SMA 2270: CALCULUS III

⃝Francis
c O. Ochieng
francokech@gmail.com

Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics

Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

Course Description
• Limits, continuity and differentiability.
• Sequences and series: convergence tests.
• Mean Value Theorem of differential calculus. L’Hôpital’s rule. Rolle’s theorem.
• Power series: Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s theorems including applications to binomial theorem.
• Logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric, and hyperbolic functions.
• Trigonometric and hyperbolic representation of complex numbers.
• Partial differentiation: first and second partial derivatives, total derivatives, and change of
variables for two independent variables.
• Determinants: their evaluation and properties.
• Matrices: operations, inverse, solution of simultaneous linear equations. Cramer’s rule,
eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Application to geometrical transformations in two and three
dimensions.
• Integration: reduction formulae, applications to arc length, plane and surface area, volume, mass
centre and moments of inertia in Cartesian and polar co-ordinates. Improper integrals and their
convergence. Integration as the limit of a sum including pincer method for evaluation of simple
integrals. Double integrals including change of order of integration and change of variable.

References
[1] Calculus and Analytical Geometry (9th edition) by George B. Thomas and Ross L. Finney
[2] Advanced Engineering Mathematics (10th ed.) by Erwin Kreyszig
[3] Calculus by Larson Hostellem

Lecture 1

1 Limits
Definition 1.1 (Basic limit definition). Let f (x) be a function and let a and L be real numbers. If
f (x) approaches L as x approaches a (but is not equal to a), then we say that f (x) has limit L as x
approaches a and we denote
. = L.
lim f (x)
x→a

→ Note: lim f (x) is the value that f (x) approaches as x approaches a, and a does not have to be in
x→a
the domain of f .

1
1.1 Properties of limits
Theorem 1.1. Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 , then
x→a x→a

1. [Addition rule] lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L1 + L2

x→a

2. [Scalar multiple] lim [λf (x)] = λL1 , where λ is a constant.

x→a

3. [Product rule] lim [f (x) · g(x)] = L1 · L2

x→a
[ ]
f (x) L1
4. [Quotient rule] lim =
x→a g(x) L2

1.2 Methods of evaluating limits of functions

 Direct substitution
The required limit is obtained by just plugging in the value of input, say x, into the given
function, say f (x).

Example(s):

(a) Evaluate lim 3x3 − x2 + 2x + 5.

x→2
Solution

lim (3x3 − x2 + 2x + 5) = 3 lim x3 − lim x2 + 2 lim x + lim 5)

x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
= 3(2 ) − (2 ) + 2(2) + 5
3 2

= 29

x2 − 1
(b) Evaluate lim .
x→1 x + 1
Solution
x2 − 1 D.S 12 − 1 0
lim = = =0
x→1 x + 1 1+1 2

 Factorization
If on direct substitution we get the indeterminate form 0/0, then it means that there is a
common factor in both the numerator and denominator. In this case, we perform factorization
first so as to simplify the given function.

→ Note: if the polynomial in the numerator is of degree greater than the degree of the polynomial
in the denominator, we first need to perform long division.

Example(s):
x2 + x − 6
(a) Evaluate lim
x→2 x−2
Solution
x2 + x − 6 (x − 2)(x + 3)
lim = lim
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
D.S
= lim (x + 3) = 2 + 3
x→2
= 5

2
 x2 + 3x + 2
(b) Evaluate lim
x→−2 2x2 − 8
Solution
x2 + 3x + 2 (x + 2)(x + 1)
lim = lim
x→−2 2x2 − 8 2(x + 2)(x − 2)
x→−2
x + 1 D.S −2 + 1 −1
= lim = =
x→−2 2(x − 2) 2(−2 − 2) −8
1
=
8

x3 − 1
(c) Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 − 1
Solution
( )
x3 − 1 x−1
lim 2 = lim x + 2 (long division)
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x −1
[ ]
x−1
= lim x + (factorization)
x→1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
( )
1 D.S 1 1
= lim x + = 1+ =1+
x→1 x+1 1+1 2
3
=
2
 Limits at infinity
In this case, we first divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x in the
denominator.

Example(s):
5x3 − 1
(a) Evaluate lim .
x→∞ 4x3 − 2x − 7

Solution
1
5x3 − 1 5−
lim = lim x3
x→∞ 4x3 − 2x − 7 x→∞ 2 7
4− 2
− 3
x x
1
5− 5−0
D.S
= ∞ =
4−
2
−
7 4−0−0
∞ ∞
5
=
4
 Rationalization
Suppose there exists surds in either the numerator or denominator or both. Then, we first need
to multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the factor containing the
surd (in either the numerator or denominator) and then simplify the resulting function. After
rationalization, we perform a direct substitution.
→ Note: in case the surds appear in both the numerator and denominator, then we rationalize
the denominator.

Example(s):
√
(a) Evaluate lim x2 − 4x − x.
x→∞

3
 Solution
(√ )
√ (√ ) x2 − 4x + x
lim x2 − 4x − x = lim x2 − 4x − x √
x→∞ x→∞ x2 − 4x + x
x2 − 4x − x2 −4x
= lim √ = lim √
x→∞ x − 4x + x
2 x→∞ x − 4x + x
2
1
−4x · −4
lim (√ x lim √
= ) 1 = x→∞
x→∞
x2 − 4x + x · 4
1− +1
x x
D.S −4 −4 −4
= √ =√ =
4 1−0+1 1+1
1− +1
∞
= −2
√
x−3
(b) Evaluate lim .
x→9 x − 9

Solution
√ √ √
x−3 ( x − 3)( x + 3)
lim = lim √
x→9 x − 9 x→9 (x − 9)( x + 3)
(x − 9) 1
= lim √ = lim √
x→9 (x − 9)( x + 3) x→9 x+3
D.S 1 1
= √ =
9+3 3+3
1
=
6

Exercise:
√ √
(a) lim x2 − 2 − x2 + x.
x→∞

Solution
(√
√
)
√
√ √ √ x2 − 2 + x2 + x
lim x2 − 2 − x2 + x = lim x2 − 2 − x2 + x · √ √
x→∞ x→∞ x2 − 2 + x2 + x
(x2 − 2) − (x2 + x) −2 − x
= lim √ √ = lim √ √
x→∞ x −2+ x +x
2 2 x→∞ x − 2 + x2 + x
2
2 2
− −1 − −1
= lim √ x √ D.S
= √ ∞ √
x→∞ 2 1 2 1
1− 2 + 1+ 1− + 1+
x x ∞ ∞
1
= −
2

x3 − 1
(b) Evaluate lim . [ans: 3]
x→1 x − 1
√
1− x
(c) Evaluate lim . [ans: 1/2]
x→1 1 − x
5x2 − 3x + 2
(d) Evaluate lim . [ans: 1/2]
x→∞ 10x2 − x + 100
(e) Evaluate the following
√
1+ x
i) lim √ . [ans: 1/2]
x→0 2 + 2x

4
 x
ii) lim √ . [ans: 2]
x→0 1 − 1 − x

→ Note: A function which grows arbitrarily large as x goes to positive or negative infinity is said to
have an infinite limit. Infinity is not a real number, so if a function has infinite limit, we
say that the limit does not exist.

1.3 One-Sided Limit

Definition 1.2 (Right-Hand Limit). If a function f (x) approaches the number L as x approaches the
real number a and x > a, then we say that L is the right-hand limit of f at x = a and write

lim f (x)
. = L.
x→a+

Definition 1.3 (Left-Hand Limit). If a function f (x) approaches the number L as x approaches the
real number a and x < a, then we say that L is the left-hand limit of f at x = a and write

lim f (x)
. = L.
x→a−

→ Note: the limit of f (x) as x approaches a exists if both left and right limits exist and are equal at
x = a. In that case, we have

lim f (x) = lim f.(x) = lim f (x) = L

x→a− x→a+ x→a

Example(s):


 x
3 if x < 1
(a) Consider the function defined by f (x) = 1 if x = 1 Evaluate lim f (x).

 2−x x→1
if x > 1.

Solution

(i) LHL: lim f (x) = lim (x3 ) = 13 = 1

x→1− x→1−
(ii) RHL: lim f (x) = lim (2 − x) = 2 − 1 = 1
x→1+ x→1+
(iii) Since the result (i) = (ii), we get limx→1 f (x) = 1

|5x|
(b) Evaluate lim .
x→0 x

Solution
{
−5x
|5x| x if x < 0
Here, f (x) = = 5x
. Now,
x x if x > 0

|5x| −5x
(i) LHL: lim = lim = −5
x→0− x x→0− x
|5x| 5x
(ii) RHL: lim = lim =5
x→0+ x x→0+ x
|5x|
(iii) Since (i) ̸= (ii), therefore, lim does not exist.
x→1 x

Exercise:


 x − 2x
2 if x < 1
(a) Consider the function defined by f (x) = 2 if x = 1 . Evaluate lim f (x) and

 3x − 4 x→1−
if x > 1.
lim f (x).
x→1+

5
 {
2 − 3x if x ≤ 1
(b) Consider the function defined by f (x) = . Does lim f (x) exist?
2x3 if x > 1 x→1
{
x if x ̸= 0
(c) Find the value of lim f (x) where f (x) =
x→0 1 if x = 0.

1.4 L’Hôpital’s rule

f (x) 0 f (x) ±∞
If on direct substitution we get indeterminate form −i.e., either lim = or lim = .
x→a g(x) 0 x→a g(x) ±∞
Then,
f (x) . f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

provided the limit exists. Repeat finding derivatives until you get a meaningful result.

→ Note: if on direct substitution we get forms other than 0/0 or ±∞/ ± ∞ (i.e., 0±∞ , 1±∞ , ±∞±∞ ),
then we first transform the problem either by introducing the natural logarithm (ln) or by writing
1
them in the simplest form e.g cosec x = .
sin x
Example(s):
x2 + x
(a) Find lim .
x→∞ e2x + 1

Solution
x2 + x ∞
On direct substitution, we have lim = (indeterminate). So,
x→∞ e2x + 1 ∞

x2 + x L′ H 2x + 1 D.S ∞
lim = lim = (indeterminate)
x→∞ e2x + 1 x→∞ 2e2x ∞
L′ H 2 D.S 2
= lim =
x→∞ 4e2x ∞
= 0

x − sin x
(b) Evaluate lim
x→0 x3

Solution
x − sin x 0 − sin 0 0
On direct substitution, we have lim 3
= 3
= (indeterminate). So,
x→0 x 0 0
x − sin x L′ H 1 − cos x D.S 0
lim = = (indeterminate)
x→0 x3 3x2 0
L′ H sin x D.S 0
= lim = (indeterminate)
x→0 6x 0
L′ H cos x
= lim
x→0 6
D.S 1
=
6
( )x/2
(c) Evaluate lim 2x
x→0+

Solution

6
 On direct substitution, we have lim (2x)x/2 = 00 (indeterminate). So,
x→0+

Let y = (2x)x/2
x 1 ln(2x)
⇒ ln(y) = ln(2x) =
2 2 1/x
1 ln(2x) D.S ∞
⇒ lim ln(y) = lim = (indeterminate)
x→0+ 2 x→0 1/x
+ ∞
2
L′ H 1 2x 1 D.S
= lim −1 = lim (−x) = 0
2 x→0+ x2
2 x→0+
[ ]
∴ ln lim y = 0 ⇒ lim y = e0 = 1
x→0+ x→0+
( )x
1
(d) Evaluate lim 1+ .
x→∞ x

Solution
( )x
1
On direct substitution, we have lim 1+ = 1∞ (indeterminate). So,
x→∞ x
( )x
1
Let y = 1+
x
( )
1
( )
ln 1 +
1 x
⇒ ln(y) = x ln 1 + =
x 1/x
( )
1
ln 1 +
x D.S 0
⇒ lim ln(y) = lim = (indeterminate)
x→∞ x→∞ 1/x 0
1 −1
( )
1 · x2
L′ H 1+ x 1 D.S
= lim = lim = 1
x→∞ −1 x→∞ 1 + 1
x
x2
[ ]
∴ ln lim y = 1 ⇒ lim y = e1 = e
x→∞ x→∞

Exercise:

1. Evaluate
2 sin x − sin 2x
(a) lim
x→0 2ex − 2 − x2
7x − 28
(b) lim
x→∞ x3
x −x−2
2
(c) lim
x→1 x2 − 1
2. Evaluate
1
(a) lim x x−1 . [ans: = e]
x→1
(b) lim xsin x . [ans: = 1]
x→0
(c) lim xx . [ans: = 1]
x→0

3. Evaluate
sin 7x
(a) lim . [ans: = 7/4]
x→0 4x

7
 cot x
(b) lim .
x→0+ ln x2
( )
cos y
(c) limπ . [ans: = 1]
2 −y
π
y→ 2

1 − cos θ
(d) lim . [ans: = 0]
θ→0 θ
sin2 θ
(e) lim . [ans: = 1]
θ→0 θ 2

4. In each case, evaluate the limit.

(a) lim xa ln x, where a > 0.

x→0+
( ( ))2x
2
(b) lim 1 + sin . [ans: = e4 ]
x→∞ x
( )
2 2
(c) lim −
x→0+ x sin x

(d) lim cos xcot x

x→0+
√
(e) lim x2 + 1 − x
x→∞

Lecture 2

1.5 The ϵ − δ definition of limits

The statement lim f (x) = L means that given any real number ϵ > 0, there exists another real number
x→a
δ > 0 such that
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ . |f (x) − L| < ϵ

Diagrammatically, we have:

The value of δ will depend on the value of ϵ i.e we will always begin with any ϵ > 0 and then determine
an appropriate corresponding value of δ > 0. If there is a single ϵ > 0 for which this process fails, then
the limit L has been incorrectly computed or the limit does not exist.

Example(s):

1. Show that lim (2 − 3x) = 5 using the ϵ − δ definition of limit.

x→−1

Solution

8
 Let ϵ > 0 be given. We need to find δ > 0 (which depends on ϵ) so that if 0 < |x + 1| <
δ, then |(2 − 3x) − 5| < ϵ. We begin with |(2 − 3x) − 5| < ϵ and ”solve for” |x + 1|. So,

0 < |x + 1| < δ ⇒ |(2 − 3x) − 5| < ϵ

⇒ | − 3x − 3| < ϵ
⇒ | − 3(x + 1)| < ϵ
⇒ | − 3||x + 1| < ϵ
ϵ
∴ |x + 1| <
3
ϵ ϵ
Now, choose δ = . Thus, if 0 < |x + 1| < , it follows that |(2 − 3x) − 5| < ϵ. This completes
3 3
the proof.
2. Show that lim (x2 + 3) = 4 using the ϵ − δ definition of limit.
x→1

Solution
Let ϵ > 0 be given. We need to find δ > 0 (which depends on ϵ) so that if 0 < |x − 1| <
δ, then |(x2 + 3) − 4| < ϵ. We begin with |(x2 + 3) − 4| < ϵ and ”solve for” |x − 1|. So,

0 < |x − 1| < δ ⇒ |(x2 + 3) − 4| < ϵ

⇒ |x2 − 1| < ϵ
⇒ |(x − 1)(x + 1)| < ϵ
⇒ |x − 1||x + 1| < ϵ

We replace |x + 1| with an appropriate constant by arbitrarily assuming that δ ≤ 1 (this

assumption is valid since, in general, once we find a δ that works, all smaller values of δ also
work). Then,
|x − 1| < δ ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 < x − 1 < 1 ⇒ 0 < x < 2
Clearly, the function f (x) = x2 + 3 is defined for all x in the interval (0,2). Hence, this range of
values of x is appropriate. Therefore,

0<x<2 ⇒ 1<x+1<3

It follows that
ϵ
|x − 1||x + 1| < |x − 1|(3) < ϵ ⇒ |x − 1| <
3
( )
ϵ
Now, choose δ = min 1, (This guarantees that both assumptions made about δ in the course
3
of this proof are taken into account simultaneously.). This completes the proof.
3. Show that lim (3x2 − x) = 10 using the ϵ − δ definition of limit.
x→2

Solution
Let ϵ > 0 be given. We need to find δ > 0 (which depends on ϵ) so that if 0 < |x − 2| <
δ, then |(3x2 − x) − 10| < ϵ. We begin with |(3x2 − x) − 10| < ϵ and ”solve for” |x − 2|. So,

0 < |x − 2| < δ ⇒ |(3x2 − x) − 10| < ϵ

⇒ |(x − 2)(3x + 5)| < ϵ
⇒ |x − 2||3x + 5| < ϵ

We replace |3x + 5| with an appropriate constant by arbitrarily assuming that δ ≤ 1. Then,

|x − 2| < δ ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 < x − 2 < 1 ⇒ 1<x<3

Clearly, the function f (x) = 3x2 − x is defined for all x in the interval (1,3). Hence, this range
of values of x is appropriate. Therefore,

1<x<3 ⇒ 3 < 3x < 9 ⇒ 8 < 3x + 5 < 14

9
 It follows that
ϵ
|x − 2||3x + 5| < |x − 2|(14) < ϵ ⇒ |x − 2| <
14
( )
ϵ
Now, choose δ = min 1, . This completes the proof.
14
( )
2 1
4. Show that lim = using the ϵ − δ definition of limit.
x→3 x+3 3

Solution
Let ϵ >  0 be given. We need to find δ > 0 (which  depends on ϵ) so that if 0 < |x − 3| <
 2 1   2 1 

δ, then  − 
< ϵ. We begin with  − < ϵ and ”solve for” |x − 3|. So,
x + 3 3 x + 3 3
 
 2 1 
0 < |x − 3| < δ ⇒  − <ϵ
x + 3 3
 
 6 − (x + 3) 
⇒  <ϵ
3(x + 3) 
 
 −1(x − 3) 
⇒  <ϵ
3(x + 3) 
| − 1||x − 3|
⇒ <ϵ
|3||x + 3|
1 |x − 3|
⇒ <ϵ
3 |x + 3|
1
⇒ |x − 3| < 3ϵ
|x + 3|
1
We replace with an appropriate constant by arbitrarily assuming that δ ≤ 1. Then,
|x + 3|

|x − 3| < δ ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 < x − 3 < 1 ⇒ 2<x<4

2
Clearly, the function f (x) = is defined for all x in the interval (2,4). Hence, this range of
x+3
values of x is appropriate. Therefore,
1 1 1
2<x<4 ⇒ 5<x+3<7 ⇒ < <
7 x+3 5
It follows that ( )
1 1
|x − 3| < |x − 3| < 3ϵ ⇒ |x − 3| < 15ϵ
|x + 3| 5
Now, choose δ = min (1, 15ϵ). This completes the proof.
( )
x+3
5. Show that lim √ = 2 using the ϵ − δ definition of limit.
x→1 1+ x

Solution
 0 (which depends on ϵ) so that if 0 < |x − 1| <
Let ϵ >  0 be given.  We need to find δ >
 x+3   x+3 

δ, then  
√ − 2 < ϵ. We begin with  √ − 2 < ϵ and ”solve for” |x − 1|. So,
1+ x 1+ x
 
 x+3 
0 < |x − 1| < δ ⇒  √ − 2 < ϵ
1+ x
 
 x + 3 − 2(1 + √x) 
 
⇒  √ <ϵ
 1+ x 
 √ 
x + 1 − 2 x
 
⇒  √ <ϵ
 1+ x 

10
 We need to be able to factor out (x − 1) from the numerator.
 
 x + 1 − 1 + 1 − 2√x 
 
⇒  √ <ϵ
 1+ x 
 √ 
 (x − 1) + 2(1 − x) 
 
⇒  √ <ϵ
 1+ x 
 
 (x − 1)(1 + x) + 2(1 − √x)(1 + √x) 
√
 
⇒  √ √ <ϵ
 (1 + x)(1 + x) 
 √ 
 (x − 1)(1 + x) + 2(1 − x) 
 
⇒  √ <ϵ
 (1 + x)2 
 √ 
 (1 + x − 2) 

⇒ (x − 1) √ <ϵ
 (1 + x)2 
√  1
⇒ |x − 1|  x − 1 √ <ϵ
(1 + x)2
√ 1
We replace | x − 1| and √ with appropriate constants by arbitrarily assuming that
(1 + x)2
δ ≤ 1. Then,
√ √
|x − 1| < δ ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 < x − 1 < 1 ⇒ 0<x<2 ⇒ 0< x< 2
x+3 √ √
Clearly, the function f (x) = √ is defined for all x in the interval (0, 2). Hence, this
√ 1+ x
range of values of x is appropriate. Therefore,
√ √ √ √ √
i) 0 < x < 2 ⇒ −1 < x − 1 < 2 − 1 ⇒ −1 < x − 1 < 1.
√ √ √ √ √ √
ii) 0 < x < 2 ⇒ 1 < 1 + x < 2 + 1 ⇒ 12 < (1 + x)2 < ( 2 + 1)2 ⇒
1 1
√ < √ 2 < 1.
( 2 + 1) 2 (1 + x)
It follows that
√  1
|x − 1|  x − 1 √ < |x − 1|(1)(1) < ϵ ⇒ |x − 1| < ϵ
(1 + x)2

Now, choose δ = min (1, ϵ). This completes the proof.

Exercise:

1. Using the ϵ − δ definition of a limit of a function, show that;

( )
18x2 − 3x − 1 ϵ
(i) lim = 3. [ans: δ = ]
x→ 13 3x − 1 6
( ) √
(ii) lim x2 − 8x + 8 = −8. [ans: δ = ϵ]
x→4
( ) ( )
ϵ
(iii) lim x2 + 1 = 65. [ans: δ = min 1, ]
x→8 17
( ) ( )
x+4 1 28
(iv) lim =− . [ans: δ = min 1, ϵ ]
x→−6 2 − x 4 3
( ) ( )
x 1 1 2
(v) lim = 1. [hint: assume that δ ≤ , ans: δ = min , ϵ ]
x→3 4x − 9 4 4 3
( √ ) { √ }
(vi) lim 2 + x = 5. [ans: δ = min 1, ( 8 + 3)ϵ ]
x→9
(√ ) { √ }
(vii) lim x + 5 = 3. [ans: δ = min 1, ( 8 + 3)ϵ ]
x→4

2. Use the precise definition of limits to show that:

11
 x2 + x − 6
(i) lim = −5
x→−3 x+3
(ii) lim (4x3 + 3x2 − 24x + 22) = 5
x→1
(iii) lim (−2x3 + 9x + 4) = −3
x→−1
(iv) lim (2 + 5x) = 17.
x→3

2 Continuity and Differentiability

2.1 Continuity
• [Continuity at a Point] A function f (x) is said to be continuous at an interior point x = a if the
following three conditions are satisfied:

(i) f (x) is defined at x = a (i.e., f (a) is finite),

(ii) lim f (x) exists (i.e LHL=RHL)
x→a
(iii) lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a

→ Note: if at least one of these conditions is not satisfied, then f (x) is not continuous at x = a.
In this case, we say that f (x) is discontinuous at point a or that the point a is a discontinuity
of f .

• [Continuity on an Interval] A function f is said to be continuous on an interval (a, b) if it is

continuous for every c in (a, b).

Example(s):
 2

 x −1
 if x < −1
(a) Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) = x+1 at x = −1



x2 − 3 if x ≥ −1

Solution
We need to test the three conditions for continuity:

(i) f (−1) = (−1)2 − 3 = −2 (defined).

(ii) lim f (x):
x→−1

( )
x2 − 1 (x  − 1)
+1)(x

LHL: lim f (x) = lim = lim  = lim (x − 1) = −2
x→−1− x→−1− x+1 x→−1− (x
 +1) x→−1−

RHL: lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 3) = 1 − 3 = −2

x→−1+ x→−1+

Since LHL=RHL=-2, therefore, lim f (x) = −2

x→−1
(iii) So, as lim f (x) = f (−1) therefore, f (x) is continuous on (−4, 4).
x→−1

2x4 − 6x3 + x2 + 3
(b) Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) = at x = 1.
x−1

Solution
2x4 − 6x3 + x2 + 3
Clearly, the function f (x) = is discontinuous at x = 1. However, the
x−1
discontinuity can be removed by first simplifying the given function. Thus, by long division we

12
 have
2x3 − 4x2 − 3x − 3
)
x−1 2x4 − 6x3 + x2 +3
− 2x4 + 2x3
− 4x3 + x2
4x3 − 4x2
− 3x2
3x2 − 3x
− 3x + 3
3x − 3
0
Hence, the function can be rewritten in the simplified form f (x) = 2x3 − 4x2 − 3x − 3 [by long
division], which is now continuous at x = 1 [student to verify this]. Therefore, the original
function is said to have a removable discontinuity.

Exercise:

(a) Find the value of A and B so that the following function is continuous for all x.
 ( )

 1 − cos x

 A if x < 0

 sin2 x




f (x) = 2x2 − x + B if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1







 x2 + 2x − 3

 if x > 1
2 x −1

Solution

f (0) = 2(0)2 − (0) + B = B

A(1 − cos(x)) A( −(
(1( (((
cos(x)) A
lim f (x) = lim = lim ( ( ( =
x→0 − x→0 − 2
sin (x) −
x→0 ( −(
(1( cos(x))(1 + cos(x)) 2
lim f (x) = lim (2x − x + B) = B
2
x→0+ x→0+

Since f (x) is continuous at x = 0, it follows that lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (0). Thus, we have
x→0− x→0+
A
= B − − − (∗).
2

Also,

f (1) = 2(1)2 − (1) + B = 1 + B

lim f (x) = lim (2x2 − x + B) = 1 + B
x→1− x→1−
x2 + 2x − 3 (x  + 3)
−1)(x
 4
lim f (x) = lim = lim  = =2
x→1+ x→1+ x −1
2 x→1 
+ − 1)(x + 1)
(x 2
Since f (x) is continuous at x = 1, it follows that lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (1). Thus, we have
x→1− x→1+
1 + B = 2 − − − (∗∗).

Solving equations (∗) and (∗∗) simultaneously yields A = 2 and B = 1.

 3

 x + 27
 if x ̸= −3
(b) Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) = x+3 .



27 if x = −3

13
 (c) Find a and b so that the following function is continuous ∀x ∈ R:


 2, if x < 1




f (x) = ax + b, if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2






6, if x > 2

[ans: a = 4, b = −2]

2.2 Differentiability
When the limit exists, then from the first principle the derivative of f (x) at x = a is defined by

f ′ (a) = lim . + h) − f (a)

f (a
h→0 h

The right-hand derivative of f (x) at x = a is defined by

f (a + h) − f (a)
Rf ′ (a) = lim .
h→0 + h

The left-hand derivative of f (x) at x = a is defined by

f (a + h) − f (a)
Lf ′ (a) = lim .
h→0− h

If Rf ′ (a) = Lf ′ (a) then we say that f (x) is differentiable at x = a.

Example(s):

1. Show that f (x) = |x| is differentiable everywhere except at x = 0 and illustrate the solution by
a graph.

Solution


−x, if x < 0

f (x) = |x| =


x, if x ≥ 0
So,

f (0 + h) − f (0) 0+h−0
Rf ′ (0) = lim = lim =1
h→0+ h h→0+ h
f (0 + h) − f (0) −0 − h + 0
Lf ′ (0) = lim = lim = −1
h→0− h h→0− h
But Rf ′ (0) ̸= Lf ′ (0), so f (x) is not differentiable at x = 0.

2. Although differentiability implies continuity, continuity does not imply differentiability. Discuss
using appropriate example. [hint: use f (x) = |x − 2|. Test it for both continuity and
differentiability.]

2.3 Rolle’s Theorem

Suppose that a function f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], a < b, and is differentiable on
the open interval (a, b), a < x < b. If f (a) = f (b), then there exists a real number c strictly between
a and b such that
f ′ (c). = 0 .

14
 → Note: In other words, since f (x) is continuous
and differentiable, then in between every two
points a and b with the same image, the function
f (x) must have a maximum or a minimum.

Example(s):

1. Find the value of c ∈ [−3, 0] as prescribed by Rolle’s theorem if f (x) = (x2 + 3x)e−x/2 .

Solution
Clearly, the function f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [−3, 0] and differentiable on the
open interval (−3, 0). Here, a = −3 and b = 0. Then,

f (a) = f (−3) = ((−3)2 + 3(−3))e−(−3)/2 = 0

f (b) = f (0) = ((0)2 + 3(0))e−(0)/2 = 0
1 1
f ′ (x) = (x2 + 3x)(− e−x/2 ) + (2x + 3)e−x/2 ⇒ f ′ (c) = (c2 + 3c)(− e−c/2 ) + (2c + 3)e−c/2
2 2
Since f (−3) = f (0) = 0, then by Rolle’s theorem there must be a point c ∈ [−3, −] such that
1
f ′ (c) = 0. So, (c2 + 3c)(− e−c/2 ) + (2c + 3)e−c/2 = 0 which yields c = −2 or c = 3. But only
2
−2 lies between −3 and 0. Therefore, c = −2.

2.4 Mean Value Theorem (MVT)

Suppose that the function f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], and is differentiable on the
open interval (a, b). Then, there exists a real number c in the open interval (a, b) such that

f ′ (c) = . − f (a)
f (b)
b−a

→ Note: In other words, since f (x) is continuous

and differentiable, then in between every two
points a and b, there is a point c for which the
slope of the tangent line at c is equal to the slope
of the secant line linking the points (a, f (a)) and
(b, f (b)).

Example(s):

1. Verify the MVT for the function f (x) = 2x2 − 7x + 10 in the closed interval [2, 5].

Solution
Clearly, the function f (x) is continuous on the closed interval [2, 5] and differentiable on the
open interval (2, 5). Here, a = 2 and b = 5. Then,

f (a) = f (2) = 2(2)2 − 7(2) + 10 = 4

f (b) = f (5) = 2(5)2 − 7(5) + 10 = 25
f ′ (x) = 4x − 7 ⇒ f ′ (c) = 4c − 7

15
 f (b) − f (a) 25 − 4
So by MVT, we have f ′ (c) = ⇒ 4c − 7 = which yields c = 3.5. Since
b−a 5−2
c = 3.5 is strictly in the interval [2, 5], it follows that MVT holds (or is satisfied).

2. Given that f (x) is continuous and differentiable on [-6,-1], f (−6) = −23, and f ′ (x) ≥ 4. Find
the smallest possible value of f (−1). [ans: 3 ≤ f (−1)]

3. Verify that the function f (x) = sin x satisfies the hypothesis of MVT on the interval [0, π/2].
Then find all c that satisfy the conclusion of the MVT. [ans:c = 0.4965π]

4. For the function g(x) = (x + 1)3 on [−1, 1], find the number c guaranteed by the Mean Value
Theorem.
x−4
5. For f (x) = , decide if we can use the Mean Value Theorem for derivatives on [0, 5] or [4, 6].
x−3
If so, find c. If not, explain why?

Lecture 3

3 Sequences and Series

3.1 Sequences
A sequence is an arrangement of terms (either numbers or functions) in a definite order with a rule of
generating its members. It is also a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers. E.g.,

(a) 1, 3, 5, 7, · · · The nth term is an = 2n − 1.

(b) 1, 4, 9, 16, · · · The nth term is an = n2 .

(c) log x, log x2 , log x3 , · · · The nth term is an = log xn .

3.1.1 Limit of a sequence

The sequence {an }n≥1 is said to approach the number L as a limit when n → ∞ provided that there
exists a real number ϵ > 0 and an integer N such that |an − L| < ϵ whenever n ≥ N . If so, then

lim a.n = L
n→∞

When this condition is satisfied, then the sequence {an } converges to the limit L. Any sequence which
is not convergent is said to be divergent.

Example(s):
n2
1. Does the sequence {an }n≥1 = converge as n → ∞?
n2 + 3
Solution
n2 D.S ∞
lim an = lim = (indeterminate)
n→∞ n→∞ n2 + 3 ∞
L′ H 2n D.S ∞
= lim = (indeterminate)
n→∞ 2n ∞
L′ H 2
= lim
n→∞ 2
= 1
n2
Since the limit exists i.e., lim = 1, the sequence {an } is convergent.
n→∞ n2 + 3

2. Investigate the convergence of the following sequences as n → ∞.

16
 1 + cos n
(a) {an } =
n
3n4 + n − 1
(b) {an } = 4
5n + 2n2 + 1
n
(c) {an } = 2
2n + n + 1
(d) {an } = (−1)n
√
(e) {an } = n2 + 4n − n [ans: L = 2]

3.2 Series
The sum of the terms in a sequence forms a series. Normally, we use Sigma (Σ) to denote summation.
n+1
For example, consider the sequence {an }n≥1 = ln( ). The series is given by
n
∞
∑ ∞
∑ n+1
an = ln( )
n=1 n=1
n

3.2.1 Special series

(1) Geometric series
This is a series of the form ∞
∑
ark , with a ̸= 0
k=0

The series

(i) Converges if |r| < 1

(ii) Diverges if |r| > 1

Without proof, the sum of the first n terms of a GP is given by



 a(rn − 1)
 , if |r| > 1
Sn = r−1

 a(1 − rn )
 , if |r| < 1
1−r

(2) P-series
This is a series of the form ∞
∑ 1
k=0
kp
The p-series

(i) Converges if p > 1

(ii) Diverges if p ≤ 1

→ Note: this will be confirmed by the integral test.

(3) Harmonic series

It is derived from the p-series if we set p = 1 i.e.,
∞
∑ 1
k=0
k

Harmonic series always diverges (to be confirmed by the integral test).

17
3.2.2 Limits and convergence of series
∞
∑ ∑
n
Let ak − − − (∗) be a series and Sn = ak denote the nth partial sum of the infinite series (∗).
k=1 k=1
Thus, we have

S1 = a1
S2 = a1 + a2
S3 = a1 + a2 + a3
.. .
. = ..
Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an

The partial sums form a sequence {Sn }. The infinite series converges to the sum S if

lim S.n = S
n→∞

The infinite series diverges if the sequence {Sn } does not converge.

→ Note: if a limit exists, it must be unique.

Example(s):
∞
∑ 1
1. Show that the series converges and find its sum.
k=1
2k
Solution
∞
∑ 1 1 1 1 1
(i) The series is = + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · is a geometric series (GP).
k=1
2k 2 2 2 2
(ii) Partial sums:
1
S1 =
2
1 1 3
S2 = + =
2 22 4
1 1 1 7
S3 = + 2+ 3 =
2 2 2 8
1 1 1 1 15
S4 = + 2+ 3+ 4 =
2 2 2 2 16
.. ..
. = .
Sn = ?

1 3 7 15
(iii) Sequence of partial sums: , , , , · · · The nth term is given by
2 4 8 16
( )
1
2 1 − ( 12 )n 1
Sn = =1−
1− 1
2
2n
( 1)
Now, lim Sn = lim 1 − n = 1. Therefore, the given infinite series converges since Sn
n→∞ n→∞ 2
converges and its sum is 1 -i.e.,
∑∞
1
=1
k=1
2k

∞
∑
2. Show that the series (−1)k diverges.
k=1
Solution

18
 ∞
∑
(i) The series is (−1)k = −1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + · · ·
k=1
(ii) Partial sums:

S1 = −1
S2 = −1 + 1 = 0
S3 = −1 + 1 − 1 = −1
S4 = −1 + 1 − 1 + 1 = 0
.. .
. = ..
Sn = ?

(iii) Sequence of partial sums: −1, 0, −1, 0, · · · The nth term is given by
{
−1, if n is odd
Sn =
0, if n is even

Because Sn has no limits, the given infinite series diverges.

3. Use partial fractions to find the sum of each series.

∞
∑ 1
(a) (Telescopic series)
k=1
k(k + 1)
Solution
We look for a pattern in the sequence of partial sums that might lead to a formula for Sn .
The key observation is partial fraction decomposition as follows.
1 A B
= + ⇒ A(k + 1) + B(k) = 1 ⇒ A = 1, B = −1
k(k + 1) k (k + 1)
∞ ∞
( )
∑ 1 ∑ 1 1
Therefore, = − and the nth partial sum is
k=1
k(k + 1) k=1 k k + 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∑
n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sn = − = 1− + − + − + ··· + −
k=1
k k+1 2 2 3 3 4 n n+1

1
Removing parentheses and canceling adjacent terms of opposite sign yields Sn = 1 −
n+1
( )
1
lim Sn = lim 1− =1
n→∞ n→∞ n+1
Therefore, the series converges and its sum is 1. So,
∞
∑ 1
=1
k=1
k(k + 1)

∞
∑ 4
(b) .
k=1
(4k − 3)(4k + 1)
∞
∑ 40k
(c) .
k=1
(2k − 1)2 (2k + 1)2

4. Determine the nth partial sum of the following series. Hence, test for its convergence or
divergence.
∞
∑ 5 1 1 1
(a) . [ans: Sn = − , S∞ = , converges]
n=1
(5n − 3)(5n + 2) 2 5n + 2 2

19
 ∞
∑ 2n + 1 1
(b) 2 (n + 1)2
. [ans: Sn = 1 − , S∞ = 1, converges]
n=1
n (n + 1)2

5. Show whether the following series diverge or converge.

1 1 1 n
(a) + + + ··· [ans: Sn = , series converges.]
(1)(2) (2)(3) (3)(4) n+1
1 1 1 1 1 − 51n
(b) + 2 + 3 + 4 + ··· [ans: Sn = , series converges.]
5 5 5 5 4
1 1 1
(c) −1 + − + + · · ·
3 5 7
6. In the following find the formula for the nth partial sum of each series and use it to find the
series sum if the series converges.
2 2 2 ( 1)
(a) 2 + + + + ··· [ans: Sn = 3 1 − , series sum = 3.]
3 9 27 3n
1 − (−2)n
(b) 1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + · · · [ans: Sn = , series diverges.]
3
7. Write down the first few terms of each series to show how the series starts. Then find the sum
of each series.
∞
∑ (−1)k
(a)
k=0
4k
∑∞
7
(b) k
k=1
4
∞ (
∑ 5 1)
(c) +
k=0
2k 3k
∞ (
∑ 1 (−1)k )
(d) +
k=0
2k 5k

Lecture 4

3.2.3 Tests for convergence of series

Generally, finding a formula for the general term in the sequence of partial sums is a very difficult
process. We won’t be doing much with the partial sums of series due to the extreme difficulty faced
in finding the general formula. This also means that we’ll not be doing much work with the sum of
series since in order to get the sum we’ll also need to know the general formula for the partial sums.

(1) Ratio test

∑ a 
 n+1 
Let an be an infinite series with positive terms and suppose that lim   = L. Then,
n→∞ an
(i) the series converges if L < 1
(ii) the series diverges if L > 1
(iii) the test is inconclusive if L = 1

→ Note: the ratio test is often effective when the terms of a series contains factorials of
expressions involving n (e.g., n!) or expressions raised to a power involving n (e.g., np ).

Example(s):
Investigate the convergence of the following series.

20
 ∞
∑ (−1)n 2n
(a)
n=0
n!
Solution
(−1)n 2n (−1)n+1 2n+1 (−1)(−1)n 2(2n )
Here, an = ⇒ an+1 = = . By ratio test, we
n! (n + 1)! (n + 1)n!
have
a   (−1)(−1)n 2(2n )
n! 
 n+1  
lim   = lim  ·

n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)n! (−1)n 2n
 −2   −2/n 
   
= lim   = lim  
n→∞ n + 1 n→∞ 1 + 1/n
 0 
 
=  =0
1+0
Since L = 0 < 1, the given series converges by ratio test.
∞
∑ (−1)n 2n+1
(b)
n=0
n2
Solution
(−1)n 2n+1 (−1)n+1 2n+2 (−1)(−1)n 2(2n+1 )
Here, an = ⇒ an+1 = = . By ratio test, we
n2 (n + 1)2 (n + 1)2
have
a   (−1)(−1)n 2(2n+1 )n2 
 n+1   
lim   = lim  · 
n→∞ an n→∞ (n + 1)2 (−1)n 2n+1
 −2n2   −2n2 
   
= lim   = lim  
n→∞ (n + 1)2 n→∞ n2 + 2n + 1
 −2 
 
= lim  
n→∞ 1 + 2/n + 1/n2
 −2 

=  =2
1+0+0
Since L = 2 > 1, the series diverges.
∞
∑ 2n + 5
(c)
n=0
3n
∑∞
4n n!n!
(d)
n=0
(2n)!
∞
∑ 3n
(e)
n=1
2n + 5
∞
∑ (2n)!
(f)
n=1
(n!)3

(2) Root test

∑ √
Let an be an infinite series with positive terms and suppose that lim n
an = L. Then,
n→∞

(i) the series converges if L < 1

(ii) the series diverges if L > 1
(iii) the test is inconclusive if L = 1

Example(s):
Investigate the convergence of the following series.

21
 ∞
∑ 1
(a)
n=1
(ln n)n
Solution
1
Here, an = . By root test, we have
(ln n)n
√
√ n
1 1 1 1
lim n an = lim = lim = = =0
n→∞ n→∞ (ln n) n n→∞ (ln n) (ln ∞) ∞

Since L = 0 < 1, the given series converges by root test.

∞
( )n
∑ n
(b)
n=1
3n + 1
∞
( )n
∑ 2
(c)
n=1
n

(3) Integral test (Maclaurin-Cauchy test)

∞
∑
Let an be a series with positive terms i.e., an > 0 for all n ≥ N . Suppose that f (x) is
n=1
a continuous, positive, and decreasing function on the interval [N, ∞) (for some N ≥ 1) with
∞
∑
f (n) = an . Then, the series an :
n=N

∫∞
i) converges if the improper integral f (x)dx is positive and finite.
N
∫∞
ii) diverges if the improper integral f (x)dx is negative and infinite.
N

→ Note: the integral test is often effective if f (x) is easy to integrate and an involves logarithmic,
exponential, trigonometric, and inverse of trigonometric functions.

Example(s):
∞
∑ 1
1. Use integral test to show that the harmonic series always diverges.
n=1
n
Solution
1 1 1
Here, an = , N = 1 and f (n) = an = ⇒ f (x) = . Clearly, f (x) is positive
n n x
and continuous on the interval [1, ∞). We see that f (x) is decreasing by examining its
1
derivative i.e., f ′ (x) = − 2 < 0 for all x ≥ 1. Thus, by the integral test, we have
x
∫∞ ∫∞ ∫b
1 1
f (x)dx = dx = lim dx
x b→∞ x
N 1 1
( b )

= lim ln x = lim [ln b − ln 1] = lim (ln b)
b→∞ 1 b→∞ b→∞
D.S
= ∞
∑
Since the integral is infinite, it follows that the series an diverges (which confirms that
harmonic series always diverges).

22
 ∞
∑ 1
2. Use integral test to investigate the convergence of the p-series defined by .
n=1
np
Solution
1 1 1
Here, an = p
, N = 1 and f (n) = an = p ⇒ f (x) = p . Clearly, f (x) is positive
n n x
and continuous on the interval [1, ∞). We see that f (x) is decreasing by examining its
p
derivative i.e., f ′ (x) = − (p+1) < 0 for all x ≥ 1. Thus, by the integral test, we have
x
[ ] 
∫∞ ∫∞ ∫b ∫b  x−p+1 b 
1 1
f (x)dx = dx = lim dx = lim x−p dx = lim
xp b→∞ xp b→∞ b→∞  −p + 1 
N 1 1 1 1
[ ]b  {[
  ]b }
1 1 1
= lim x−(p−1) = lim
1 − p b→∞   1 − p b→∞ xp−1 1
1
[ ] [ ]
1 1 1 1 1
= lim − = lim −1
1 − p b→∞ bp−1 1p−1 1 − p b→∞ bp−1
[ ]
D.S 1 1
= 0−1 =
1−p p−1

(i) For all p > 1, then the integral is positive and finite. For example, let p = 4 ⇒
1 1
= < ∞. Hence, p-series converges.
p−1 3
(ii) If p ≤ 1, then the integral is negative or infinite. For example, let
1 1 1 1
p = −1 ⇒ = − = −0.5 or let p = 1 ⇒ = = ∞ . Hence, p-series
−1 − 1 2 1−1 0
diverges.
3. Test for convergence of the following series using integral test.
∞
∑ 1
(a)
n=1
n2 +1
∑∞
1/n
(b) √
(ln n) ln2 n − 1
n=3
∑∞
en
(c)
n=1
1 + e2n
∞
∑ 8 tan−1 (n)
(d)
n=1
n2 + 1
∑∞
(e) sechn
n=1
∑∞
ln n
(f)
n=1
n

(4) Limit Comparison test

∑ ∑
Check whether the infinite series an is similar in appearance to another infinite series bn
whose convergence properties are known (geometric series, p-series, and harmonic series)
( a ) with
n
an , bn ≥ 0 for all n and apply the limit comparison test which states that if lim = L,
n→∞ bn
∑
where L is finite and positive. Then, it follows that the series an
∑
(i) converges if bn converges.
∑
(ii) diverges if bn diverges.

23
 Example(s):
Use limit comparison test to investigate the convergence of
∞
( )
∑ 1
(a)
n=1
2 −5
n

Solution
1 1 ∑ 1
an = n and bn = n . Clearly, bn is a geometric series with common ration r = .
2 −5 2∑ 2
Since |r| < 1, the series bn converges. So,
(a ) 1( 2n ) 2n
n
lim = lim · = lim n
n→∞ bn n→∞ −5 12n n→∞ 2 − 5
1
= lim
n→∞ 5
1− n
2
= 1
∑
Since the limit L = 1 is finite and positive, the series an will have the same convergence
∑
properties as bn . Thus the given series converges.
∞
∑ 1 1
(b) n
[hint: bn = ]
n=1
n3 3n
∞
∑ n3 1
(c) [hint: bn = ]
n=1
2n4 + 1 n
∞
∑ 1 1
(d) √ [hint: bn = ]
n=1
3
n +3 n3/2

3.2.4 Nth term test for divergence of an infinite series

∑
Let an be an infinite series and suppose that lim an = L. Then,
n→∞

(i) the series diverges if L is tangible (i.e., if L is finite and nonzero)

(ii) the test is inconclusive if L = 0
→ Note: if L = 0, then revert to other tests to investigate the convergence/divergence of the given
infinite series.

Example(s):
Use the Nth term divergence test to investigate the divergence of the following infinite series.
∞
∑ ( )
2n + 1
(a) ln
n=1
n+1

Solution
( )
2n + 1
Here, an = ln . By the nth term divergence test, we have
n+1
( ) ( ) ( )
2n + 1 2n + 1 D.S ∞
lim an = lim ln = ln lim = ln
n→∞ n→∞ n+1 n→∞ n + 1 ∞
( )
L′ H 2
= ln lim = ln 2
n→∞ 1

Since ln 2 is tangible (i.e., it is finite and nonzero), the given series diverges by the nth term test.

Exercise:
Use the nth term test for divergence to test for divergence of the following series

24
 ∞
∑ 3n
(a)
n=1
2n+5
∞ (
∑ )n
n
(b) . [ans: L = e−5 is tangible, diverges]
n=1
n+5

Lecture 5

4 Power Series
For purposes of elementary calculus, the most important series of variable terms are those of the form
∞
∑
an (x. − x0 )n ,
n=0

where x0 and the series coefficients an are real numbers. This type of a series is called a power series
because its terms proceed in powers of the binomial (x − x0 ). The assumption is that (x − x0 )0 = 1
even if (x − x0 ) = 0.

4.1 Radius and interval of convergence of power series

The interval in which the power series would converge depends on
(i) The series coefficients an ,
(ii) The point x0 about which the series is expanded, and
(iii) x itself.
Now, to find the radius of convergence of the power series, we consider the following two cases.
 
a n+1 
 n+1 (x − x0 ) 
CASE 1: By ratio test, the power series will converge if lim   < 1. So,
n→∞  an (x − x0 )n 
 
a n
 n+1 (x − x0 )(x − x0 ) 
⇒ lim  <1
n→∞  an (x − x0 )n 
 
a 
 n+1 
⇒ lim  (x − x0 ) < 1
n→∞  an 
  
a  
 n+1  
⇒ lim  x − x0  < 1
n→∞  an  
 
a 
 n+1 
⇒ |x − x0 | lim  <1
n→∞  an 

1
⇒ |x − x0 | <  
a 
 n+1 
lim  
n→∞  an 
 
 a 
 n 
⇒ |x − x0 | < lim  
n→∞  an+1 

Thus by ratio test, the radius of convergence of a power series is defined by

 
 a 
 n 
r = lim.  
n→∞  an+1 

25
 √ 
 
CASE 2: By nth root test, the power series will converge if lim n an (x − x0 )n  < 1. So,
n→∞
 1/n
 
⇒ lim an (x − x0 )n  <1
n→∞
⇒ lim |an |1/n |x − x0 | < 1
n→∞
⇒ |x − x0 | lim |an |1/n < 1
n→∞
1
⇒ |x − x0 | <
lim |an |1/n
n→∞
 
 1 
 
⇒ |x − x0 | < lim  √ 
n→∞  n an 

Thus by nth root test, the radius of convergence of a power series is defined by
 
 1 
 
r = lim.  √ 
n→∞  n an 

The interval of convergence of a power series is given by |x − x0 | < r. This implies that −r <
x − x0 < r. Therefore,
−r + x0 < .x < r + x0

Example(s):

1. Using ratio test, determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence for the following
power series
∑∞
(−1)n (x − 1)n
n=0
22n

Solution
(−1)n (−1)n+1 (−1)(−1)n
an = , a n+1 = = and x0 = 1. So by ratio test, the radius of
22n 22(n+1) 4(22n )
convergence is
   
 a   (−1)n 4(22n ) 
 n  
r = lim   = lim  2n ·  = lim | − 4| = 4
n→∞  an+1  n→∞  2 (−1)(−1)n  n→∞

The interval of convergence is given by

−r + x0 < x < r + x0 ⇒ −4 + 1 < x < 4 + 1 ⇒ −3 < x < 5

2. Using nth root test, determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence for the
following power series
∑∞ ( n + 1 )n
(−1)n (x − 2)n
n=0
5n + 3

Solution
( n + 1 )n
an = (−1)n and x0 = 2. So by nth root test, the radius of convergence is
5n + 3
 1/n  1/n    
 1       −(5 + 3/n) 
   1   1   
r = lim   = lim  ( n + 1 )n  = lim  ( n + 1 )  = n→∞
lim  =5
n→∞  an  n→∞  n→∞   1 + 1/n 
(−1)n (−1)
5n + 3 5n + 3
The interval of convergence is given by

−r + x0 < x < r + x0 ⇒ −5 + 2 < x < 5 + 2 ⇒ −3 < x < 7

26
 ∞ 2n
∑
3. Determine the radius and interval of convergence of the power series (4x − 8)n . [ans:
n=1 n
r = 18 , 15
8 <x<
17
8 ]

4. Using either ratio test or nth root test, determine the radius of convergence and interval of
convergence for the following power series.
∞
∑ xn
(a) [ans: r = 3, −3 < x < 3]
n=0 3n(n + 1)
∞ (x + 1)n
∑
(b) (n−1)
[ans: r = 4, −5 < x < 3]
n=1 n4
√ √ √
∞
∑ 2n xn 5 5 5
(c) √ [ans: r = ,− <x< ]
n=0 4n+1 10 10 10
5n
√ √ √
∞
∑ 2n xn 3 3 3
(d) √ [ans: r = ,− <x< ]
n=0 (2n + 1)2 3n 2 2 2
∞ (x − 4)n
∑
(e) √ [ans: r = 1, 3 < x < 5]
n=0 n+1
∞
∑ (n!)2 (x + 3)n
(f) [ans: r = 4, −7 < x < 1]
n=1 (2n)!
∞ (x + 3)n
∑
(g) [ans: r = 5, −8 < x < 2]
n=0 n5n

4.2 Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series

Consider the function defined by

f (x) = A + B(x − x0 ) + C(x − x0 )2 + D(x − x0 )3 + E(x − x0 )4 + F (x − x0 )5 + · · · (1)

Suppose the function f (x) has a power series representation about x = x0 . Also, assume that f (x)
has derivatives of every order. We need to find the constant coefficients A, B, C, D, E and F , then
substitute in the given function.

(i) Plugging x = x0 in equation (1) yields A = f (x0 ).

(ii) Differentiating equation (1) wrt x, we obtain

f ′ (x) = B + 2C(x − x0 ) + 3D(x − x0 )2 + 4E(x − x0 )3 + 5F (x − x0 )4 + · · · (2)

Setting x = x0 in equation (2) yields B = f ′ (x0 ).

(iii) Differentiating equation (2) wrt x, we obtain

f ′′ (x) = 2C + 6D(x − x0 ) + 12E(x − x0 )2 + 20F (x − x0 )3 + · · · (3)

f ′′ (x0 ) f ′′ (x0 )
Setting x = x0 in equation (3) yields C = = .
2 2!
(iv) Differentiating equation (3) wrt x, we obtain

f ′′′ (x) = 6D + 24E(x − x0 ) + 60F (x − x0 )2 + · · · (4)

f ′′′ (x0 ) f ′′′ (x0 )

Setting x = x0 in equation (4) yields D = = .
6 3!
(v) Differentiating equation (4) wrt x, we obtain

f (4) (x) = 24E + 120F (x − x0 ) + · · · (5)

f (4) (x0 ) f (4) (x0 )

Setting x = x0 in equation (5) yields E = = .
24 4!

27
(vi) Differentiating equation (5) wrt x, we obtain

f (5) (x) = 120F + · · · (6)

f (5) (x0 ) f (5) (x0 )

Setting x = x0 in equation (6) yields F = = .
120 5!
Substituting the values of the constants A, B, C, D, E and F into equation (1) yields

∑∞
f ′′ (x0 ) f ′′′ (x0 ) f (n) (x0 )
f (x) = f (x0 ) + f ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) + (x − x0 )2 .+ (x − x0 )3 + · · · = (x − x0 )n (7)
2! 3! n=0
n!

Equation (7) is the Taylor’s series expansion of the function f (x) about the point x = x0 . Setting
x0 = 0, we obtain

∑∞
′ f ′′ (0) 2 . f ′′′ (0) 3 f (n) (0) n
f (x) = f (0) + f (0)x + x + x + ··· = x (8)
2! 3! n=0
n!

Equation (8) is the Maclaurin’s series expansion of the function f (x). So, the Maclaurin’s series is
obtained when a given function is expanded about the point x0 = 0. It is a special case of Taylor’s
series.

Example(s):

1. Obtain the Maclaurin’s series expansion of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = e−2x .

Solution
The Maclaurin’s series expansion for a function f (x) is given by

f ′′ (0) 2 f ′′′ (0) 3 f (4) (0) 4

f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x + x + x + ···
2! 3! 4!
Thus we expand f (x) about the point x = 0.

f (x) = e−2x f (0) = 1

′ −2x
f (x) = −2e f ′ (0) = −2
f ′′ (x) = 4e−2x f ′′ (0) = 4
f ′′′ (x) = −8e−2x f ′′′ (0) = −8
f (4) (x) = 16e−2x f (4) (0) = 16

Hence,
4 2 8 16
f (x) = 1 − 2x + x − x3 + x4 + · · ·
2! 3! 4!
∑∞
4 2 (−2x)n
∴ e−2x = 1 − 2x + 2x2 − x3 + x4 + · · · =
3 3 n=0
n!

x3 x5 x7 ∞ (−1)n x2n+1
∑
(b) f (x) = sin x [ans: sin x = x − + − + ··· = ]
3! 5! 7! n=0 (2n + 1)!
x2 x3 x4 ∞ (−1)n xn+1
∑
(c) f (x) = ln(1 + x) [ans: ln(1 + x) = x − + − + ··· =
2 3 4 n=0 n+1
(d) f (x) = (1 + x)n

28
2. Use Maclaurin’s series to expand cos x in ascending powers of x upto the term containing x6 .
Hence, use your expansion to evaluate cos(66o ) correct to five decimal places.

Solution
The Maclaurin’s series expansion for a function f (x) is given by
f ′′ (0) 2 f ′′′ (0) 3 f (4) (0) 4 f (5) (0) 5 f (6) (0) 6
f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x + x + x + x + x + ···
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
Thus we expand f (x) about the point x = 0.
f (x) = cos x f (0) = 1
′
f (x) = − sin x f ′ (0) = 0
f ′′ (x) = − cos x f ′′ (0) = −1
f ′′′ (x) = sin x f ′′′ (0) = 0
f (4) (x) = cos x f (4) (0) = 1
f (5) (x) = − sin x f (5) (0) = 0
f (6) (x) = − cos x f (6) (0) = −1
Hence,
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!
Therefore,
(11π/30)2 (11π/30)4 (11π/30)6
cos(66o ) = cos(11π/30) ≈ 1 − + −
2! 4! 6!
≈ 0.40666

3. Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of the following functions about the indicated points.
(a) f (x) = ex/2 about x0 = 2.

Solution
The Taylor’s series expansion for a function f (x) about the point x = x0 is given by
f ′′ (x0 ) f ′′′ (x0 )
f (x) = f (x0 ) + f ′ (x0 )(x − x0 ) + (x − x0 )2 + (x − x0 )3 + · · ·
2! 3!
Setting x0 = 2 yields
f ′′ (2) f ′′′ (2)
f (x) = f (2) + f ′ (2)(x − 2) + (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3 + · · ·
2! 3!
Now,
f (x) = ex/2 f (2) = e
1 1
f ′ (x) = ex/2 f ′ (2) = e
2 2
′′ 1 x/2 ′′ 1
f (x) = e f (2) = e
4 4
′′′ 1 ′′′ 1
f (x) = ex/2 f (2) = e
8 8
1 1
f (4) (x) = ex/2 f (4) (2) = e
16 16
Hence,
e e e e
f (x) = e + (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3 + (x − 2)4 + · · ·
2 4(2!) 8(3!) 16(4!)
[ 1 1 1 1 ]
∴ ex/2 = e 1 + (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 + (x − 2)3 + (x − 2)4 + · · ·
2 8 48 384

29
 (b) f (x) = ln x about x0 = 2.
π
(c) f (x) = sin−1 x about x0 = .
4
1
(d) f (x) = e−8x about x0 = .
2

2
3. Expand e−x using Maclaurin’s series upto the 4th term. Hence, use your expansion to evaluate
1
correct to 4dp. [ans: = 0.3679]
e
4. Use your knowledge of Maclaurin’s series to approximate the following correct to 4dp. [hint:
convert the given degrees into radian using π c = 180o ]

(a) e−2 [ans: = 0.1353]

(b) sin 62o [ans: = 0.8829]
(c) cos 36o
(d) tan 31o
(e) ln(0.97)
1
5. Obtain the expansion of (a) cos x and (b) , and hence show that
1+x

cos x x2 x3 x4
=1−x+ − − + ···
1+x 2 2 4

x x x2 x4
6. Prove that = − + − ···
ex + 1 2 4 48
7. Using series expansion, evaluate the following
( )
x 2 ex
(a) lim [ans: −2]
x→0 cos x − 1
( )
sin x − x 1
(b) lim [ans: − ]
x→0 x3 6
( )
cos x − 1 + 12 x2 1
(c) lim [ans: ]
x→0 x4 24

8. Obtain the Maclaurin’s series expansion of (i) cos θ, (ii) sin θ, and (iii) eθ . Hence, show that
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ and e−iθ = cos θ − i sin θ.
x3 x5
9. Generate the Maclaurin’s series expansion for sinh x. [ans: sinh x = x + + + ···]
3! 5!
CAT 1

Lecture 6

5 Differentiation
5.1 Partial derivatives
Let z be a function of two independent variables x and y i.e. z = f (x, y). To compute the partial
∂z ∂z
derivative of z wrt x i.e. , we keep y constant and vice versa. Note that can also be written as
∂x ∂x
zx .

Example(s):

30
1. If z = 2x2 − 3xy + 4y 2 , find zx , zy , zxx , zyy , zxy , and zyx .

Solution
∂z ∂z
zx = = 4x − 3y, zy = = −3x + 8y
∂x ∂y
∂2z ∂ ∂2z ∂
zxx = 2
= (4x − 3y) = 4 zyy = 2
= (−3x + 8y) = 8
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂2z ∂ ∂2z ∂
zxy = = (−3x + 8y) = −3 zyx = = (4x − 3y) = −3 ⇒ zxy = zyx
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y∂x ∂y

2. Find zx and zy if.

(a) xy + yz 2 + zx = 1
Solution
Using implicit differentiation and differentiating partially wrt x, we get

(y + z)
y + 2yzzx + z + xzx = 0 ⇒ zx = −
2yz + x
Similarly, differentiating partially wrt y yields

(x + z 2 )
x + 2yzzy + z 2 + xzy = 0 ⇒ zy = −
2yz + x
( 25xy )
(b) z = tan−1
x2 + y 2
Solution
( 25xy ) 25xy
z = tan−1 ⇒ tan z = (9)
x2 + y2 x2 + y 2

Differentiating equation (9) partially wrt x [keeping y constant], we get

(x2 + y 2 )(1) − x(2x) 25y(y 2 − x2 )

(sec2 z)zx = 25y =
(x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2
( )2
25xy (x2 + y 2 )2 + 625x2 y 2
But sec2 z = 1 + tan2 z = 1 + = . Therefore,
x2 + y 2 (x2 + y 2 )2

(x2 + y 2 )2 + 625x2 y 2 25y(y 2 − x2 )

zx =
(x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2
25y(y 2 − x2 )
⇒ zx =
(x2 + y 2 )2 + 625x2 y 2

Similarly, differentiating equation (9) partially wrt y [keeping x constant], we get

(x2 + y 2 )(1) − y(2y) 25x(x2 − y 2 )

(sec2 z)zy = 25x =
(x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2

(x2 + y 2 )2 + 625x2 y 2
But sec2 z = . Therefore,
(x2 + y 2 )2

(x2 + y 2 )2 + 625x2 y 2 25x(x2 − y 2 )

zy =
(x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2
25x(x2 − y 2 )
⇒ zy =
(x2 + y 2 )2 + 625x2 y 2

3. Find zx , zy , zxx and zyy if.

31
 (a) z = sin(2x + 3y)
2 +y62
(b) z = ex
(c) x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 25
(d) x2 (2y + 3z) + y 2 (3x − 4z) = 10
10yz − 8(x3 + y 3 z) + 12x2 yz
(e)* x3 (2x − 4yz) + y 3 (3y + 8xz) = 10xyz [ans: zx = ]
8xy 3 − 4x3 y − 10xy
4. If z = ex/y sin(x/y) + ey/x cos(y/x), find zx and zy . Hence, show that xzx + yzy = 0.

∂2u ∂2u
5. Given that u = f (x + 2y) + g(x − 2y). Show that 4 = .
∂x2 ∂y 2

5.2 Total differentials and total derivatives

Let z = z(x, y) be a continuous function of two independent variables x and y with continuous partial
∂z ∂z
derivatives and . The total differential of z is defined by
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
dz = dx + dy
∂x ∂y
If x and y are given parametrically as x = x(t) and y = y(t), then z is a function of t by extension.
Therefore, the total derivative of z wrt t is given by
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
However, if x and y are continuous functions such that x = x(r, s) and y = y(r, s) of the independent
variables r and s, then z is a function of r and s by extension. Therefore, the partial derivative of z
wrt r is defined by
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= +
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r
Also, the partial derivative of z wrt s is defined by
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= +
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s
In general,
CASE 1: if z = z(x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn ) where the independent variables are themselves functions
of t i.e x1 = x1 (t), x2 = x2 (t), x3 = x3 (t), · · · , xn = xn (t), then

dz ∂z dx1 ∂z dx2 . ∂z dx3 ∂z dxn

= + + + ··· +
dt ∂x1 dt ∂x2 dt ∂x3 dt ∂xn dt

CASE 2: if z = z(x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn ) where the independent variables are themselves functions

of r and s i.e x1 = x1 (r, s), x2 = x2 (r, s), x3 = x3 (r, s), · · · , xn = xn (r, s), then

∂z ∂z ∂x1 ∂z ∂x2 . ∂z ∂x3 ∂z ∂xn

= + + + ··· +
∂r ∂x1 ∂r ∂x2 ∂r ∂x3 ∂r ∂xn ∂r

and

∂z ∂z ∂x1 ∂z ∂x2 . ∂z ∂x3 ∂z ∂xn

= + + + ··· +
∂s ∂x1 ∂s ∂x2 ∂s ∂x3 ∂s ∂xn ∂s

Example(s):
1. Find the total differential dz given that

32
 (a) z = x3 y + x2 y 2 + xy 3

Solution
∂z ∂z
Since z = z(x, y), ⇒ dz = dx + dy.
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
Now, = 3x2 y + 2xy 2 + y 3 and = x3 + 2x2 y + 3xy 2 . Substituting yields
∂x ∂y

dz = (3x2 y + 2xy 2 + y 3 )dx + (x3 + 2x2 y + 3xy 2 )dy

(b) z = x sin y − y sin x

Solution
∂z ∂z
Since z = z(x, y), ⇒ dz = dx + dy.
∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
Now, = sin y − y cos x and = x cos y − sin x. Substituting yields
∂x ∂y
dz = (sin y − y cos x)dx + (x cos y − sin x)dy

dz
2. Given that z = x2 + 3xy + 5y 2 , x = sin t and y = cos t. Find .
dt

Solution
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
Since z = z(x, y) and the independent variables are functions of t, then = + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
∂z ∂z dx dy
Now, = 2x + 3y, = 3x + 10y, = cos t, and = − sin t. Substituting yields
∂x ∂y dt dt
dz
= (2x + 3y) cos t − (3x + 10y) sin t = (2 sin t + 3 cos t) cos t − (3 sin t + 10 cos t) sin t
dt
= 2 sin t cos t + 3 cos2 t − 3 sin2 t − 10 sin t cos t = −8 sin t cos t + 3(cos2 t − sin2 t)
= −4 sin 2t + 3 cos 2t

∂z ∂z
3. Find and given that z = x2 + xy + y 2 , x = 2r + s and y = r − 2s.
∂r ∂s

Solution
Since z = z(x, y) and the independent variables are functions of r and s, then
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= + and = + .
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s

∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Now, = 2x + y, = x + 2y, = 2, = 1, = 1, and = −2. Substituting yields
∂x ∂y ∂r ∂s ∂r ∂s
∂z
= (2x + y)(2) + (x + 2y)(1) = 5x + 4y = 5(2r + s) + 4(r − 2s) = 14r − 3s
∂r
∂z
= (2x + y)(1) + (x + 2y)(−2) = −3y = −3(r − 2s) = −3r + 6s
∂s

∂2R ∂2R ∂2R

4. Given that R = ln(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ), show that x =y =z .
∂y∂z ∂z∂x ∂x∂y
dz dz
5. (a) Find given that z = x2 + 2xy + 4y 2 and y = e4x . [ans: = 2x + 2y + 8xy + 32y 2 ]
dx dx
dz dz
(b) Find given that z = ln(x2 + y 2 ), x = e−t and y = et . [ans: = 2 tanh 2t]
dt dt
du 1 du
(c) Find given that u = xy + yz + zx, y = and z = x2 . [ans: = 3x2 + 1]
dx x dx

33
 ∂u ∂u ∂u
(d) Find , , and given that u = x2 + 2y 2 + 2z 2 , x = ρ sin β cos θ, y = ρ sin β sin θ and
∂ρ ∂β ∂θ
∂u 2u ∂u ∂u
z = ρ cos β. [ans: = , = 2x2 cot β + 4y 2 cot β − 4z 2 tan β, = 2xy]
∂ρ ρ ∂β ∂θ
y xdy − ydx
(e) Find dθ if θ = tan−1 (y/x). [hint: tan θ = , ans: dθ = ]
x x2 + y 2
(f) Find dz if z = ex −y .
2 2
[hint: ln z = x2 − y 2 , ans: dz = 2z(xdx − ydy)]
∂z ∂z
(g) Find and if z = sin(5y + 4x), x = r + s, and y = s − r.
∂r ∂s

5.2.1 Applications of total derivatives

Example(s):

1. Approximate the change in hypotenuse of a right triangle of base 60mm and height 80mm if the
base is increased by 2.5mm and the height is decreased by 1.25mm.

Solution
Let x, y, z be the base, height, and
√ hypotenuse of the right triangle, respectively. Then by
Pythagoras theorem, we have z = x2 + y 2 . √ We are given that x = 60mm, y = 80mm, dx =
2.5mm, and dy = −1.25mm. Therefore, z = (60)2 + (80)2 = 100mm. Since z = z(x, y), the
change in hypotenuse is given by
∂z ∂z
dz = dx + dy.
∂x ∂y
∂z x ∂z y
Now, = and = . So,
∂x z ∂y z
∂z ∂z x y
dz = dx + dy = dx + dy
∂x ∂y z z
60 80
= (2.5) + (−1.25)
100 100
= 0.5

Therefore, the hypotenuse increases by 0.5mm.

V2
2. Power (P ) consumed in an electrical resistor is given by P = Watts. If V = 200 volts and
R
R = 8 ohms. By how much does the power change if V is decreased by 5 volts and R is decreased
by 0.2 ohms.

Solution
We are given that V = 200, R = 8, dV = −5, and dR = −0.2. Since P = P (V, R), the change in
power is given by
∂P ∂P
dP = dV + dR.
∂V ∂R
∂P 2V ∂P V2
Now, = and = − 2 . So,
∂V R ∂R R
∂P ∂P 2V V2
dP = dV + dR = dV − 2 dR
∂V ∂R R R
2(200) (200) 2
= (−5) − (−0.2)
8 (8)2
= −125

Therefore, the power P decreases by 125 Watts.

34
 3. The dimensions of a rectangular block of wood were found to be 100mm, 120mm, and 200mm
with possible error of 5mm in each of the measurements. Approximate the greatest error in
the surface area of the block and the percentage error in the area caused by the errors in the
individual measurements.

Solution
Let l, w, h be the length, width, and height of the block, respectively. Then the surface area is
given by S = 2(lw + lh + wh). We are given that l = 120mm, w = 100mm, h = 200mm, and
dl = dw = dh = ±5mm.

(i) Since S = S(l, w, h), the change in surface area is given by

∂S ∂S ∂S
dS = dl + dw + dh.
∂l ∂w ∂h
∂S ∂S ∂S
Now, = 2(w + h), = 2(l + h), and = 2(l + w). So,
∂l ∂w ∂h
∂S ∂S ∂S
dS = dl + dw + dh
∂l ∂w ∂h
= 2(w + h)dl + 2(l + h)dw + 2(l + w)dh
= 2(100 + 200)(±5) + 2(120 + 200)(±5) + 2(120 + 100)(±5)
= ±8400

Therefore, the greatest error in the surface area of the block is ±8400mm2 .
( )
(ii) Original surface area is S = 2 120 × 100 + 120 × 200 + 100 × 200 = 112000mm2 . So,
percentage error is given by
dS ±8400
% error = × 100% = × 100% = ±7.5%
S 112000
4. Two sides of a triangle are measured 150m and 200m and the included angle as 60o . If the
possible errors are 0.2m in measuring the sides and 0.1o in the angle. What is the greatest
1
possible error in the computed area. [hint: A = ab sin θ, ans: = ±780.310889m2 ]
2
5. The voltage V in an electrical resistor is slowly decreasing as the battery wears out. The
resistance R is slowly increasing as the resistor heats up. Given that V = IR, determine how
dV
the current I is changing at the moment when R = 400Ω, I = 0.08A, = −0.01V/s, and
dt
dR dI
= 0.03Ω/s. [ans: = −3.1 × 10−5 A/s]
dt dt

Lecture 7

6 Integration
6.1 Improper integrals
∫b
The definite integral f (x)dx is called improper integral if:
a

i) at least one of the limits of integration is infinite i.e., a = ∞ and/or b = ∞.

ii) the integrand f (x) has at least one point of discontinuity in the interval [a, b].
Consider the first kind of improper integrals in which at least one of the integration limits is infinite.
We use the following method of evaluation (pincer method).

35
 ∫∞ ∫b
1. f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx.
b→∞
a a

∫b ∫b
2. f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx.
a→−∞
−∞ a

∫∞ ∫0 ∫∞ ∫0 ∫b
3. f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx + lim f (x)dx.
a→−∞ b→∞
−∞ −∞ 0 a 0

∫x1 ∫p ∫x1 ∫a ∫x1

4. f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx + lim f (x)dx, where x0 < p < x1 are
a→p− b→p+
x0 x0 p x0 b
real numbers.

An improper integral is convergent if the associated limit exists and is a finite number (i.e. it is not
plus or minus infinity) and divergent if the associated limit either doesn’t exist or is (plus or minus)
infinity.

Example(s):

1. Evaluate the following improper integrals.

∫0
(a) e2x dx.
−∞

Solution
∫0 ∫0
2x
e dx = lim e2x dx, [let p = 2x ⇒ dp = 2dx]
a→−∞
−∞ a
∫0 [1 ]0
1
= lim ep dp = lim ep
a→−∞ 2 a→−∞ 2 2a
2a
[1 1 ] [ 1 1 −2∞ ] [ 1 1 ]
= lim − e2a = − e = − 2∞
a→−∞ 2 2 2 2 2 2e
1
=
2
∫∞
(b) e−x sin xdx.
0

Solution
We define
∫∞ ∫b
−x
e sin xdx = lim e−x sin xdx
b→∞
0 0

Using integration by parts [order of choosing u is LIATEC], we put

∫
u = sin x and
∫
dv =
−x −x
e dx. It implies that du = cos xdx and v = −e . Substituting in udv = uv − vdu, we
get ∫ ∫
e−x sin xdx = −e−x sin x + e−x cos xdx
∫
For e−x cos xdx, put u =∫ cos x and dv∫ = e−x dx. It implies that du = − sin xdx and
v = −e−x . Substituting in udv = uv − vdu, we get
∫ ∫
−x −x
e cos xdx = −e cos x − e−x sin xdx

36
 Therefore, ∫ ∫
e−x sin xdx = −e−x sin x + −e−x cos x − e−x sin xdx
∫
⇒2 e−x sin xdx = −e−x sin x + −e−x cos x
∫
1
⇒ e−x sin xdx = − e−x (sin x + cos x)
2

∫∞ [ ]b
−x 1
∴ e sin xdx = lim − e−x (sin x + cos x)
b→∞ 2
0 0
[ ]
1 1
= lim − e−b (sin b + cos b) + e−0 (sin 0 + cos 0)
b→∞ 2 2
[ ]
1 1
= lim − e−b (sin b + cos b) +
b→∞ 2 2
[ ]
1 1
= − ∞ (sin ∞ + cos ∞) +
2e 2
1
=
2
∫4
x
2. dx.
x2 −9
−1

Solution
∫4 ∫3 ∫4
x x x
dx = dx + dx
x −9
2 x −9
2 x2 −9
−1 −1 3
∫a ∫4
x x
= lim dx + lim dx
a→3− x2 − 9 b→3+ x2 − 9
−1 b
[ ]a 4[ ]
1 1
= lim ln |x2 − 9| + lim ln |x2 − 9|
a→3− 2 −1 b→3+ 2 b
[ ] [ ]
1 1 1 1
= lim ln |a2 − 9| − ln | − 8| + lim ln |7| − ln |b2 − 9|
a→3− 2 2 b→3+ 2 2
= −∞ (+∞)

Therefore, the improper integral diverges.

Exercise:
1. Evaluate the following integrals.
∫∞
(a) x3 e−x dx [ans: = ∞]
−∞
∫∞ √
e− x 2
(b) √ dx [ans: = ]
x e
1
∫0
(c) xex dx [ans: = −1]
−∞
∫∞
1
(d) dx
x ln2 x
2

37
 ∫∞
1
(e) dx [hint: complete the square in denominator then use partial fractions]
2x2 + 3x + 1
0
∫∞
1
(f) dx [hint: complete the square, use trigonometric subst.]
x2 + 6x + 10
−∞
∫0
xe−x dx
2
(g) [hint: let t = x2 ]
−∞

2. Test for convergence of the improper integral

∫∞
3x2 e−x dx.
3
(a) [ans: I = 1e , converges]
1
∫∞
x+3
(b) dx. [ans: ]
(x − 1)(x2 + 1)
2

6.2 Reduction formulae

On applications of methods of integration by parts, we can derive the reduction formula for a given
integral. By means of the reduction formula, the given integral is expressed as the sum of the terms,
one without the integral sign and the other an integral of the same form as the original integral but
easier to integrate.

Example(s):

1. Derive the reduction formula for:

∫
(a) In = xn e−x dx hence compute I3 .

Solution
Let u = xn and dv = e−x dx ⇒ du = nxn−1 dx and v = −e−x .
∫ ∫
n −x
x e dx = uv − vdu
∫
= −xn e−x + n xn−1 e−x dx
∴ In = −xn e−x + nIn−1

Now,

I3 = −x3 e−x + 3I2

I2 = −x2 e−x + 2I1
I1 = −xe−x + I0
∫
But I0 = e−x dx = −e−x + C1 . Therefore, back substitution yields:

∴ I3 = −x3 e−x − 3x2 e−x − 6xe−x − 6e−x + C = −(x3 + 3x2 + 6x + 6)e−x

∫
(b) In = sinn xdx hence compute I4 .

Solution

38
 ∫ ∫
In = n
sin xdx = sinn−1 x sin xdx. Let u = sinn−1 x and dv = sin xdx ⇒ du =
(n − 1) sinn−2 x cos xdx and v = − cos x.
∫ ∫
sinn xdx = uv − vdu
∫
= − sin n−1
x cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos2 xdx
∫
= − sinn−1 x cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x[1 − sin2 x]dx
∫ ∫
= − sin n−1
x cos x + (n − 1) sin n−2
xdx − (n − 1) sinn xdx

⇒ In = − sinn−1 x cos x + (n − 1)In−2 − (n − 1)In

sinn−1 x cos x (n − 1)
∴ In = − + In−2
n n
Now,

sin3 x cos x 3
I4 = − + I2
4 4
sin x cos x 1
I2 = − + I0
2 2
∫
But I0 = sin0 xdx = x + C1 . Therefore, back substitution yields:

sin3 x cos x 3 sin x cos x 3

∴ I4 = − − + x+C
4 8 8
∫
sinm+1 x cosn−1 x n − 1
2. If Im,n = sinm x cosn xdx, show that Im,n = + Im,n−2 . Hence, compute
∫ m+n m+n
cos6 xdx.

Solution ∫ ∫
sinm x cosn xdx = sinm x cos x cosn−1 xdx

Using integration by parts, let u = cosn−1 x and dv = sinm x cos xdx. It implies that du =
sinm+1 x
−(n − 1) cosn−2 x sin xdx and v = . Therefore,
m+1
∫ ∫
sinm x cosn xdx = uv − vdu
∫
sinm+1 x sinm+1 x
= cos n−1
x − [−(n − 1) cosn−2 x sin xdx]
m+1 m+1
∫
sinm+1 x cosn−1 x n−1
= + sinm+1 x cosn−2 x sin xdx
m+1 m+1
∫
sinm+1 x cosn−1 x n−1
= + sinm x cosn−2 x sin2 xdx
m+1 m+1
∫
sinm+1 x cosn−1 x n−1
= + sinm x cosn−2 x[1 − cos2 x]dx
m+1 m+1
[∫ ∫ ]
sinm+1 x cosn−1 x n−1
= + m
sin x cos n−2
xdx − m
sin x cos xdx n
m+1 m+1
∫ ∫
sinm+1 x cosn−1 x n−1 n−1
= + m
sin x cos n−2
xdx − sinm x cosn xdx
m+1 m+1 m+1
∫ ∫ ∫
n−1 sinm+1 x cosn−1 x n − 1
⇒ m
sin x cos xdx+n m n
sin x cos xdx = + sinm x cosn−2 xdx
m+1 m+1 m+1
∫ ∫
m+n sinm+1 x cosn−1 x n−1
⇒ m
sin x cos xdx =n
+ sinm x cosn−2 xdx
m+1 m+1 m+1

39
 ∫ ∫
sinm+1 x cosn−1 x n−1
⇒ sinm x cosn xdx = + sinm x cosn−2 xdx, m + n ̸= 0
m+n m+n
This can be written as
sinm+1 x cosn−1 x n−1
Im,n = + Im,n−2
m+n m+n
∫
We now wish to solve cos6 xdx as follows:
∫ ∫
sinm+1 x cosn−1 x
m n n−1
From the formula Im,n = sin x cos xdx = + sinm x cosn−2 xdx,
m+n m+n
putting m = 0 and n = 6 yields
∫ ∫
sin x cos5 x 5
I0,6 = cos6 xdx = + cos4 xdx
6 6
Similarly, putting m = 0 and n = 4 yields
∫ ∫
sin x cos3 x 3
I0,4 = cos4 xdx = + cos2 xdx
4 4
And, putting m = 0 and n = 2 yields
∫ ∫
sin x cos x 1 sin x cos x 1
I0,2 = cos2 xdx = + dx = + x + C1
2 2 2 2
Forward substitution yields
∫ ∫
6 sin x cos5 x 5
cos xdx = + cos4 xdx
6 6
[ ∫ ]
sin x cos5 x 5 sin x cos3 x 3 2
= + + cos xdx
6 6 4 4
[ ]
sin x cos5 x 5 sin x cos3 x 3 [ sin x cos x 1 ]
= + + + x + C1
6 6 4 4 2 2
sin x cos5 x 5 sin x cos3 x 15 sin x cos x 15x
= + + + +C
6 24 48 48

Exercise:
∫
3. [Assignment 1 ] Show that the reduction formula for xn cos xdx = xn sin x + nxn−1 cos x −
∫
n(n − 1) xn−2 cos xdx.
∫
4. Show that the reduction formula for In = (ln x)n dx is In = x(ln x) − nIn−1 . Hence, show that
∫e
(ln x)4 dx = 9e − 24.
1
∫
cos2n x sin2m+1 x 2n
5. If Im,n = sin2m x cos2n+1 xdx, show that Im,n = + [Im,n−1 − Im,n ].
2m + 1 2m + 1

Lecture 8

40
6.3 Double integrals
A double integral is an integral of the form
∫∫
f (x, y)dA
R

The integral involves two dimensions which means that it deals with areas.

Example(s):
∫3 ∫4
1. Evaluate xydydx
x=0 y=0
Solution
∫3 ∫4 ∫3 [ ]4 ∫3 [ ]3
xy 2 8x2
xydydx = dx = 8xdx = = 36
2 2
x=0 y=0 x=0 0 x=0 0

∫1 ∫3x
2. Evaluate ey−x dydx
0 2x

Solution
∫1 ∫3x ∫1 [ ]3x ∫1 [ ] [1 ]1 (1 1)
e y−x
dydx = e y−x
dx = e2x − ex dx = e2x − ex = e2 − e +
2x 2 0 2 2
0 2x 0 0

3. Evaluate
∫2 ∫x2
27
(a) 2xydydx [ans: = ]
4
1 x

∫
π/2∫x2

(b) sin(y/x)dydx [ans: = 1]

0 0

6.3.1 Finding limits of integration

When evaluating double integrals it is very common not to be told the limits of integration but simply
told that the integral is to be taken over a certain specified region R in the xy-plane. In this case you
need to work out the limits of integration for yourself. Consider evaluating the double integral
∫∫
f (x, y)dA,
R

where R is the region enclosed by the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x), f (x) > g(x) in the xy-plane. The
integration can be done in two ways:

(i) integrating first with respect to y and then with respect to x, or

(ii) integrating first with respect to x and then with respect to y.

The limits of integration in the two approaches will in general be quite different, but both
approaches must yield the same answer.

Consider integrating first with respect to y and then with respect to x. The following procedure is
used to find the limits of integration.

41
 (i) Sketch the region of integration and label the bounding curves.
(ii) Find the y-limits of integration. Imagine a vertical line L cutting through the region R in the
direction of increasing y. Mark the y values where L enters and leaves. These give the y-limits
of integration and are usually functions of x (instead of constants).
(iii) Find the x-limits of integration. Choose x-limits that include all the vertical lines through R.
(iv) To evaluate the same integral with the order of integration reversed, use horizontal lines instead
of vertical lines.

So, we can write:

R = {(x, y) : a ≤ x ≤ b, g(x) ≤ y ≤ f (x)}.
Hence, the integral becomes

∫∫ ∫b f∫(x)

f (x, y)dA = . f (x, y)dydx

R x=a y=g(x)

Example(s):
∫∫
1. Evaluate (y − x)dA, where R is the region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and the line
R
y = x + 2.

Solution

The vertical line L (in the direction of the

increasing y) enters the region R at the curve
y = x2 and leaves at the line y = x + 2. The
curve and the line intersect when x = −1 and
x = 2. {So, we can write: }
R = (x, y) : −1 ≤ x ≤ 2, x2 ≤ y ≤ x + 2 .
Hence,

∫∫ ∫2 ∫
x+2 ∫2 [ ]x+2
y2
(y − x)dA = (y − x)dydx = − xy dx
2 x2
R x=−1 y=x2 x=−1
∫2 [ ] [ ]2
x4 x2 x5 x4 x3 99
= − + x3 − + 2 dx = − + − + 2x =
2 2 10 4 6 −1
20
x=−1
∫∫
2. Evaluate (x+2y)dA, where D is the region bounded by the parabolas y = 2x2 and y = x2 +1.
D
32
[ans: I = ]
15

42
6.3.2 Changing the order of integration
It can happen that one order of integration is easier to evaluate than the other. In such situations,
reversing the order of integration can be useful. To change the order of integration in a double integral,
follow these steps:

1) Sketch the region of integration.

2) Set up the region according to the new order and determine the new limits of integration, one
at a time, starting with the inner variable.

3) Evaluate the new integral.

Example(s):
∫1 ∫1
1. Evaluate the iterated integral sin(y 2 )dydx by first changing the order of integration.
0 x

Solution

∫1 ∫1 ∫1 ∫y
2
sin(y )dydx = sin(y 2 )dxdy
0 x y=0 x=0
∫1 [ ]y ∫1
2
= sin(y ) x dy = y sin(y 2 )dy
x=0
0 0
∫1
1
= sin udu, (where u = y 2 ⇒ du = 2ydy)
2
0
[ ]1 1
= − cos u = (1 − cos 1)
0 2

∫∞ ∫∞
2e−y dydx by first changing the order of integration.[hint: sketch the region and
2
2. Evaluate
0 x
draw L parallel to x-axis (towards the increasing x)] [ans: =1]

Solution
∫∞ ∫∞ ∫∞ ∫y ∫∞ [ ]y ∫∞
−y 2 −y 2 −y 2
2ye−y dy
2
2e dydx = 2e dxdy = 2e x dy =
x=0
0 y=x 0 x=0 0 0
∫∞
−u
= e du, (where u = y 2 ⇒ du = 2ydy)
0
[ ]∞
= − e−u =1
0

Exercise:
Evaluate the following double integrals by first changing the order of integration.
√ √
∫ π∫ π
(a) cos(x2 )dxdy.
0 y

43
 ∫3 ∫9
3
(b) x3 ey dydx.
0 x2

∫1 ∫1
(c) sin(πy 2 )dydx.
0 x

Lecture 9

6.3.3 Change of variables for a double integral

The reason for changing variables is to convert the region into a nicer region to work with. We call
the equations that define the change of variables a transformation. Also, we will typically start out
with a region, R, in xy-plane and transform it into a region in uv-plane.

Suppose that we want to integrate f (x, y) over the region R. Under the transformation x = g(u, v)
and y = h(u, v), the region becomes S and the integral becomes
∫∫ ∫∫  
 ∂(x, y) 
f (x, y)dA = . v), h(u, v)) 
f (g(u,  dA
∂(u, v)  ,
R S

 
∂(x, y) ∂(x, y)  ∂u
∂x ∂x 
∂v 
where is the Jacobian of x, y with respect to u, v and is defined by =  ∂y ∂y .
∂(u, v) ∂(u, v)  ∂u ∂v

→ Note: here, dA is in terms of dx and dy while dA is in terms of du and dv, when converting to
single integrals. Thus, if we look just at the differentials in the above formula, it is clear that
 
 ∂(x, y) 
dA =   dA.
∂(u, v) 

Example(s):
∫∫
1. Using the transformation u = x+2y and v = x−2y, evaluate the double integral (3x+6y)2 dA,
R
where R is the region bounded by the lines x + 2y = 2, x − 2y = 2, x + 2y = −2, and x − 2y = −2
in the xy−plane. (sketch the two regions).

Solution
Solving the equations u = x + 2y and v = x − 2y simultaneously for x and y yields
1 1
x = (u + v) and y = (u − v) − − − (∗)
2 4
Transforming each of the original equations, we get

x + 2y = 2 ⇒ u=2
x − 2y = 2 ⇒ v=2
x + 2y = −2 ⇒ u = −2
x − 2y = −2 ⇒ v = −2

Therefore, the new region is defined by S = {(u, v) : −2 ≤ u ≤ 2, −2 ≤ v ≤ 2}. The following

are the sketch of the two regions:

44
 Now, the Jacobian for this transformation is
   
∂(x, y)  ∂u
∂x ∂x 
∂v 
1

1 
 1
=  ∂y ∂y  =  21 1  = −
2
∂(u, v)  ∂u ∂v
4 −4 4

Hence, using the transformation (∗), the given integral becomes

∫∫ ∫∫   ∫2 ∫2  
 
2  ∂(x, y) 
 1
2
(3x + 6y) dA = 9u  dA = 9 u2 −  dvdu
∂(u, v)  4
R S u=−2 v=−2
∫2 [ ]2 ∫2 [ ] [ ]2
9
= u2 v du = 9 u du = 3 u3
2
= 48
4 −2 −2
u=−2 u=−2

→ Note: the vertical line L (in the direction of the increasing v) enters the region S at the line
v = −2 and leaves at the line v = 2.
y
∫4 2∫+1
2x − y y 2x − y
(b) Using the transformation u = and v = , evaluate the double integral dxdy
2 2 y
2
0
2
(sketch the two regions).

Solution
y y
The region R is bounded by the lines x = , x = + 1, y = 0, and y = 4 in the xy−plane.
2 2
2x − y y
Solving the equations u = and v = simultaneously for x and y yields
2 2
x = u + v and y = 2v − − − (∗)

Transforming each of the original equations, we get

y 2v
x= ⇒ u+v= ⇒ u=0
2 2
y 2v
x= +1 ⇒ u+v= +1 ⇒ u=1
2 2
y = 0 ⇒ 2v = 0 ⇒ v = 0
y=4 ⇒ 2v = 4 ⇒ v=2

Therefore, the new region is defined by S = {(u, v) : 0 ≤ u ≤ 1, 0 ≤ v ≤ 2}. The following are
the sketch of the two regions:

45
 Now, the Jacobian for this transformation is
   
∂(x, y)  ∂u
∂x ∂x 
∂v 
1 1
 
=  ∂y ∂y  = =2
∂(u, v)  ∂u ∂v
0 2

Hence, using the transformation (∗), the given integral becomes

∫∫ ∫∫   ∫2 ∫1 ∫2 ∫1
2x − y  ∂(x, y) 
dA = u   dA = u |2| dudv = 2ududv
2 ∂(u, v) 
R S v=0 u=0 0 0
∫2 [ ]1 ∫2 [ ]2
= u2 dv = dv = v =2
0 0
0 0

Exercise:

the region bounded by the lines y = −2x + 4, y = −2x + 7, y = x − 2, and y = x + 1.

(a) Let R be ∫∫
Evaluate (2x2 − xy − y 2 )dxdy by applying the transformation u = x − y, v = 2x + y and
R
33
integrating over an appropriate region in the uv−plane. [ans: = ]
4
(b) Show that when changing to polar coordinates we have dA = rdrdθ. [hint: use the
transformation x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ]
∫∫
(c) Evaluate (x + y)dA, where R is the trapezoidal region with vertices given by (0,0), (5,0),
R
125
(2.5,2.5) and (2.5,-2.5), using the transformation x = 2u + 3v and y = 2u − 3v. [ans: = ]
4
∫∫
(d) Evaluate (x2 − xy + y 2 )dA, where R is the ellipse given by x2 − xy + y 2 ≤ 2 and using the
R
√ √ √ √ 4π
transformation x = 2u − 23 v, y = 2u + 23 v. [ans: = √ ]
3

6.4 Applications of Double Integrals

6.4.1 Mass, moments, and centre of mass of a physical object
The centre of mass of a physical object is its “balancing point”. Consider finding the centre of mass
of an object whose density function is ρ(x, y). Suppose R represents the shape of a thin (flat) plate,
its density is expressed as mass per unit area i.e.,
dM
ρ(x, y) =
dA

46
The density is a continuous function on R in the xy-plane. Thus, we use the following formulae:
∫∫ ∫x2 ∫y2
Total mass: M = ρ(x, y)dA = ρ(x, y)dydx
R x1 y1
∫∫ ∫x2 ∫y2
First moment about the x-axis: Mx = yρ(x, y)dA = yρ(x, y)dydx
R x1 y 1
∫∫ ∫x2 ∫y2
First moment about the y-axis: My = xρ(x, y)dA = xρ(x, y)dydx
R x1 y 1
My
x-coordinate: x̄ =
M
Mx
y-coordinate: ȳ =
M
∴ Centre of mass: (x̄, ȳ)

→ A body’s first moments tell us about balance and about the torque the body exerts about different
axes in a gravitational field.

Example(s):

1. Find the centre of mass for a laminar defined by a triangle with vertices (0,0), (0,a), and (a,0)
with density defined as ρ(x, y) = x + y. (Sketch the region)

Solution

Equation of the line passing through points (0,a)

and (a,0) is y = a−x. The vertical line L (in the
direction of the increasing y) enters the region R
at the line y = 0 and leaves at the line y = a−x.

∫∫ ∫a ∫
(a−x) ∫a [ ](a−x)
y2 a3
Mass: M = ρ(x, y)dA = (x + y)dydx = xy + dx =
2 3
R x=0 y=0 x=0 y=0

∫∫ ∫a ∫
(a−x)
a4
First moment about the x-axis: Mx = yρ(x, y)dA = (xy + y 2 )dydx =
8
R x=0 y=0

∫∫ ∫a ∫
(a−x)
a4
First moment about the y-axis: My = xρ(x, y)dA = (x2 + xy)dydx =
8
R x=0 y=0
My 3a
x-coordinate: x̄ = =
M 8
Mx 3a
y-coordinate: ȳ = =
M 8
( 3a 3a )
∴ Centre of mass: ,
8 8

47
 2. Find the mass, moment about the y-axis, and the x-coordinate of the centre of mass for a
triangular plate with vertices (0,0), (1,0), and (1,2) with a constant density ρ = 3g/cm2 . (Sketch
the region)

Solution

Equation of the line passing through points (0,0)

and (1,2) is y = 2x. The vertical line L (in the
direction of the increasing y) enters the region
R at the line y = 0 and leaves at the line y = 2x.

∫∫ ∫1 ∫2x
Mass: M = ρ(x, y)dA = 3dydx = 3g
R x=0 y=0
∫∫ ∫1 ∫2x
First moment about the y-axis: My = xρ(x, y)dA = 3xdydx = 2gcm
R x=0 y=0
My 2
x-coordinate: x̄ = = cm
M 3

6.4.2 Centroid of geometric figures

When the density is constant, the location of the centre of mass is a feature of the geometry of the
object and not of the material from which it is made (i.e., the object is said to be homogeneous). In
such cases, the centre of mass is called the the center of gravity or the centroid. To find the centroid
of a geometric shape, set ρ = 1 and proceed to find the centre of mass as before.

Example(s):

1. Find the centroid of a homogeneous lamina which occupies the region lying between the line
y = x and the parabola y = x2 .

Solution

The vertical line L (in the direction of the

increasing y) enters the region R at the curve
y = x2 and leaves at the line y = x. The curve
and the line intersect when x = 0 and x = 1
(since at the point of intersection, x2 = x). To
determine the centroid, we set ρ = 1. So,

48
 ∫∫ ∫1 ∫x
1
Mass: M = ρ(x, y)dA = 1dydx =
6
R x=0 y=x2
∫∫ ∫1 ∫x
1
First moment about the x-axis: Mx = yρ(x, y)dA = ydydx =
15
R x=0 y=x2
∫∫ ∫1 ∫x
1
First moment about the y-axis: My = xρ(x, y)dA = xdydx =
12
R x=0 y=x2
My 1
x-coordinate: x̄ = =
M 2
Mx 2
y-coordinate: ȳ = =
M 5
(1 2)
∴ Centroid: ,
2 5

2. (a) Find the centroid of the triangular region cut from the first quadrant by the line x + y = 3.
(Sketch the region) [ans: (x̄, ȳ) = (1, 1)]
(b) Find the centroid of the triangular region cut from the first quadrant by the line y + 2x = 6.
(Sketch the region) [ans: (x̄, ȳ) = (1, 2)]

3. Find the centroid of a thin plate covering the region bounded by the parabola x2 = 4y and the
line y = 1. (Sketch the region) [ans: (x̄, ȳ) = (0, 3/5)]

6.4.3 Moments of inertia (second moments)

If a body is a rotating shaft, we are more likely to be interested in how much energy is stored in the
shaft or about how much energy it will take to accelerate the shaft to a particular angular velocity.
This is where the second moments or moments of inertia come in. Consider a body in the xy-plane,
then its moments of inertia are defined by
∫∫ ∫x2 ∫y2
2
Second moment about the x-axis: Ix = y ρ(x, y)dA = y 2 ρ(x, y)dydx
R x=x1 y=y1
∫∫ ∫x2 ∫y2
Second moment about the y-axis: Iy = x2 ρ(x, y)dA = x2 ρ(x, y)dydx
R x=x1 y=y1
Second moment about the origin: I0 = Iz = Ix + Iy (perpendicular axis theorem)

Example(s):

1. A thin plate covers the triangular region bounded by the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and y = 2x
in the first quadrant. The plate’s density is given by ρ(x, y) = 6x + 6y + 6. Find the plate’s
centre of mass about the co-ordinate axes and the moments of inertia. (Sketch the region)

Solution

49
 The vertical line L (in the direction of the
increasing y) enters the region R at the line
y = 0 and leaves at the line y = 2x.

∫∫ ∫1 ∫2x
Mass: M = ρ(x, y)dA = (6x + 6y + 6)dydx = 14
R x=0 y=0
∫∫ ∫1 ∫2x
First moment about the x-axis: Mx = yρ(x, y)dA = y(6x2 + 6y + 6)dydx = 11
R x=0 y=0
∫∫ ∫1 ∫2x
First moment about the y-axis: My = xρ(x, y)dA = x(6x2 + 6y + 6)dydx = 10
R x=0 y=0
My 5
x-coordinate: x̄ = =
M 7
Mx 11
y-coordinate: ȳ = =
M 14
( 5 11 )
∴ Centre of mass: ,
7 14

∫∫ ∫1 ∫2x
2
Moment of inertia about the x-axis: Ix = y ρ(x, y)dA = y 2 (6x + 6y + 6)dydx = 12
R x=0 y=0
∫∫ ∫1 ∫2x
39
Moment of inertia about the y-axis: Iy = x2 ρ(x, y)dA = x2 (6x + 6y + 6)dydx =
5
R x=0 y=0
39 99
Moment of inertia about the origin: Iz = Ix + Iy = 12 + =
5 5

50