Functional limits

Intuitive notion
Definition
How to calculate
Precize definition
Continuous functions
 Intuitive meaning of the limit of
a function
 You write , which means that as x “approaches”
c, the function f( x) “approaches” the real
number L
 Intuitive meaning of the limit of
a function

 Video help:
 http://www.calculus-help.com/tutorials/

 Lesson 1: What Is a Limit?

 Lesson 2: When Does a Limit Exist?

 Lesson 3: How do you evaluate limits?

 Worked out EXAMPLES:

 http://www.sosmath.com/calculus/limcon/limcon04/limcon04.html
 http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/LimitsAtInfinityII.aspx
Intuitive meaning of the limit of
a function
 The limit of a function f( x) is a number, what the
function intends to take, what we can observe om
the graph of it
 in other word: the number to which the functional
values approach either in the infinity, or negative
infinity, or at a certain point, which NOT necessarily
belongs to the domain of the function.
 The limit might or might not be equal to the functional
value at that point in which the limit is taken
 Limit of the Function
 Note: we can approach a limit from
• left … right …both sides
 Function may or may not exist at that point
 At a
• right hand limit, no left
• function not defined
 At b
• left handed limit, no right a b
• function defined
Intuitive meaning of the limit of
a function

lim f ( x )  A
x x 0
 Intuitive meaning of the limit of
a function
 You write :


lim f ( x )  L
x c

which means that as x “approaches” c,

the function f( x) “approaches” the real
number L
 Observing a Limit
 Can be observed on a graph.
 Observing a Limit
 Can be observed on a graph.
Non Existent Limits
 f(x) grows without bound
lim f ( x)  L
x c

Intuitive meaning of the limit of

a function

lim f ( x )  A
x x 0
 Intuitive meaning of the limit of
a function

What is the number this

function does intend to take?

-In the infinity?

-In the negative infinity?
-At zero?
- At x=1 from the right?
- At x=1 from the left?
-At 2?
 Intuitive meaning of the limit of
a function
What is the number this function does intend to take?
-In the infinity:
lim f ( x )  1
x 

-In the negative

infinity? lim f (x)  1
x  

-At zero?
lim f ( x )  0
x 0

-At x=1 from lim f ( x ) 

the right? x 1 0

At x=1 from the left? lim f ( x )   

x 1 0

At x=2, substituting 2: lim f ( x )  2 / 3

x 2
Intuitive meaning of the limit of
a function

lim f ( x )  A
x x 0

What function could it be?

Computing Limits: substitution

     lim1
2
Ex. lim x2  1  lim x 2  lim1  lim x
x3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3

 32  1  10

2x 1 lim  2 x  1 2 lim x  lim1 2 1 1

Ex.
lim  x 1
 x 1 x 1
 
x 1 3 x  5 lim  3x  5  3lim x  lim 5 35 8
x 1 x 1 x 1
Non Existent Limits
One-Sided Limit of a Function
The right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L

written: lim f ( x)  L
x a
if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to
be sufficiently close to the right of a.

y  f ( x)
L

a
One-Sided Limit of a Function
The right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L

written: lim f ( x)  L
x a
if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to
be sufficiently close to the right of a.

y  f ( x)
L

a
One-Sided Limit of a Function
The left-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals M

written: lim f ( x)  M
xa
if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to
be sufficiently close to the left of a.

y  f ( x)

a
 One sided limits
Numbers x near c fall into two natural categories: those that lie to
the left of c and those that lie to the right of c. We write
lim f  x   L
x c [The left-hand limit of f(x) as x tends to c is L.]
to indicate that
as x approaches c from the left, f(x) approaches L.
We write
lim f  x   L [The right-hand limit of f(x) as x tends to c is L.]
x c

to indicate that
as x approaches c from the right, f(x) approaches L
For a full limit to exist, both one-sided limits have to exist and
they have to be equal.
One-Sided Limit of a Function

Ex. Given  x 2 if x  3
f ( x)  
2x if x  3
Find lim f ( x)
x3

lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  6
The limit does not exists
at 3, but it exists from the
x3 x3
left, and from the right
Find lim f ( x)
x3

lim f ( x)  lim x2  9
x3 x3
 Example
1, if x ＞ 0
f ( x)  x / x 
−1, if x ＜ 0.
Let’s try to apply the limit process at different numbers c.
If c ＜ 0, then for all x sufficiently close to c,
x ＜ 0 and f(x) = −1. It follows that for c ＜ 0
lim f(x) = lim (−1) = −1
x→c x→c

If c ＞ 0, then for all x sufficiently close to c, x ＞ 0 and f(x) = 1. It follows

that for c ＜ 0
lim f(x) = lim (1) = 1
x→c x→c

However, the function has no limit as x tends to 0:

lim f(x) = −1 but lim f(x) = 1.
x→ 0- x → 0+
 Computing Limits
 We saw already the first step:
substitution
 If fails: try to factorize the terms, then
simplify
 Example

x2  x  6 0
lim  Which is undefined!
x2 x2 0 Substitotion failed, but the limit exist!!!!

Graph it. What happens at x = 2?

x2  x  6 (x  3)(x  2)
lim  lim  lim (x  3)  5
x2 x2 x2 x2 x2

x2  x  6
NOTE : f ( x )  graphs as a straight line.
x2
24
 Examples
x2 22 4 Good job if you saw this as “limit does not exist”
lim   ?
x 2 x 2  4 (2) 2  4 0 indicating a vertical asymptote at x = -2.

x2 22 0 This limit is indeterminate. With some algebraic

lim   ?
x 2x 2  4 (2) 2  4 0 manipulation, the zero factors could cancel and
reveal a real number as a limit. In this case,
x2 x2
lim 2  lim  factoring leads to……
x 2 x  4 x  2 ( x  2)( x  2)
The limit exists as x
1 1 y
approaches 2 even
lim 
x 2 x  2 4 x2 though the function
f ( x)  2
x 4 does not exist. In the
first case, zero in the
denominator led to a
x
vertical asymptote; in
the second case the
zeros cancelled out
and the limit reveals a
hole in the graph at (2,
¼).
 Computing Limits
Ex.
3x if x  2
lim f ( x) where f ( x)  
x 2
1 if x  2
Note: f (-2) = 1 lim f ( x) = lim  3x
6 x2 x2
is not involved
 3 lim x
The limiot exists at -2 x 2
because the left and  3(2)  6
right hand limits are
equal -2
 Computing Limits
 We saw already the first step:
substitution
 If fails: try to factorize the terms, then
simplify
 If fails: try the „conjugate”
Using Conjugates

x 3 2
lim
x 0 x 7

lim
( x  3  2)   x 3 2   lim (x  3)  4
x 7
(x  7)  x 3 2  x 7
(x  7)  x 3 2 
x 7 1
 lim  lim
x 7
(x  7)  x 3 2  x 7
 x 3 2 
Now, substitution is possible, and the answer is
1 1 1
  
7-3  2 4 2 4
 sin x sin x
f  x  Find: lim
x x  x
2
1
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 -10 2 4 6 8 10 12
When we graph this function, the
-2 limit appears to be zero.
1  sin x  1
1 sin x 1
so for x : 0  
x x x by the
1 sin x 1 sandwich/squeeze/pinching
lim  lim  lim theorem:
x  x x  x x  x

sin x
0  lim 0
x  x

 Well-known limits
1. sin x 2.
0 sin x
lim
x 
lim 1
x x 0 x

3. cos x  1 4. e 1
x
a 1
x

lim 0 lim  1 lim  ln e

x 0 x x 0 x x 0 x

f(x)
5. 1 x
a a

lim (1  )  e lim (1  )e

x  x f ( x ) f (x)
 Well-known...

6. 1 1
lim r  0. lim r  0.
x  x x  x
If r>1

Can you tell, what if r<1?

 Squeezing/pinching/sandwich
theorem for functions

Suppose that

g(x)h(x)f(x), in the neirbourhood of x=c, (not necesserily at c

though)

and

lim g(x)=limf(x)=L at x=c

Then

lim h(x) exists at c, and

lim(h(x))=L
 sin x
lim 1
x 0 x Proof

0 x
2
We are considering the area of
triangle OAB, circle section OAB
and triangle OAD
A OAB  A OABsec tion  A OAD
sin x x tg x
 
2 2 2
/ : sin x  0
sin x  x  tg x
x 1
1 
sin x cos x
sin x sin x
1  cos x that is : cos x  1
x x
 The limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to
0 is proof

Since lim cos x  1 and lim 1  1

x 0 x 0

applying squeeze theorem

sin x
lim 1
x 0  0 x

sin x sin(  x )
Because 
x x
sin x
lim 1
x 0 x
 cos x  1
0
Proof of lim
x 0 x

1  cos x (1  cos x )(1  cos x )

lim  lim 
x 0 x x 0 x (cos x  1)
1  (cos x )
2 2
(sin x ) (sin x )
 lim  lim  1lim 
x 0 x (cos x  1) x 0 x (cos x  1) x 0 (cos x  1)

0 sin x
 1lim  0 ( we used that lim  1)
x 0 2 x 0  0 x
 Applying well-known limits
Example 1
Find
sin 4 x 1  cos 2 x
lim and lim
x 0 3x x 0 5x
Solution
To calculate the first limit, we “pair off” sin 4x with 4x and use (2.5.6):
Therefore,
sin 4 x  4 sin 4 x  4 sin 4 x 4 4
lim  lim    lim  
1 
x 0 3x 
x 0 3 4 x  3 x0 4 x 3 3
The second limit can be obtained the same way:
1  cos 2 x 2 1  cos 2 x 2 1  cos 2 x 2
lim  lim   lim   0  0
x 0 5x x 0 5 2x 5 x 0 2x 5
 Limit of a Function

The limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L written:

lim f ( x)  L
xa
if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to
be sufficiently close to a.

y  f ( x)
L

a
 Formal Definition of a Limit

If for any  (as close as you want to get to L)

there exists a  (we can get as close as
necessary to c), such as:

f ( x)  L   when x  c  
Then the limit exits: lim f ( x)  L
x c
Formal Definition of a Limit
 The

lim f ( x)  L L  •
x c

 For any ε (as close as c 

you want to get to L)
 There exists a (we can get as close as
necessary to c )
Specified Epsilon, Required Delta
 Formal Definition of a Limit

If for any  (as close as you want to get to L)

there exists a  (we can get as close as
necessary to c), such as:

f ( x)  L   when x  c  
Then the limit exits: lim f ( x)  L
x c
Finding the Required 
 Consider showing lim(2 x  7)  1
x4

 |f(x) – L| = |2x – 7 – 1| = |2x – 8| < 

 We seek a  such that when |x – 4| <
|2x – 8|< for any  we choose

 It can be seen that the  we need is
2
 No limit
Example
Here we set f(x) = sin (π/ x) and
show that the function can have no
limit as
x→0

The function is not defined at x = 0, as you know, that’s irrelevant.

What keeps f from having a limit as x → 0 is indicated in the Figure
above
As x → 0, f(x) keeps oscillating between y = 1 and y = –1 and therefore
cannot remain close to any one number L.
Finite limit in the infinity
Definition: The limit of a function in the infinity is A if for arbitrary >0
there exists a positive number K , such that if x>K, then f(x)-A<

Example: f(x)=sinx/x+A
Infinit limit at a (finite) point
Definition: Let x0 is a point of the domain of the definition of function f.
The limiting value of f at x0 is (positive) infinity, if for all K>0 there exists a
>0 such that if x-x0 <  then f(x)>K

Example: 1/x at 0
 Limiting value – defitions
HAND IN!!

Based on the previous defitinions, define the

following:

-Limit in the infinity is infinity/negative infinity

-Limit in the negatíve infinity is + infinity/-infinity
-Limim in the negative infintiy is a number A
 Continuity

Continuity at a Point

The basic idea is as follows: We are given a function f and a

number c. We calculate (if we can) both lim f  x  and f (c). If
x c
these two numbers are equal, we say that f is continuous at c.
Here is the definition formally stated.

lim f  x   f  c 
x c
Continuity of a Function
A function f is continuous at the point x = a if the following are true:

i ) f (a) is defined
ii) lim f ( x) exists
xa
iii) lim f ( x)  f (a) f(a)
xa

a
Continuous Functions

If f and g are continuous at x = a, then

f  g , fg , and f
g  g (a)  0  are continuous
at x  a
A polynomial function y = P(x) is continuous at every point x.

A rational function R ( x ) 
p( x)
q ( x) is continuous at every point x
in its domain.
All elementary functions and their inverses are continuous
 f (x) = (x2 – 9)/(x + 3) at x = -3

a. f (-3) = 0/0 Is undefined!

x2  9
b. lim  -6 -3
x  3 x  3

The limit exist!

x2  9
c. lim  f ( 3) -6
x  3 x  3

Therefore the function is not continuous at x = -3.

50
 Continuity on Intervals

f  x   1  x2

A function f is said to be continuous on an interval if it is continuous at each interior

point of the interval and one-sidedly continuous at whatever endpoints the interval may
contain.
For example: 1
 
f x 
1  x2
The function

is continuous on [−1, 1] because it is continuous at each point of (−1, 1),

continuous from the right at −1, and continuous from the left at 1.
The graph of the function is the semicircle.
.
 Classification of points of
discontinuity:first and second kind

Infinite (dicont. of Jump: Limits exist

Removable: limit second kind): at least from both side, but
from the right and one of the one sides not equal
from the left exist, limits does not exists,
and equal or functional values Discontinuity of first
tend to the infinity/- kind: removable,
infinity jump
 Important Theorems about
continuous functions
 Extreme Value Theorem Weirerstrass, r
ETV

 Intermediate Value Theorem - ITV

 Some applications

53
 Intermediate Value Theorem
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b] and L is any number
between f (a) and f (b), then there is at least one number c in [a, b] such that
f(c) = L.

y  f ( x)
f (b)

f (c) = L

f (a)

a c b
 Intermediate Value Theorem
Ex.
Given f ( x)  3 x 2  2 x  5,
Show that f ( x)  0 on 1, 2.
f (1)  4  0
f (2)  3  0
f (x) is continuous (polynomial) and since f (1) < 0 and f (2) > 0, by the
Intermediate Value Theorem there exists a c on [1, 2] such that f (c) = 0.
 Limitations of IVT

 The IVT is a powerful tool, but it has its limitations. To illustrate,

suppose that d(t) represents the decibel level of Pork Chop's
motorcycle engine, and suppose
 d(0) = 100 and d(10) = 35, where t is measured in seconds.
 d is a continuous function.
 By IVT in the ten second interval between time t=0 and time t=35 Pork
Chop's decibel level reached every value between 35 and 100.
 It does NOT say anything about:
 When or how many times (other than at least once) a particular
decibel was attained.
 Whether or not decibel levels bigger than 100 or less than 35 were
reached.

56
 Definition of absolute extrema

 Suppose that f is a function defined on a

domain D containing c. Then
 Absolute maximum value at c if
f(c)  f(x) for all x  D
 Absolute minimum value at c if
f(c)  f(x) for all x  D

57
 Extreme value theorem
WEIERSTRASS OR EVT
 Can find absolute extrema
under certain hypotheses:

 If f is continuous on a
closed interval [a,b], with
- < a < b < , then f has
an absolute maximum M
and an absolute minimum
m on [a,b]

58
 Example

No maximum or
minimum value on
the domain.
However, on [-3,3], it
has both.

Question: does
function f fullfil EVT?
f ( x)  x 2 , 0  x  2

59
Conclusions about hypotheses

 Conclude that hypothesis that interval be

closed, [a,b], essential
 Conclusion that f is continuous also essential:

2 x , 0  x  2
f ( x)  
3  x, 2  x  3

60
Examples fulfilling hypotheses

 f(x) = 2 - 3x where -5 < x < 8

 g(x) = sin(x) where 0 < x < 2

61
Limitations of Extreme Value
Theorem
 Polynomial f(x)=x5 - 3x2 + 13 is continuous
everywhere
 Must have absolute max, min on [-1, 10] by
theorem
 Theorem doesn’t say where these occur
 Extreme value theorem just an “existence
theorem”
 Learn tools for finding extrema later using the
derivative
62