) h  0 h( x  h  x )
1 1
= lim =
h0 x h  x 2 x
1
Therefore f ' ( x) = .
2 x
From this, we can observe that f is not differentiable at 0 as f ' (0) is not defined.

Theorem: If  is differentiable at a point x0 , then  is continuous at x0 .

(Differentiability  continuity). Or Every differentiable function is continuous.
But the converse of the above theorem is not true, i.e. there exist continuous functions which are not
differentiable. We can take the following function to show the converse of the theorem is not true.

Example:  (x) = |x| is continuous at x0 = 0 but f ' (0) does not exist, indeed

f (0  h)  f (0) |h|
f ' (0) ) = lim  lim
h0 h h 0 h

|h|  1 h 0
But   ,
h  1 h  0
|h| |h|
so that lim = -1 and lim =1
h0 h h0 h
|h|
Thus f ' (0) = lim doesn’t exist. Hence  is not differentiable at 𝑥 𝑜 = 0.
h0 h
Activity :
a) When do we say that f is non-differentiable at x0 ? Explain this with examples.
b) What is the relationship between continuity and differentiability? Are there functions which are
differentiable but not continuous? Are there continuous functions which are not differentiable? Justify
your answers by giving examples not given in this note.

Rules for Finding the Derivatives

Can you find the derivative of all differentiable functions using the definition of derivative directly? Try
this by finding f ' ( x) where (𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 using the definition?

Introduction:
If it were always necessary to compute derivatives directly from the definition as we did in the preceding
section, it would be tedious and require ingenuity in the evaluation of some limits. Fortunately there are
several rules for finding derivatives without using the definition directly. These formulas greatly simplify
the task of differentiation.

 If  is a constant function defined by  (x) = c, then f ' ( x) = 0.

  (The power Rule): If n is a positive integer, then for every real value of x
d
( x n )  nx n 1
dx
d d 10
Example: a) (x 4 )  4x 3 , b) (x ) = 10x9
dx dx
 Let c be a constant. If  is differentiable at x, so is c ,
d d
and (c(x)) = c [(x)]
dx dx

d d
Example: [4x8 ]= 4 [x8 ] = 4[8x7 ] = 32x7
dx dx

Activity: Find the derivative of the following function.

a) x12 b) x45 c) 4x3 d) 5x10 e) -14 x

 If  and g are differentiable at x, then so is  + g and

d
[(x) + g(x)] = f ' ( x)  g ' ( x)
dx

 (Product Rule): If  and g are differentiable functions at x, then so is the product  g and
[ f ( x).g ( x)]' = f ( x).g ' ( x)  f ' ( x) g ( x)

Example: Let h (x) = (4x2 – 1) (7x3 + x). Find h' ( x)

Solution: Let (x) = 4x2 -1, and g(x) = 7x3 +x, then h (x) = (x). g(x).

Applying the product rule h' ( x) = f ' ( x).g ( x)  g ' ( x). f ( x)

h' ( x) ) = 8x (7x3 + x) + (4x2 – 1) (21x2 + 1)

= 140x4 – 9x2 -1

 (The quotient Rule): If  and g are differentiable at x and g(x)  0. Then  /g is differentiable

 f / g  ' ( x)  f ' ( x) g ( x)  f 2( x).g ' ( x)

[ g ( x)]
x 2 1
Example: Let h(x) = then Find h' ( x) .
x 4 1
 f ( x)
Solution: Let f (x) = x2 -1 and g(x) = x4 + 1, then h(x) = , applying quotient rule, h' ( x) ) =
g ( x)
f ' ( x) g ( x)  f ( x) g ' ( x) 2 x( x 4  1)  ( x 2  1)(4 x 3 )  2x 5  4x 3  2x
= =
( g ( x)) 2 ( x 4  1) 2 ( x 4  1) 2

Derivatives of trigonometric functions.

? List the six basic trigonometric functions and find their derivatives.

Recall that in the expressions 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 , and 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥, it is understood that x is
measured in radians, and remember that
sinh 1  cosh
lim =1 and lim = 0.
h0 h h0 h
sin x cos x 1 1
More over tan x  , cot x  , sin x  and csc x  ,
cos x sin x cos x sin x

Let us first consider the problem of differentiating sin(𝑥).

d
Theorem: Let x be any number. Then [sin x ]  cos x
dx
d
Similarly you can prove that (cos x)   sin x
dx
For example, applying quotient rule of derivative, we can find the derivative of the following.
'
 sin x  (sin x)' cos x  sin x(cos x)'
1) (tan x)' =   
 cos x  (cos x) 2
cos x. cos x  sin x.sin x 1
= = = sec2 x
2
cos x 2
cos x
2
Hence (tan x)' = sec x.
2
cos x ' 1  (tan x)'  sec x 1
2) [cot x]' = [ ] [ ]'  = =   csc2 x .
sin x tan x (tan x)2 tan 2 x sin 2 x
Remark: The derivative formulas for the trigonometric functions should be memorized.
Example: a) Find f ' ( x) if (x) = x2 tanx

Solution: Let h (x) = x2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥. Then 𝑓(𝑥 ) = h (𝑥 ) ∗ 𝑔(𝑥)

Using the product rule,
𝑓(𝑥 ) = h′ (x) ∗ 𝑔(𝑥 ) + 𝑓(𝑥 ) = h(x) ∗ 𝑔′ (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

The Chain Rule:

Given that the derivative of  and g, how can we use these information to find the derivative
of the composition function 𝑜𝑔?
Theorem (Chain Rule): If g is differentiable at the point a and  is differentiable at the point g(
a ), then the composition og is differentiable at the point a .
Such functions can be differentiated using the chain rule if they are of the form f ( g ( x)) .
The chain rule states
d
( f ( g ( x))  f ( g ( x)) g ( x)
dx

df
Example . Find if (x) = (x2 – x + 1)10
dx
Solution: Let h (x) = x10 and g(x) = x2 -x+1. Then f (x) = ( h og)(x). Applying the Chain rule,
f ' ( x) = h' ( g ( x))g ' ( x) = 10(x2 -x+1)9 (2x-1)
Note: let f(x) be a function then using the concept of chain rule

1.
d
 f ( x)n  n f ( x)n1 4)
d
sin( f ( x))  cos( f ( x)) * f ' ( x)
dx dx
2.
dx

d f ( x)
e  e f ( x ) * f ' ( x) 5)
d
ln( f ( x))  1 * f ' ( x)
dx ln f ( x)

3.
d
cos( f ( x))   sin( f ( x)) * f ' ( x)
dx

Higher order Derivatives

Suppose that f is a differentiable function and let f ' ( x) ) = h (x). Can you differentiate h (x) if it
is differentiable? What is the relationship between h' ( x) and f ' ( x) using limit concept?

If  is differentiable function, then its derivative f ' is also a function. So f ' may have a
derivative of its own, denoted by ( f ' )' = f ' ' .This new
function f ' ' is called the second derivative of  because it is the derivative of the derivative of .
d d d 
f ' ' ( x) =
( f ' ( x) ) =  f (x)  .
dx dx  dx 
d  dy  d2y
Notation: If y = (x), then y ' ' = f ' ' ( x) =   = = D2 (x) = D 2x (x)
dx  dx  dx 2
Example: If y = (x) = x – 6x – 5x+3.then find  ,  , and (n), if n  4
3 2 (3) (4)

Solution: f ' ( x) = 3x2 – 12x – 5

f ' ' ( x) = 6x – 12
f ' ' ' ( x) = 6.
And (4) (x) = 0, (5) = 0 , in general (n)(x) = 0 n  4.
APPLICTION OF DERIVATIVES

Introduction: In this topic, we are going to give more emphasis on the applications of the
derivatives in finding the rate of change of one quantity in terms of another quantity, and we will
learn the application of derivatives to graphing functions and to determine where the graph of a
differentiable function rises and where it falls, where it has peaks and where it has valleys, where
it curves up ward and where it curves down ward.

Maximum and minimum values

? Try to define maximum and minimum value of a function f on the closed interval [a, b].

Definition1: A function  has a maximum value on a set I if there is a number d in I such that
(x)  (d) for all x in I. We call (d) the maximum value of  on I. Similarly, the function 
has a minimum value on I if there is a number c in I such that (x)  (c) for all x in I. We call
(c) the minimum value of  on I. A value of  that is either a maximum value or a minimum
value of I is called an extreme value of  on I.

You may ask questions like why do I need to learn calculus if I can always just use , calculate, graph
functions on a computer?

There is no guarantee that the person who programs a calculator or computer (e.g. enters the function or
data) does so without error. My hope for you is that you can be the person in the room who says, “Wait a
minute. . . that can’t be right. . . ” People make mistakes (and always will), so don’t trust blindly in what
your computer or calculator says. Be in a position to check it out, maybe not in great detail, but at least
qualitatively, by applying your most excellent calculus knowledge, skills and concepts.

Theorem (Maximum – Minimum theorem)

If  is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then  has a maximum and a minimum value on [a,
b].

Critical points : A standard question in calculus, with applications to many fields, is to find the points
where a function reaches its relative maxima and minima.
Definition: let f(x) is continuous at = 𝑐 , then 𝑥 = 𝑐 is called the critical point of f(x) if 𝑓 ′ (𝑐 ) = 0 OR
𝑓 ′ (𝑐 ) = 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡

Example: find all critical points of the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥

Solution : Here 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 9
Then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 0 gives us 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 9 = 0
This implies 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0 => (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = −1 are the only critical points

Activity: Find the critical numbers of the following functions in their domain.
f(x) = 2x3 +3x2 +6x+4

Relative extreme values :

In graphing functions, we will use the following notion, which is related to the notion of
extreme value.
Definition: A function  has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at c if there is an open
interval containing c such that (c)  (x) for all x in I. similarly,  has local minimum (relative
minimum ) value at c if there is an open interval value I containing c such that (c)  (x) , for
all x in I.
Definition: A value that is either a relative maximum value or relative minimum value is called a
relative extreme value.

Theorem: If  has a local (relative) extreme value at c, and if f ' (c) exists then f ' (c)  0 exists.

From the above theorem, we observe that at the relative (local) extreme value of the function ,
the derivative may or may not exist. If it exists, it must vanish at the points of relative extreme
values and therefore, relative extremes are critical points. That is if  has a local extreme at c,
then c is a critical number of .
Example: Let (x) = x3 – 3x -2. Find critical numbers of  and its relative extremes values.
Solution: Since f ' (c) exists for all x, relative extreme values can occur only at numbers
satisfying,
f ' ( x)  0
f ' ( x) = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x2 – 1) = 3(x-1) (x + 1)
Therefore f ' ( x)  0 for x = 1 or x = -1
To show that  has a relative extreme value at 1, we will find an interval about 1 on which 
has an extreme value at 1. Consider the interval [0, 2]. Calculation shows that (0) = -2, (1) = -
4, and (2) = 0, Hence (1) is the minimum value of  on [0, 2], and thus (1) is relative
minimum value of . Similarly, (-2) = -4, and (-1) = 0 so that (-1) is the maximum value of 
on
[-2, 0]. Thus (-1) is a relative maximum value of .
Note: sometimes  need not have a relative extreme value at the critical 𝑥 = 𝑐
Example: Let (x) = x3 => f ' ( x) = 3x2
f ' (0)  0
(0) = 0 is not an extreme value on any interval of the form [- , ] where  > 0.

If a function is not defined on interval of the form [c-  , c +] about c, then  cannot have a
relative extreme value at c even if  has an extreme value at c.(such critical are called Saddle
points)

The first ,the Second Derivative tests and Monotonic functions.

When do you say that a function f is increasing function, and decreasing function?
How can we find the intervals in which f is increasing, and the interval in which f is decreasing?

In sketching the graph of a function, it is very useful to know where it rises and where it falls. The graph
shown below rises from a to b, falls from b to c and rises again from c to d. The function  is said to be
increasing on [a, b], decreasing on [b, c], and increasing again on [c, d]. Notice that if x1 and x2 are any
two numbers between a and b with x1 < x2 , then (x1 ) < (x2 ). We use this as the defining property of an
increasing function.
From the graph, f is increasing on [ a, b] and [c, d] and decreasing on [b, c].
Definition: A function  is called increasing on an interval I if (x1 )  (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 and strictly
increasing if (x1 ) < (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .
( x1 <x2  f(x1 )  f(x2 ) ------- f is increasing function)
The function f is called decreasing if (x1 )  (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I and is called strictly decreasing if
(x1 ) > (x2 ) whenever x1 > x2 .
(x1 <x2  f(x1 )  f(x2 ) ------- f is decreasing function)
A function is called monotonic on I if it is either increasing or decreasing on I.

Example: Let (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 4. Determine the intervals for which f(x) is strictly increasing and
strictly decreasing.
Solution: First, find the derivative of f and then find the interval in which its derivative is positive or
negative.
f ' ( x) = 3x2 + 5x + 3 = 3(x2 + 2x + 1) = 3(x+1)2  0 for all x ℝ.
Thus f ' ( x) is positive except for x = -1. It follows that  is strictly increasing on (-,).
Example: Find the intervals for which the function (x) = 3x4 – 4x3 – 12x2 + 5 is strictly increasing and it
is strictly decreasing.
Solution: f ' ( x) = 12x3 – 12x2 – 24x = 12x(x - 2) (x + 1)
To find the interval in which  is strictly increasing and in which  is strictly decreasing, let us know
where f ' ( x) 0 and f ' ( x)  0.
For this we can use sign chart as follows:
12x(x -2) (x +1) = 0  x = 0 or x = 2 or x = -1

Now from the above sign chart, we get f ' ( x)  0 for all x  [-1, 0], and [2,  ) and in these intervals
f ' ( x) > 0 except at x = -1 and x = 2, x = 0.
Therefore,  is strictly increasing on [-1, 0], and [2, ) . Also f ' ( x) < 0 on (-, -1], and [0, 2] except at x
= -1, x = 0, and x = 2. Hence  is strictly decreasing on
(-, -1]  [0, 2].
Exercise: Let (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 – 12x – 3. Determine the intervals for which f(x) is strictly increasing and
strictly decreasing.

First Derivative Test

Let  be continuous on an interval I, and let c be in I.

(a) If f ' changes from positive to negative at c, then  has a relative/local maximum value at c,
(b) If f ' changes from negative to positive at c, then  has a relative/local minimum value at c.
Example: Let (x) = 4x3 + 9x2 – 12x+ 3. Show that  has a relative maximum value at -2 and relative
minimum at ½.
Solution: f ' ( x) = 12x2 + 18x – 12
= 12(x2 + 3 /2 x -1)
= 12(x + 2)(x - ½)

As we see from the chart 𝑓′(𝑥) changes sign from positive to negative at x = -2 and hence ,by 1st
derivative test,  has a relative maximum value at x = -2 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) changes sign from negative to positive
at x = ½ and by 1st derivative test,  has a relative minimum value at x = ½ .
Exercise: Let (x) = x3 (x - 2)2 . Find the relative extreme values of .

Theorem (Second Derivative Test)

Assume that f ' (c) = 0
a) If f ' ' (c) < 0, then (c) is a relative maximum value of .
b) If f ' ' (c) > 0, then (c) is a relative minimum value of .
If f ' ' (c) = 0 then from this test alone, we can’t draw any conclusions about a relative extreme value of
 at c.
Proof: (exercise)

Example: Let (x) = x3 + 6x2 + 9. Find the relative extreme values of .

Solution: Differentiating we have f ' ( x) = 3x2 + 12x and f ' ' ( x) = 6x + 12, and consequently f ' ( x) = 0
for x = 0 or x = 4 and since f ' ' (0) = 12 > 0 and
f ' ' (4) = -12 < 0, by second derivative test, (0) is relative maximum value and (-4) is a relative
minimum value.

Concavity and Inflection points

When do we say that the graph of a given function is concave upward and concave downward at a point
p?

Definition: If the graph of a function  lies above all of its tangents on an interval I, then it is called
concave up ward on I. If the graph of  lies below all of its tangents, it is called concave downward on I.
Let us see how the second derivative helps to determine the intervals of concavity.
Thorem (The test for concavity): Assume f ' ' exists on an open interval I.
(a) If f ' ' (x) > 0 for all x  I, then the graph of f is concave up ward on I
(b) If f ' ' (x) <0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave down ward on I.

Definition: A point P on a curve is called a point of inflection if the curve or graph changes from concave
upward to concave downward or from concave downward to concave upward at that point P.
Example: Let (x) = x3 – 3x +1. Find the intervals on which the graph of  is concave upward and those
on which it is concave downward.
Solution: If (x) = x3 – 3x + 1, then
f ' ( x) = 3x2 - 3 = 3(x2 -1)
= 3(x+1) (x -1)
 f ' ' ( x) = 6x, and f ' ' ( x) > 0 if and only if x > 0 and f ' ' ( x) < 0 if and only if x < 0. Therefore, by test of
concavity,  is concave upward on (0, ) and concave downward on (-, 0).
Hence the point (0, (0)) is the point of inflection in I.

Example: Let (x) = x4 – 4x3 . Find the inflection point of the graph of .
Solution: f ' (x) = 4x3 – 12x2
f ' ' (x) = 12x2 – 24x
f ' ' (x) = 0  12x(x – 2) = 0 x = 0  x = 2
Now f ' ' changes sign from positive to negative at 0 and negative to positive at
x=2
 CHAPTER THREE
INTEGRATION
Introduction: In this chapter we will see the second major concept of calculus: The integral. We will use
the problem of computing area to motivate the definition of what we call the definite integral of a
continuous function. Then we will use the definite integral to define the area of a region. Finally, the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus will provide a simple method of computing many definite integrals.

There are two types of integral

Indefinite, in which we aren't given the limits of integration, i.e. x = a to x = b, so we just

calculate a generic, all purpose solution, and
Definite, in which we are told a and b and so we can calculate an explicit value for an area.

The Definite Integral

Definition: Let f be continuous on [a, b] . The definite integral of f from a to b is the unique number I
satisfying
L f ( P)  I  U f ( P) for any partition P of [a, b] . This integral is denoted by
b

 f ( x)dx
a

The symbol  is called the integral sign, the numbers a and b are called lower and upper limits of
integration respectively, and the function 𝑓 appearing in the integral is called the integrand. The variable x
appearing in the integral is a “dummy variable”; it may be replaced by any other variable, such as t or u.
Note that: Since integration is the reverse of differentiation, for any polynomial f(x) = x n , we can simply
reverse the differentiation procedure, so that the integral is given by

x n1 (Except for 𝑛 = -1)

𝑛
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +C
(n  1)

In words: “Add one to the power, then divide by the new power. Then add C.”

Example: If f ( x)  k for all x in [a, b] , then show that

b
 a
f ( x)dx  k (b  a)
3
Example: Show that  x 2 dx  3 ,
0

a a b
Definition: Let f be continuous on [a, b] . Then  a
f ( x)dx  0 and b
f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
a

Activity: Evaluate the following integrals

1 2 10
a)  4
3dx b)  6
xdx c)  10
x 2 dx
Special properties of the integral

These are properties related to properties of area.

Theorem (Rectangle property): For any numbers a, b and c , it is true that
b
 a
cdx  c(b  a)

Theorem (Addition property): Let f be continuous on an interval containing a, b and c . Then

b c b
 a
f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
a c

2 1 if 0  x  1
Example: Evaluate  0
f ( x)dx , where f ( x)  
 x if 1  x  2
Solution: By Addition Property
2 1 2 1 2
 0
f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   1dx   xdx
0 1 0 1

1 3 5
 1(1  0)  [(2) 2  (1) 2 ]  1  
2 2 2

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

.
Theorem(The Fundamental Theorem of calculus) :
b
If f is continuous on [a, b] , then  a
f ( x)dx  F (b)  F (a)

where F is any anti-derivative of f , that is, F '  f .

2
Example: Find 1
4 x 3 dx

Solution:
d 4
dx
 
x  4x 3 , thus by fundamental theorem of calculus
2

2
We obtain, 4 x 3 dx  x 4  (2) 4  (1) 3  15
1 1

The Indefinite integrals

Given a function f, can you find a function F whose derivative is f ?
Introduction:
We know how to solve the derivative problem: given a function, find its derivative. But many problems in
mathematics and its applications require us to solve the inverse of the derivative problem: given a
function f, find F whose derivative is f .If such a function F exists; it is called an anti-derivative of f. In
this lesson, we will see the anti-derivatives of some functions.
Definition: A function F is called an anti-derivative of a function 
if F ' ( x) = (x) on some interval.
1 1 1 1
Example: The functions 𝑥 3, 3 𝑥 3 + 4 , 3 𝑥 3 + 𝜋 , 3 𝑥 3 + 𝑐 (c is constant), are all anti-derivatives of
3
(x) = x2 , since the derivative of each is (x) = x2 . From the above example, we have seen that a function
can have many anti-derivatives. In fact if F(x) is any anti-derivatives of (x) and c is any constant, then
F(x) + c is also anti-derivative of (x), indeed,
d d d
[F(x) + c] = [F(x)] + (c) = (x) + 0 = (x)
dx dx dx
Now, can we find other anti-derivatives of  that can’t be obtained by adding a constant to F? The
answer is no, indeed, let G(x) be any other anti-derivatives of : then
d d
[F(x)] = [G(x)] = (x), so F and G differ only by constant C on I,
dx dx
that is G(x) = F(x) + c for x I. Hence the following theorem summarizes these observations.
Theorem: If F(x) is any anti-derivative of (x). Then for any value of c, the function F(x) + c is also an
anti-derivative of (x): Moreover, on any interval I, every anti-derivative of (x) is expressible in the form
of F(x) plus some constant.
Remark: Remember that derivatives and anti-derivatives are different, for example, if (x) = x3 , then
f ' ( x) = 3x2 but the anti-derivatives of  are the functions of the form
x4
F(x) = +c, (c is constant)
4
Activity: Find the anti-derivative of the following functions.
a) (x) = sinx b) g(x) = cosx c) g(x) = cos4x d) h(x) = sec 2 x
Definition: The process of finding anti-derivatives is called ant-differentiation or integration. If there is
d
some function F such that [F(x)] = (x), then the function of the form F(x) + c are the anti-derivatives
dx
of (x), and are denoted by writing:  f ( x)dx = F(x) + c

The symbol  is called an integral sign, and (x) is called the integrand. Hence  f (x) dx means finding
the set of all the functions whose derivative is (x).
x3
Examples: a)  x 2 dx = +c ( c is constant) b)  cos x dx = sinx +c
3
x r 1 1
c)  x r dx =
r 1
+c, for r  1 d)  x dx= ln x  c

Properties of Indefinite integral:

We now show how to obtain the indefinite integrals of certain combinations of functions from the
indefinite integrals of individual functions.
If we differentiate an anti-derivative of f(x) ,we obtain f(x) again ,Thus
d
dx 
[ f ( x)dx] = f(x), indeed,

d d
If  f ( x)dx = F(x) +c, this implies that (  f (x) dx) = (F(x))+c)=(x)
dx dx
This helps us to prove the following properties of indefinite integrals.
a) Let f be continuous on an interval I, and let c be a real number, then
  cf ( x)dx  c f ( x)dx
b) Let f and g be continuous on an interval I. Then
 [ f ( x) + g(x)] dx =  f (x) dx +  g (x) dx
Example: Evaluate the following indefinite integral of
a)  3x dx b)  (2x + 3 sec2 x) dx

 x2  3x 2
Solution: a)  3xdx   xdx 
3 3
 2
 +c =
 2
+c , constant rule.

 (2x + 3sec xdx) =  2 xdx +  3 sec 2 xdx ,

2
b) Sum rule.
= 2xdx + 3sec2 xdx
x2
=2 + 3 tanx + c = x2 + 3tanx + c
2
Self test problems.
1) Find f where f ' ( x) = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and f(0) = 4
2) Find f where f ' ( x) = sinx-2 x and f(0) = 0

Techniques of integration
Introduction: In this lesson we are going to see one of the different techniques of integration that will
enable us to find the indefinite integral of a given function.
Those techniques of integration are the following.
1) Integration by substitution
2) Integration by parts
3) Integration by partial fractions.
Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:
 Recall the Chain rule of differentiation.
 State the substitution rule of differentiation.
 Find the indefinite integral of composition of functions by using substitution.
1. Integration by Substitution
In the preceding section we transformed addition and constant multiple theorems for derivatives into
corresponding theorems for integrals. Now we will transform the Chain Rule:
d
[g( ( x))]  g' (  ( x))  ' ( x)
dx
into a theorem for integrals. The result we will obtain will be as useful in integration as the Chain Rule in


differentiation and it will allow us to express many integrals such as sin 4 x cos xdx ,  x x 2 1 dx,

x 2 dx in terms of functions familiar to us.

 xe

Theorem: Let  and g be functions with both go and f ' continuous on an interval I. If G is an indefinite
integral of g on I, then
  g ( f ( x)) f ' ( x)dx = G((x)) + c . . . (*)
Example: Find  3x ( x  5) dx
2 3 9

Solution: we let u = x3 + 5, so that du = 3x2 dx

u10 1 3
 3x ( x  5) dx =  u du =
9
Then 2 3 9
+c = (x + 5)10 + c
10 10

 sin
Example: 4 x cos xdx

Solution: Let u = sinx  du = cosx dx, then

u5 (sin x)5
 sin x cos xdx = u du =
4 4
 c= + c = sin5 x/5 +c
5 5
Activity: Apply substitution theorem and find the indefinite integral.
3xdx
a)  cos 5xdx b) 
4x 2  5
2. Integration by parts:
Introduction: Not every function can be integrated in terms of familiar functions using substitution. For
example, you will not find any u-substitution that will integrate  e x sin xdx ,  x cos xdx ,  x 2 e x dx in
terms of functions encountered so far. Hence we need another technique called integration by parts which
will be discussed in this lesson.
Objectives: At the end of this lesson, Students will be able to
 State the theorem of Integration by parts.
 Identify the integrands that can be found by using integration by parts and those that can
be found by substitution.
 Integrate indefinite integrals by using Integration by parts.

Let us start by stating the following theorem.

Theorem: Let F and G be differentiable on [a, b], and assume that F ' and G ' are continuous on [a, b].
Then
 F ( x)G' ( x)dx = F(x) G(x) -  F ' ( x)G( x)dx
Example: Find  x cos xdx
Solution: The integrand xcosx can be split into the two parts, as x and cosx.
We let u = x and dv = cosx dx
Then du = dx and v= sinx
Hence integration by parts yields,
u 
dv
 x cos xdx = x sinx -  sin xdx = x sinx + cosx + c
Remember that if we let u = cosx and dv = xdx, then we get du = -sinx dx and
x2 1
v= , then  x cos xdx = ½ x cosx -  x 2 (  sin x) dx
2 2
But as you see the second integral is harder to evaluate than the first. Hence try to be wise in choosing u
and dv in using integration by parts.
Remark: Integration by parts is effective with integrals involving a polynomial and either an exponential,
a logarithmic, or a trigonometric function. More specifically, integration by parts is well adapted to
integrals of the form
 [ polynomial ] sin axdx ,  [ polynomial ] cos axdx ,
 [ polynomial ] e dx , and  [ polynomial ] ln xdx
ax

In all except  [ polynomial ] ln xdx , the most effective choice of u is the polynomial, since the derivatives

of a polynomial are simpler than the polynomial for integral of the form  [ polynomial ] ln xdx , in such
cases
choose u = ℓnx and dv = polynomial.

3. Integration by partial fraction.

? Can you integrate rational functions using the methods listed above?
x 1
If so, try to integrate  dx using those methods.
x( x  1) 2

Introduction: In this section we shall show how to integrate any rational function (a ratio of two
polynomials) by expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions, called partial fractions and the methods of
integration that we already know how to integrate.
To illustrate the method of integration by partial fraction, observe that by taking the fractions, for
2 1
example, and to a common denominator, we obtain
( x  1) x2
2 1 2( x  2)  ( x  1) x5
- =  2
( x  1) x  2 ( x  1)( x  2) x  x2
If we now reverse the procedure we see how to integrate the function on the right side of this equation:

x5  2 1 
x 2
 x2
dx      dx = 2ℓn|x-1| - ℓn|x+2| + c
 x 1 x  2 
To see how the method of partial fractions works in general, let us consider a rational function (x) =
P( x)
where P and Q are polynomials. It is possible to
Q( x)
express  as a sum of simpler fractions provided that the degree of P is less than the degree of Q. Such a
rational function is called proper rational function.
Recall that if P(x) = an xn + an-1 xn-1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 where an  0, then the degree of P is n and we write
deg(P) = n
If  is improper, that is, deg(P)  deg(Q), then we must take, the preliminary step of dividing Q into P (by
long division) until a remainder R(x) is obtained with deg(R) < deg(Q). The division gives us
 P( x) R ( x)
(x) = = S(x) + where S and R are polynomials.
Q( x) Q( x)
P( x) R ( x)
Activity: Write the given rational function f as f = = S(x) + by applying long division.
Q( x) Q( x)

x x2 x3  x 2  4
a) f(x) = b) f(x) = c) f(x)=
x 1 x2  1 x 2  2x  3
x3  x
Example: Find  x  1 dx
Solution: Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, we first perform
the long division.
x3  x 2 R ( x)
Hence, = x2 +x+2 + = S(x) + form
x 1 x 1 Q( x)

x3  x  2  1
This implies that  dx =   x 2  x  2   dx= x dx+ xdx+2dx+2 
2
dx
x 1  x 1  x 1
x3 x2
=  +2x+2ℓn|x-1| +c
3 2

Application of integral
Integration is a way of adding slices to find the whole. Integration can be used to find areas, volumes,
central points and many useful things. But it is easiest to start with finding the area under the curve, and
volume, in physics, integration crops up pretty much everywhere. Work is the integral of force over a
distance, for example. Electric flux is an integral of the electric field over a surface. Application
integration (sometimes called enterprise application integration) is the process of bringing data or a
function from one application program together with that of another application program.

1. Finding Area between Two Curves

Consider two curves defined by the two functions y  f x, y  gx continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
We want to compute the area of the region R between these two curves from x  a to 𝑥 = 𝑏 (see the figure
below)
  
1
1 1
 2x 3 / 2 x 3 
Area    f ( x)  g ( x)dx  
2 1 1
x  x dx  
2
     unit square
0 0  3 3 0 3 3 3

2. Finding Volume of solid revolution

Solids of Revolution: Most volume problems that we will encounter will require us to calculate the
volume of a solid of revolution. These are solids that are obtained when a plane region is rotated about
some line. A typical volume problem would ask, "Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating the
region bounded by the some curve(s) about some specified line." Since the region is rotated about a
specific line, the solid obtained by this rotation will have a disk-shaped cross-section. We know from
simple geometry that the area of a circle is given by A   r 2 . For each cross-sectional disk, the radius is
determined by the curves that bound the region. If we sketch the region bounded by the given curves, we
can easily find a function to determine the radius of the cross-sectional disk at point x.
For example, the figures above illustrate this concept. The figure to the left shows the region bounded by
the curve y  x and the x-axis and the lines x  0 and x  2 . The figure in the center shows the 3-
dimensional solid that is formed when the region from the first figure is rotated about the x-axis. The
figure to the right shows a typical cross-sectional disk. A disk for a given value x between 0 and 2 will
have a radius of y  x . The area of the disk is given by A    x  or equivalently,
2
A x . Once we find
the area function, we simply integrate from a to b to find the volume. In this example, the volume V in
question is given by

b 2 2 2
x2
V   Ax  dx    x dx    x dx    2 .
a 0 0
2 0

Variations on Volume Problems

There are two variations in problems of solids of revolution that we will consider. The first factor that can
vary in this type of volume problem is the axis of rotation. What if the region from the figure above was
rotated about the y-axis rather than the x-axis? We would end up with a different function for the radius of
the cross-sectional disk. The function would be written with respect to rather than x, so we would have to
integrate with respect to y. In general, we can use the following rule.

If the region bounded by the curves and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is rotated about an axis parallel to the
x-axis, write the integral with respect to x. If the axis of rotation is parallel to the y-axis, write the integral
with respect to y.

The second factor that can vary in this type of volume problem is whether or not the axis of rotation is
part of the region that is being rotated. In the first case, each cross section that is generated will be a disk
while in the second case, each cross section that is generated will be washer shaped. This creates two
separate styles of problems:

A. The Disk Method: The disk method is used when the cross sections are disk shaped. The radius of a
cross section is determined by a single function, f x .
The area of the disk is given by the formula, A   r 2  Ax    f 2 x , where r  f x .

The figure to the right shows a typical cross-sectional disk.

Example: Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the region bounded by the x-axis
and the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 from 𝑥 = 1 to
 𝑥 = 2, about the x-axis
2 2 2 𝑥7 128 1
Volume = ∫1 𝜋[𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 𝜋[𝑥 3 ]2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 𝜋[𝑥 6 ]𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋[ 7 ]21 = 𝜋 [ − 7]
7

127𝜋
= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐
7

B. The Washer Method: The washer method is used when the cross sections are
washer shaped. The radius of a cross section is determined by a two functions, f x
and g x. This gives us two separate radii, an outer radius, from f x to the axis of
rotation and an inner radius from g x  to the axis of rotation. The area of the washer is
given by the formula,  
Ax    f 2 x   g 2 x  , where outer radius  f x and
inner radius  gx. The corresponding volume would then be

 
b b
V   Ax  dx    f 2 x   g 2 x  dx.
a a

The figure to the left shows a typical cross-sectional washer.

Example: what is the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the graphs of
𝑦 = √ 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 and y=0 around the x-axis?

Solution: you can see by sketching, the graph of the line y=2-x lies above the curve 𝑦 = √ 𝑥 in the region
we care about , we are revolving around the x-axis, washers will be vertical and cylindrical shells will
have horizontal sides. we would need to split the computation up into two integrals if we want to use the
shell method, so we’ll use the washer method , the area of a cross section is
𝐴(𝑥 ) = 𝜋(2 − 𝑥)2 − 𝜋( √ 𝑥) = 𝜋 (4 − 4𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) − 𝜋𝑥 = 𝜋(4 − 5𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )
Now the region runs from 𝑥 = 0 until the curves cross, which happens when 2 − 𝑥 = √ 𝑥 which is to say
when 𝑥 = 1, therefore the volume of the solid will be
1
1 1
 5 2 x3 
0   0      x  
2
A( x ) dx ( 4 5 x x )dx  4 x
 2 3 0
 5 1  11
 4     unit cubic
 2 3 6