Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Chapter 1

Basic concepts

By

Dr. eng. Khaled el Naggar

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 13

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Introduction
The main important concept in calculus is the function on which we
can apply differentiation, integration or other calculus operations.

The function y = f(x) is a function of one variable consists of one

independent variable (x) and the other is the dependent variable.

Studying limit theorems is fundamental to understand differentiation.

1.1 Limits & continuity

To say that lim f(x) = L means that f(x) can be made as close as
x p

desired to L by making x close enough, but not equal, to p.

Properties of limits

1- xlim
a
[c f(x)] = c xlim
a
[f(x)], c is a constant term

2- xlim
a
[f(x) + g(x)] = xlim
a
[f(x)] + xlim
a
[g(x)] : The limit of the sum

of two functions is the sum of their limits.

3- xlim
a
[f(x) – g(x)] = xlim
a
[f(x)] - xlim
a
[g(x)] : The limit of the

difference of two functions is the difference of their limits.

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 14

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

4- xlim
a
[f(x) * g(x)] = xlim
a
[f(x)] * xlim
a
[g(x)]: The limit of the

product of two functions is the product of their limits.

5- xlim
a
[f(x) / g(x) ] = xlim
a
[f(x)] / xlim
a
[g(x)]; if xlim
a
g(x) is not

equal to zero. The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient
of their limits if the limit in the denominator is not equal to 0.

6- xlim n f (x) = n lim f (x) . If n is even, lim f(x) has to be positive.

a x a xa

The limit of the nth root of a function is the nth root of the limit of the
th
function, if the n root of the limit is a real number.

Example 1 Evaluate the following limits

1) lim [x  3x 2 ] , 2) lim [x  3x 2 ] , 3) lim [x][3x 2 ]

x 1 x 1 x 1

x 4
4) lim [ ], 5) lim x  3x 2 .
x 1 3x 2 x 1

Solution

1) lim [x  3x 2 ]  lim x  3 lim x 2  1  3( 1) 2  2 ,

x 1 x 1 x 1

2) lim [x  3x 2 ]  lim x  3 lim x 2  1  3( 1) 2  4

x 1 x 1 x 1

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 15

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

3) lim [x][3x 2 ]  [ lim x][3 lim x 2 ]  [ 1][3( 1) 2 ]  3 ,

x 1 x 1 x 1

lim [x]
x 1 1
4) lim [ ]  x 1   ,
x 1 3x 2 3 lim [x 2 ] 3( 1) 2 3
x 1

4
5) lim x  3x 2  4 lim [x]  3 lim [x 2 ]  4 1  3( 1) 2  4 2
x 1 x 1 x 1

Limit rules
 Constant Rule for Limits, i.e. if b and c are constants then xlim
c
b = b.

 Identity Rule for Limits, i.e. if c is a constant then xlim

c
f(x) = f(c).

A fractional function will have an infinite limit if the limit of the

denominator is zero and the limit of the numerator is not zero. The
sign of the infinite limit is determined by the sign of the quotient of
the numerator and the denominator at values close to the number that
the independent variable is approaching.

Example 2 Calculate the following limits

x3 1 1 1 1
a) lim [ ], b) lim [  ], c) lim , d) lim
x  2
x 2 x  2 x0 x2 x3 x0 x 2 x

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 16

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Solution

a) As x approaches 2 from the left, the numerator approaches 5, and

the denominator approaches 0 through negative values; hence, the
x3
function decreases without bound and    . The function has
x2
a vertical asymptote at x = 2.

1 1
b) Rewriting  as an equivalent fractional expression
x 2 x3
x -1
, the numerator approaches −1, and the denominator approaches 0
x3
through positive values as x approaches 0 from the right; hence, the
1 1
function decreases without bound, so lim [  ]   . The
x0 x 2 x3
function has a vertical asymptote at x = 0.

c) As x approaches 0, the numerator is always positive and the

denominator approaches 0 and is always positive; hence, the function
1
increases without bound and lim [ ].
x0 x 2

d) As x approaches  , the numerator is always positive and the

denominator approaches  and is always positive; hence, the function

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 17

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

1
decreases and approaches to 0, hence lim [ ]  0 . The function has
x  2
x
a vertical asymptote at x = 0 and horizontal asymptote as x
approaches to  as shown in the figure below.

Limits of Polynomials

According to polynomial limit theorem state that

For m = n

m
i
 ai x
a 0  a1x + a 2 x 2  ...  a m x m a
lim i  0   m
x → n j b0  b1x + b2 x 2  ...  b n x n bn
 bj x
j 0

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 18

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

For m > n

m i
 ai x
a  a1x + a 2 x 2  ...  a m x m
lim i  0  0 
x → n b x j b0  2
b1x + b2 x  ...  b n x n
 j
j 0

For m < n

m i
 ai x
a 0  a1x + a 2 x 2  ...  a m x m
lim i  0  0
x → n b x j b0  b1x + b2 x 2  ...  b n x n
 j
j 0

Example 3

x 6  5x +1 1
1) lim 
x  2 3
(4x +1) 64

7x 3  2x +1
2) lim
x 
0
3 (4x10 + 3x 2 + 2)

7x 4  2x +1
3) lim
x 

(4x + x 2 )

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 19

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Limits Involving Trigonometric Functions

The trigonometric functions sine and cosine have three important limit
sin x
properties: xlim
c
sin x  sin c lim cos x  cosc
xc
lim 1
x0 x

Example 4 Evaluate the following limits

1  cos x
a) lim ,
x 0 x

sin 2 (3x)
b) lim ,
x 0 4x 2

tan 5x
c) lim 3 ,
x 0 sin 2x

sin(3x)
d) lim ,
 5x
x
2

sec x  1
e) lim ,
x 0 x

sin x
f) lim ,
x 0 x

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 20

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

g) lim (x  3)csc x ,
x 3


h) lim (x  3)sec x
x 3 2

Solution

1  cos x
a) Let us multiply the numerator and denominator of by
x
1  cos x 1  cos x 1  cos x
(1 + cos x) and write lim [ ]  lim [ ][ ] =
x 0 x x 0 x 1  cos x

1  cos2 x sin 2 x sin x sin x

lim [ ]  lim [ ]  lim [ ] lim [ ] 1.
x 0 x(1  cos x) x 0 x(1  cos x) x 0 x x 0 1  cos x

sin 2 3x 9 sin 3x 2 9 sin 3x 2 9

b) lim  lim [ ]  [ lim ] 
x 0 4x 2 4 x 0 3x 4 x 0 3x 4

tan 5x 5 tan 5x 2x 5 tan 5x 2x 5

c) lim 3  lim 3 [ ]  3 lim [ ]3
x 0 sin 2x x 0 2 5x sin 2x 2 x 0 5x sin 2x 2


sin(3x) sin 3(y  )  cos3y 2
d) lim  lim 2  lim 
x
 5x y 0 5(y   ) y 0 5(y   ) 5
2 2 2

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 21

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

sec x  1 (1 / cos x)  1 1  cos x

e) lim [ ]  lim [ ]  lim [ ]
x 0 x x 0 x x 0 x cos x

2sin 2 (x / 2) sin(x / 2) sin(x / 2)

 lim [ ]  lim [ ] lim [ ],
x 0 x cos x x 0 (x / 2) x 0 cos x

sin(x / 2) sin t
Put t = x/2, therefore lim [ ]  lim [ ] 1
x  0 (x / 2) t 0 t

sec x  1 sin(x / 2) sin(x / 2)

Hence lim [ ]  lim [ ] lim [ ] = 1(0) = 0
x 0 x x  0 (x / 2) x  0 cos x

f) If x tends to 0 from left hand side such that

sin x sin x
lim = lim = -1
x0 x x0 -x

If x tends to 0 from right hand side such that

sin x sin x
lim = lim =1
x0 x x0 x

Since the right hand side and left hand side limits are different,
sin x
therefore lim doesn’t exist.
x 0 x

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 22

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

y y 1
g) lim (x  3)csc x  lim  lim 
x 3 y 0 sin (y  3) y 0  sin y 

 y y 2
h) lim (x  3)sec x  lim  lim 
x 3 2 y 0 cos  (y  3) y 0 sin  y 
2 2

Continuity of function of one variable

The following problems involve the Continuity of a function of one

variable.

 Function y = f(x) is continuous at point x = a if the following three

conditions are satisfied:

i.) f(a) is defined ,

ii.) lim f(x) exist (i.e., is finite),
xa
iii.) lim f(x) = f(a)
xa

G(x) x  a 
 If function f(x) is defined by f(x) =   , then f(x) is
 H(x) x  a 
continuous function at x = a if xlim
a
G(x) = H(a)

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 23

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

 G(x) x  a 
 
 If function f(x) is defined by f(x) =  H(x) x  a  , then f(x) is
 Q(x) x  a 
 
continuous function at x = a if lim G(x) = lim H(x) = Q(a)
xa xa

Function f is said to be continuous on an interval I if f is continuous at

each point x in the interval I.

Here is a list of some well-known facts related to continuity:

1. The sum of continuous functions is continuous.

2. The difference of continuous functions is continuous.

3. The product of continuous functions is continuous.

4. The quotient of continuous functions is continuous at all points x

where the denominator is not zero.

5. The functional composition of continuous functions is continuous at

all points x where the composition is properly defined.

6. Any polynomial is continuous for all values of x.

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 24

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

x
7. Function e and trigonometry functions sin(x) and cos(x) are
continuous for all values of x.

Example 5

a) Determine if the following function is continuous at x = 1

3x  5, x  1
f (x)   
 2 x  1

b) Determine if the following function is continuous at x = -2

 x 2  2x, x  2 
f (x)   
3
 x  6x, x  2 

c) Determine if the following function is continuous at x= 0

 x6 
 x3 x  0
 
f(x) =  2 x  0
 2

 4x x  0
 

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 25

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

d) Check the following function for continuity at x = 3 & x = -3

 x 3  27 
 2 , x  3
 x 9 
f (x)   
 9 
 2 x  3


x3 + 3x 2 + 5x +1
e) For what values of x is the function ( ) continuous?
2
x + 5x - 6

f) For what values of x is the function x 2  2x continuous?

x -1
g) For what values of x is the function f(x) = ℓn ( ) continuous?
x+2

esinx
h) For what values of x is the function f(x) = ( )
2
4 - x 9
continuous?

Solution

a) f(1) = 2 is defined, lim (3x - 5) = - 2  f (1) , therefore f(x) is not

x1
continuous.

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 26

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

b) f(-2) = 0, lim  (x 2 + 2x) = 0 , lim  (x3 - 6x) = 4 , From which

x2 x 2

lim f (x)  lim  f (x) , thus f(x) is not continuous.

x2  x2

x -6
c) f(0) = 2, lim ( ) = 2, lim 4  x 2  2 , From which
x0 x -3 x0
lim f (x)  lim f (x)  f (0) , thus f(x) is continuous.
x0 x0

x 3  27
3 9
d) lim = (3)3 2  , therefore the function is continuous at
x 3 x 2  9 2 2
x = 3 and the function is discontinuous at x = -3 as f(-3) not defined.

e) The function is discontinuous at the zeros of the denominator, i.e.

the function is continuous at all real numbers except at x = -6, 1.

2
f) The function is continuous for all x such that x – 2x  0, i.e. x  0,
x  2 or x  0, x  2, therefore f(x) is continuous at x  2 or x  0.

x -1 a -1
g) Let f(x) is continuous at x = a, therefore xlim n( )  n( ),
a x+2 a +2
if a – 1 > 0, a + 2 > 0, or a – 1 < 0, a + 2 < 0, therefore f(x) is
continuous at x < -2 or x > 1

2
h) For the function f(x) to be defined 4 - x  9  0 , therefore f(x) is
continuous at x   3 , or x  3 except at x = -5 or x = -5
Lecture notes on Calculus Page 27
Chapter 1: Basic concepts

From the above, it’s clear to observe that the function is continuous in
the interval of the domain.

Domain

The domain of a function is the set of possible values of the

independent variable.

Another definition

The domain is the set of all possible x-values which will make the
function "work", and will output real y – values

 The denominator of a fraction cannot be zero

 The number under a square root sign must be positive
 There is no restriction for the value of x in polynomial function

For the function x  4 , the domain is x  4

1
For the function , the domain is all real numbers except the
2
x 4
zeros of denominator so that the domain is  -{-2, 2}where  is the
set of real numbers.
2
For the function y = x + 2, the domain is all real numbers

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 28

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Range

The range of a function is the set of all possible resulting values of the
dependent variable (y, usually), after we have substituted the domain.

Another definition

The range is the resulting y-values we get after substituting all the
possible x-values.

How to find the range?

 The range of a function is the spread of possible y-values

(minimum y-value to maximum y-value)
 Substitute different x-values into the expression for y to see
what is happening.
 Make sure you look for minimum and maximum values of y.
 Draw a sketch

 For the function x  4 , the domain is x  4

At x = -4, y = 0 and at x > -4, y > 0, hence the range is [0,  )

1
 For the function , the domain is  -{-2, 2}where  is the set
x2  4
of real numbers.

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 29

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

At x  ( 2, 2) , y < 0 and if the value of x approach to 2 or -2,

i.e x = -1.9999999 or x = 1.999999999, then the denominator
approach to zero from the left, i.e the denominator will close to
-0.00001 and so value of y tends to negative infinity.

At x > 2 or x < -2, y > 0 and if the value of x approach to 2 or -2, i.e.
x = 2.0000000001 or x = -2.000000001, then the denominator
approach to zero from the right, i.e the denominator will close to
0.00001 and so value of y tends to positive infinity.

Since there is no value of x make y = 0, thus the range is  -,{0}

 For the function y = x2 + 2, the domain is all real numbers

At x > 0 or x < 0, y > 2 and at x = 0, y = 2, hence the range is [2,  )

Example 6

Find domain and range for the following functions

2
a) f(x) = , b) h(x) = x2  4 ,
x 3

x7
c) g(x) = , d) k(x) = ℓn[(3 + x)(x – 4)]
2x

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 30

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Solution

2
a) The domain of f(x) = is  – {3}
x3

If x approach very close to 3 from the left so that x = 2.999999999,

then y will tend to -  .

If x approach very close to 3 from the right so that x = 3.0000000001,

then y will tend to  .

There is no value of x make y = 0, thus the range is  -{0}

b) Since there is no value of x that makes x 2  4 < 0, therefore the

domain of h(x) = x 2  4 is all  .

At x < 0 or x > 0, then y > 2 and at x = 0, then y = 2.

Hence the range of h(x) = x 2  4 is [2,  )

x7 x 7
c) To get the domain of g(x) = , must be greater or equal
2x 2x
zero so that x – 7  0 and 2 – x > 0, then the domain is 

2 7 x

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 31

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Or x – 7  0 and 2 – x < 0, then the domain is (2, 7]

2 7 x

Thus the overall domain is (2, 7]

At x > 2, then y > 0 and if x is very close to 2 such that x = 2.0000001,

thus y tends to infinity.

At x = 7, then y = 0 and hence the range is [0,  ).

d) To get the domain of k(x) = ℓn[(3 + x)(x – 4)], (3 + x)(x – 4) must

be greater zero such that 3 + x > 0 & x – 4 > 0, then domain is (4,  ).

-3 4 x

Or 3 + x < 0 & x – 4 < 0, then the domain is (-  , -3).

-3 4 x

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 32

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Thus the overall domain is (-  , -3)  (4,  ) which is equivalent to

 - [-3, 4].

If x is very close to 4 from the right, i.e. x = 4.0000001 or x is very

close to -3 from the left, i.e. x = -3.00000001, therefore y tends to
negative infinity.

As x increases, y increases and tends to positive infinity and thus the

range is all  .

To sketch different types of functions, we have to study more concepts

and definitions.

1.2 Even & odd functions

You may be asked to "determine algebraically" whether a function f is

even or odd. To do this, you take the function and plug –x in for x,
and then simplify. If you end up with the exact same function that you
started with (that is, if f (–x) = f (x), so all of the signs are the same),
then the function is even. If you end up with the exact opposite of
what you started with (that is, if f (–x) = –f (x), so all of the signs are
switched), then the function is odd.

In all other cases, the function is "neither even nor odd".

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 33

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Example 7
2
Determine algebraically whether f (x) = –3x + 4 is even, odd, or
neither.
Solution

If I graph this, I will see that this is "symmetric about the y-axis"; in
other words, whatever the graph is doing on one side of the y-axis is
mirrored on the other side:

This mirroring about the y-axis is a hallmark of even functions.

Also, I note that the exponents on all of the terms are even and the
exponent on the constant term being zero: 4x0 = 4 × 1 = 4. These are

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 34

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

helpful clues that strongly suggest to me that I've got an even function
here.

But the question asks me to make the determination algebraically,

which means that I need to do the algebra.

So I'll plug –x in for x, and simplify:

2 2 2
f (–x) = -3(-x) + 4 = -3(x ) + 4 = -3x + 4

I can see, by comparing the original function with my final result

above, that I've got a match, which means that: f (x) is even.

Example 8
3
Determine algebraically whether f (x) = 2x – 4x is even, odd, or
neither.

Solution

If I graph this, I will see that it is "symmetric about the origin"; that is,
if I start at a point on the graph on one side of the y-axis, and draw a
line from that point through the origin and extending the same length
on the other side of the y-axis, I will get to another point on the graph.

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 35

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

You can also think of this as the half of the graph on one side of the
y-axis is the upside-down version of the half of the graph on the other
side of the y-axis. This symmetry is a hallmark of odd functions.

Note also that all the exponents in the function's rule are odd, since the
second term can be written as 4x = 4x1. This is a useful clue. I should
expect this function to be odd.

The question asks me to make the determination algebraically, so I'll

plug –x in for x, and simplify:

3 3 3
f (–x) = 2(-x) – 4(-x) = 2(-x ) + 4x = -2x + 4x

For the given function to be odd, I need the above result to have all
opposite signs from the original function. So I'll write the original
function, and then switch all the signs:

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 36

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

3
Original: f (x) = 2(x) – 4(x)

3
Switched: –f (x) = –2x + 4x

Comparing this to what I got, I see that they're a match. When I

plugged –x in for x, all the signs switched. This means that, as I'd
expected: f (x) is odd.

1.3 Inverse function

Let f be a function whose domain is the set X, and whose image

(range) is the set Y, then f is invertible if there exist a function g with
domain Y and image X, with the property: f(x) = y  x = g(y).

If f is invertible, the function g is unique, which means that there is

exactly one function g satisfying this property (no more, no less). That
function g is then called the inverse of f, and is usually denoted as f −1.

Stated otherwise, a function is invertible if and only if its inverse

relation is a function on the range Y, in which case the inverse relation
is the inverse function.

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 37

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

As a simple example, consider the real-valued function of a real

variable given by y = 5x − 7. To reverse this function, we should add
7 to y and then divide the result by 5. In functional notation this
y7
inverse function would be given by g(y)  , with y = 5x – 7,
5
where f (x) = y and g(y) = x.

In order for a function f: X → Y to have an inverse, it must have the

property that for every y in Y there must be one, and only
one x in X so that f(x) = y.

This property ensures that a function g: Y → X will exist having the

necessary relationship with f.

i.e. for a function to have an inverse, each element y ∈ Y must

correspond to no more than one x ∈ X; a function f with this property
is called one-to-one or an injection. If f −1 is to be a function on Y, then

each element y ∈ Y must correspond to some x ∈ X. Functions with

this property are called surjections. This property is satisfied by
definition if Y is the image (range) of f, but may not hold in a more
general context. If a function f is invertible, then both it and its inverse
function f−1 are an injection and a surjection. Such functions are
called bijections.

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 38

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Bijective function

Bijective function or one-to-one correspondence is a function between

the elements of two sets, where each element of one set is paired with
exactly one element of the other set, and each element of the other set
is paired with exactly one element of the first set, i.e. f(x) = x3 such
that f:    and g(x) = 2x + 1 such that g:    , also h(x) = x

such that h:      are bijective functions.

Surjective function

A function f from a set X to a set Y is surjective (or onto), or a

surjection, if for every element y in the codomain Y (range) of f there
is at least one element x in the domain X of f such that f(x) = y. It is
not required that x is unique; the function f may map one or more
elements of X to the same element of Y, i.e. f(x) = x2 such that

f:     and g(x) = x3 - 3x such that g:    are surjective

functions.

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 39

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Injective function

Every element of the function's codomain is the image of at most one

element of its domain, i.e. every bijective function is injective for

example f(x) = e such that f:     is an injective function.

x

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 40

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Example 9

Find the inverse functions for the following:

2 3 2
a) f(x) = 3x + 1, b) g(x) = x , c) h(x) = x – 6x + 12x – 8

Solution

y 1
a) Since y = 3x + 1, therefore x = is the inverse function
3

b) For g:      , the inverse function is x = y and g:      ,

the inverse function is x =  y

3 2 3 2
c) y = x - 6x + 12x – 8 = x - 8 - 6x (x-2) = (x-2)(x + 2x + 4) -
2 3
6x (x-2) = (x-2) (x - 4x + 4) = (x-2) , therefore x  3 y  2 .

1.4 problems

1- Evaluate the following limits if exist

2x 3  128
lim ,
x4 x 2

2x  1
lim ,
x2 x 2  2x - 8

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 41

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

x 2 1
lim ,
x1 x -1

x 1
lim 3 ,
x1 x  1

x 2  3x  2
lim ,
x 2 x2

x3  x 2  x  1
lim ,
x x 3  3x 2  5x  2

x 2  7x  1
lim ,
x  4
25x  3

lim
x
x2  1  x2  1 ,

lim
x
x2  x  1  x2  x  1 ,

sin(3x)
lim ,
x0 6x

2x
lim ,
x0
2x 2  x  1  x 2  3x  1

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 42

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

sin(x 2 )
lim ,
x0 x sin x

x
lim
x
,
tan x

x  2sin x
lim
x0
x 2  2sin(x)  1  sin 2 (x)  x  1

 x2  2 x0 
 
2- f (x) =  ax  b 0  x  1
 2 
3  2x  x x 1 

Determine a and b so that the function f (x) is continuous everywhere.

cos(2 x  a), x  1

3- f (x)   
 x3 + 1 x  1

Determine a so that the function f (x) is continuous at x = -1.

 2 x 2 , x  1
4- f (x)    , Check continuity at x = -1
 4x + 6 x  1

 x  e x , x  0 
5- f (x)    , Check continuity at x = 0
2
 x x  0 

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 43

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

6- For what values of x is each of the following functions are

discontinuous?

1
f(x) = x2 1 , g(x) = x2  1 , h(x) = ,
2
x 9

2 x2  4
Q(x) = n(x  3x  2) , r(x) = , s(x) = (x 2  5x  6)(3  x)
x3

7- Are the following graphs even or odd or neither?

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 44

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 45

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 46

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 47

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

8- Are the following functions even or odd or neither?

2
a) f (x) = sin (x) + tan(2x) csc x,

m n
b) g (x) = a x + b x , m, n are odd numbers,

x2
c) h (x) = cos(x) tan(x) + ,
x  sec x cot x

m n
d) r (x) = a x + b x , m is odd, while n is even.

9- Find the inverse for the following functions

3
a) f (x) = (x – 2) + 1,

2
b) g (x) = 5(x 3x  7) ,

c) h (x) = n(x 2  5x  2)

10- Find the parameters a and b included in the linear function

-1 -1 -1
f(x) = a x + b so that f (2) = 3 and f (-3) = 6, where f (x) is the
inverse of function f.

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 48

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

1.5 Differentiation

Differentiation is a method to compute the rate at which a dependent

output y changes with respect to the change in the independent input
x. This rate of change is called the derivative of y with respect to x. In
more precise language, the dependence of y upon x means that y is a
function of x called function of one variable which consists of one
independent variable (x) and one dependent variable (y). This
functional relationship is often denoted y = f(x), where f denotes the
function. If x and y are real numbers, and if the graph of y is plotted
against x, the derivative measures the slope of this graph at each point.

The simplest case is when y is a linear function of x, meaning that the

graph of y against x is a straight line. In this case, y = f(x) = m x + b,
for real numbers m and b, and the slope m is given by

change in y y
m 
change in x x

where the symbol Δ is an abbreviation for "change in." This formula

is true because y + Δy = f(x + Δx) = m (x + Δx) + b = m x + b + m Δx
= y + m Δx. It follows that Δy = m Δx.

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 49

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line. If the
function f is not linear (i.e. its graph is not a straight line), however,
then the change in y divided by the change in x varies, hence
differentiation is a method to find an exact value for this rate of
change at any given value of x

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 50

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

We have to compute the rate of change as the limiting value of the

y
ratio of the differences as Δx becomes infinitely small. In
x
Leibniz's notation, such an infinitesimal change in x is denoted by dx,
dy
and the derivative of y with respect to x is written suggesting the
dx
ratio of two infinitesimal quantities. The above expression is read as
"the derivative of y with respect to x", "dy by dx", or "d y over d x".
dx
The derivative of x with respect to y is written which is the
dy

dy dx 1
reciprocal of , i.e.  .
dx dy ( dy )
dx

3
To evaluate the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = x + 2x + 1 at
the point (1, 4), we have to get the first derivative of the curve at the
same point since the slope at a point on the curve is the first derivative
2
of the curve at the same point, but y`= 3x + 2 and hence the slope to
the tangent line at (1, 4) is y`(1) = 5.

Derivatives using the limit definition

The following problems require the use of the limit definition of a

f(x + x) - f(x)
derivative, which is given by f `(x) = lim .
x0 x

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 51

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

This is the definition of a derivative. Without limits, it would be very

difficult to truly talk about rate of change. Therefore Calculus is
impossible to do without knowing how to do limits.

Example 10

Use the limit definition to compute the derivative, f`(x) for

2
f(x) = 5x – 3x + 7

Solution

f(x + x) - f(x)

f `(x) = lim
x0 x

[5(x+x)2 - 3(x+x) + 7] - [5x 2 - 3x + 7]

= lim
x0 x
5[(2xx+(x)2 ] - 3(x)
 lim  10x  3
x0 x

A function f(x) is called differentiable at x = a if f `(x) exists and is

called differentiable on an interval if the derivative exists for each
point in that interval and if f(x) is differentiable at x = a, then f(x) is
f(a + x) - f(a)
continuous at x = a such that f `(a) = lim .
x0 x

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 52

 Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Example 11

Use the limit definition to compute the derivative, g`(x) at x = 2, for

2
g(x) = x

Solution

f(2+ x) - f(2) (2 + x)2 - 4 (x)[4 + (x)]

g`(2)= lim  lim  lim 4
x0 x x0 x x0 x

General rules
There are general rules must be known in differentiation

Function First derivative

d df
Constant product (c f(x)) [c f(x)]  c
dx dx
d d d
Sum of 2 functions g(x), h(x) [g(x) + h(x)]  g(x) + h(x)
dx dx dx
d d d
Product of 2 functions g(x), h(x) [g(x)  h(x)]  g(x)  h(x) + h(x)  g(x)
dx dx dx

d d
d g(x) g(x)  h(x)  h(x)  g(x)
Division of function g(x), h(x) [ ]  dx dx
dx h(x) [h(x)]2

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 53

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Parametric derivative

Parametric derivative is a derivative in calculus that is taken when

both the x and y variables (traditionally independent and dependent,
respectively) depend on an independent third variable t, usually
thought of as "time".

Let x(t) and y(t) be the coordinates of the points of the curve
expressed as functions of a variable t. The first derivative of
the parametric equations y = f(t) and x = g(t) is given by:
 dy 
dy  dt  y (t) dy dt
   , where the notation x  (t) denotes the

dx  dx  x (t) dt dx
 dt 

derivative of x with respect to t, for example. To understand why the

derivative appears in this way, recall the chain rule for derivatives. It
may be necessary to use a rule known as the chain rule or the rule for
differentiating a function of a function.

The second derivative of a parametric equation is given by

d2 y d dy d dy dt d  y  dt d  y  1 yx  x y
 [ ] [ ]       
dx 2 dx dx dx dt dx dt  x  dx dt  x  x (x )3
d2 y d dy dt 2 dy d 2 t d 2 y dt 2 dy d 2 t
It equivalent to  [ ]( )   ( ) 
dx 2 dt dt dx dt dx 2 dt 2 dx dt dx 2

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 54

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Chain rule

The chain rule is a formula for computing the derivative of the

composition of two or more functions. If y = f(u) and u = g(x), then
dy dy du
this abbreviated form is written in Leibniz notation as:   .
dx du dx

The chain rule can be applied to composites of more than two

functions.

u 2 dy dy du dv
If y = e , u = sin v, v = x , therefore     2xe u cos v
dx du dv dx

It is easily to find directly the 1st derivative of y with respect to x such

2 2
that y = esin(x ) , therefore y` = 2x cos(x 2 ) esin(x ) .

If the equations are implicit, then it is necessary to use chain rule in

order to obtain the first derivative.

Example 12

2 3 2 dy
If y + 2 y cos(u) = 2u and u + x = 4 u x, find .
dx

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 55

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Solution

dy dy du dy dy
Since   , where 2y + 2 cos(u) - 2y sin(u) = 2 
dx du dx du du
dy 2y sin(u)  2 du du du 4u  2x
 and 3u2 + 2x = 4 x +4u  
du 2y  2 cos(u) dx dx dx 3u 2  4x

dy dy du 2y sin(u)  2 4u  2x
Therefore   [ ] [ ].
dx du dx 2y  2 cos(u) 2
3u  4x

Second derivative
The second derivative, or the second order derivative, of a
function f is the derivative of the derivative of f. Roughly speaking,
the second derivative measures how the rate of change of a quantity is
itself changing; for example, the second derivative of the position of a
vehicle with respect to time is the instantaneous acceleration of the
vehicle, or the rate at which the velocity of the vehicle is changing

dv d 2 x
with respect to time. In Leibniz notation, a =  , where the last
dt dt 2
term is the second derivative expression. In other words, the second

d2 y d dy
derivative is the derivative of the first derivative, i.e.  [ ].
dx 2 dx dx
The second derivative of a function f measures the concavity of the
graph of the function f. A function whose second derivative is positive

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 56

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

will be concave up (sometimes referred to as convex), meaning that

the tangent line will lie below the graph of the function . Similarly,
a function whose second derivative is negative will be concave down
(sometimes called simply “concave”) , and its tangent lines will
lie above the graph of the function.

The curve y = sin x is concave down in the interval (0,  ) since the
second derivative y`` = - sin x is negative, and the curve is concave
up in the interval (  , 2 ) since the second derivative y`` = - sin x is
positive.

Limit definition
The limit definition for the second derivative is given by

f(x + x) - 2f(x) + f(x - x)

f ``(x)  lim
x0 [x]2

f(x) = x2, then

(x + x)2 - 2x 2 + (x - x)2 2( x)2
f ``(x)  lim  lim 2
x0 [x]2 x0 ( x)2

d2y
d dy du d 2 y du 2 dy d 2 u
If y = f(u) & u = g(x)   [  ] ( )   .
dx 2 dx du dx du 2 dx du dx 2

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 57

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

Example 13

2 d2y
If y = u sin u, u = cos(x ), find
dx 2
Solution

d2y d dy d dy du d 2 y du 2 dy d 2u
Since  [ ] [  ] ( )   ,
2 dx dx dx du dx 2 dx du dx 2
dx du
dy d2 y
where  sin u  u cos u   2cos u  u sin u ,
du du 2

du 2 d2u
 2x sin(x )   2sin(x 2 )  4x 2 cos(x 2 ) , therefore
dx dx 2

d2 y d2y du 2 dy d 2 u
 ( )   = (2 cos u  u sin u)[ 2 x sin(x 2 )]2
2 2
dx du dx du dx 2
 ( sin u  u cos u )( 2sin(x 2 )  4x 2 cos(x 2 ) )

y can be expressed as a function of x directly such that

dy
y = cos[x2]  sin(cos[x2]), therefore = - 2x sin[x2]  sin(cos[x2]) +
dx
cos[x2]  [-2x sin(x2)] cos(cos [x2]).

d2 y d dy
Therefore  [ ]
dx 2 dx dx

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 58

Chapter 1: Basic concepts

d
= [ - 2x sin[x2]  [ sin(cos[x2]) + cos[x2]  cos(cos [x2]) ] ].
dx

1.6 Problems

Using limit definition to find the first derivative of the following

functions

2
1) f (x) = x + 3x,

3 2
2) g (x) = (x + 4) ,

x
3) h (x) = ,
2
x 5

4) r (x) = x,

x
5) s (x) =
x 1

Lecture notes on Calculus Page 59