Topic 3

Lecture3

Limit of a function

The concept of limit of the function is one of the more important concepts of
mathematics.

First, let us introduce the concept of limit point of a set.

Definition 1. A point a ∈ R is a limit point or accumulation point of the set

S ⊂ Rif every neighbourhood of a contains at least one point of Sdifferent from a
itself.

That is, every neighbourhood of a limit point a of a set S contains infinitely many
points of this set , i.e. ∃ { x n } , x n ∈ S , x n ≠ a , x n ∈ N δ ( a ) ∨lim
n →∞
x n =a .

Let the function f ( x ) be defined in some domain D ⊂ R ∪ {± ∞ } ≡ R and let a the limit
point of D .

Definition. A number A is said to be the limit of the function f (x ) as x→a if

for all the values of x lying sufficiently close to a the corresponding values of the
function f (x ) are arbitrary close to the number A. It can be written as

lim f ( x )= A
x→ a

f (x ) → A
or x →a or f ( x ) → A as x → a .

It should be noted that this definition does not require that the function should
be defined at the point a itself. It is only necessary that the function should be
defined in an arbitrary neighborhood of this point. Moreover, the phrase
“arbitrary close” means “as close as you want”. Now let us introduce the
following

Definition. A number A is said to be the limit of the function f (x ) as x→a if

for given any positive number ε (however small), there is a positive number δ
such that for all x different from a and satisfying the inequality 0<|x−a|<δ there
holds the inequality

|f ( x)− A|<ε

In short

lim f ( x )=A ⇔ ∀ ε >0 ∃δ > 0 ∀ x : 0 <|x−a|<δ ⇒|f ( x )− A|<ε

x →a .

This definition is sufficiently rigorous because the imprecise terms “arbitrary

close” and “sufficiently close” in the previous definition have been replaced by a
precise statement using inequalities. The definition of the limit of a function at a
point can also be given in terms of neighborhoods.

Definition. The point A is called the limit of the function f : X → R as x → x 0 or

at the point x 0, if for any neighborhood N ( A) of the point A there is such a
neighborhood N ( x 0 ) of the point x 0that f ( X ∩ N ( x 0) ) ⊂N ( A ) .

Using logical symbols, the definition can be written in the following form:

lim f ( x )= A ⇔ ∀ N ( A ) ∃ N ( x 0 ) :f ( X ∩ N ( x 0 ) ) ⊂ N ( A ) .
x→ x 0

lim f ( x )=2
Example1. Let f (x )=5 x−3 and prove that x →1 .

To this end, choose a positive number ε . For the inequality

|f ( x)−2|<ε or |(5 x−3)−2|<ε

or the equivalent inequality 5⋅|x−1|<ε

ε
|x−1|<
to be fulfilled it is sufficient that the condition 5 should hold. Hence,
ε
x
for all differing from 1 by less than 5 the function f (x ) differs from 2 by less
 ε
δ=
than ε where ε is an arbitrary positive number. In this example we can put 5

. Therefore

ε
∀ ε >0 ∃ δ= >0 ∀ x : 0 <|x−1|< δ ⇒|f ( x )−2|<ε
5 .

lim f ( x )=2
According to definition this means that x →1 . It should be noted that here it
ε
|x−1|<
is not necessary to stipulate the condition x≠1 since inequality 5 is also

fulfilled for x=1 .In this example the limit of the function f (x ) as x approaches 1 is
equal to the value of the function at that point.

lim f ( x )=2=f (1)

x →1 .

Note. If the limit of a function f (x ) as x approaches a exists, this limit may not
be equal to f (a) . In fact, f (a) may not even be defined.

2
x −4
f (x )= x
Example2. Let us consider the function x−2 which is defined for all

except 2 ( x≠2 ).

2
x −4 ( x−2)( x +2)
lim f ( x )=lim =lim =lim (x +2 )=4≠f (2 )
It is clear that x →2 x →2 x−2 x →2 x−2 x→ 2

In this example the limit exist and is not equal to the value of the function at the
given point 2. Moreover, f (2 ) is not defined.
y

Figure shows the graph of

4 0
2
x −4
f (x )= , x≠2 x
x−2 , near x=2 . As
approaches 2 from the left or right, the O 2 x

corresponding values of f (x ) becomes closer

to 4.
 1
Example3. f ( x )=sin x , x ≠ 0. Let's take two sequences:

1 1
x ´ n= , x ´ ´ n= .
π −π
+2 πn +2 πn
2 2

Since

f ( x ´ n ) =sin ( π2 +2 πn)=1 , f ( x ´ ´ )=sin ( −π2 + 2 πn)=−1 ,

n

so the limit lim

x →0
f ( x ) does not exist.

Properties of limits

These are a number of facts that simplify the computation of limits.

lim f ( x )=C
1. If f ( x )=C (C-constant) then x →a .

lim x=a
2. If f (x )=x then for every number a, x →a

lim g ( x )=lim h (x )= A lim f ( x )=A

3. If g( x )≤f ( x )≤h( x ) and there exist x →a x→ a then x →a

lim f ( x )=A lim g ( x )=B

4. If x →a and x →a , then

lim ( f +g )( x )=lim [ f ( x )+ g( x ) ]= A +B
(a) x →a x →a

lim ( f −g )( x )=lim [ f ( x )−g( x ) ] = A−B

(b) x →a x →a

lim ( fg )( x )=lim [ f ( x ) g( x ) ] =A⋅B

(c) x →a x→ a

lim
x →a
()
f
g
( x )=lim
( )
f (x) A
x →a g( x )
= ( for B≠0 )
B
(a)

lim √ f ( x )=√ A ( for f (x )≥0 for all x near a

x →a
(e) )
5. If f (x ) is a polynomial function, that is f (x )=a 0 x n +a1 x n−1 +. ..+a n ,

lim f ( x )=f ( a)
x →a
Then for any real number a.

n n−1
a 0 x +a 1 x +. ..+ an
f (x )= m m−1
6. Let f (x ) be a rational function, that is b0 x +b1 x +. ..+ bm

lim f ( x )=f (a)

a x →a
and let be a real number such that f (a) is defined. Then .

7.
lim
x → ∞ b0
n
a0 x + a1 x
m
x +b 1 x
n−1

m−1
+. . .+ an
+.. .+bm
= {
a0
b0
for n=m ¿ {∞ for n>m¿¿¿¿

8. Uniqueness: If the function f has a limit at the point a , then

this limit is unique.
9. Boundedness: If the function f has a finite limit at the point a , then there exists
a neighborhood N (a) of the point a such that the function f is bounded on
N ( a) ∩ D ( f ) .

10. If lim f ( x )= A ≠ 0 then there exists a neighborhood N ( a) of the point a and the
x→ a

number b> 0 such that for all x ∈ N (a) ∩ D(f )

f ( x)>b if A>0 and f ( x ) ←b if A<0 .

sin x
=1 lim
Remarkable limits .Theorem. x→0 x .

Proof. Consider a circle of unit radius. Suppose that the control angle x expressed
π
0< x <
in radians and 2 . From the figure it is clear that

Area Δ ACO < Areasec torACO < Area Δ BCO

A B

x
O D C
 We have

1 1 1
Area Δ ACO = OC⋅AD= ⋅1⋅sin x= sin x
2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1
Area sec torACO = OC 2⋅AC = ⋅1⋅x= x Area Δ BCO = ⋅OC⋅BC= ⋅1⋅tan x= tan x
2 2 2 . 2 2 2 .

1 1 1
sin x< x < tan x
It follows that 2 2 2 or sin x< x <tan x .

Dividing all the terms of these inequalities by sin x we get

x 1
1< <
sin x cos x

which can be written as

sin x
cos x < <1
x

lim cos x=1 lim 1=1

Since x →0 and x →0 passing to the limit as x →0 we get, in
sin x
lim
=1
accordance with properties of limits, the desired result: x →0 x .

Many other limits can be computed with the aid of this limit.

Examples :

tan x sin x 1 sin x 1

lim =lim ⋅ =lim ⋅lim ==1⋅1=1
1) x →0 x x → 0 x cos x x →0 x x →0 cos x

sin kx k⋅sin kx sin kx

lim =lim =k lim =k⋅1=k
2) x →0 x x →0 kx x →0 kx

3)
lim
x →0
1−cos2 x
x 2
=lim
x → 0
2 sin2 x
x 2
=2⋅lim
x →0
( )
sin x 2
x
=2⋅1=2
 arctan x arctan x
lim =lim
4) x →0 x x →0 tan(arctan x )

Putting arctan x=t , it is clear that t →0 as x →0 we obtain

arctan x t 1 1
lim =lim =lim = =1
x →0 x t→ 0 tan t t →0 tan t 1
t

arcsin x
lim =1
5) x →0 x

arcsin x arcsin x y
lim =lim =lim =1
x →0 x x →0 sin(arcsin x ) y → 0 sin y

sin x
lim =1
The limit x →0 x playing an important role in mathematics is called the
first remarkable limit.

( )
x
1
lim 1+ =e
Theorem. x → ∞ x .

Many other limits can be computed with the aid of this limit.

Examples:

lim 1+ =e
1) x → ∞ x
( )
k x k

2)
lim 1+
x→∞
( )1 kx k
x
=e

1
lim ( 1+ x ) x =e
3) x →0

1
ln (1+x ) 1
lim =lim ln (1+x )=lim ln (1+ x ) x =ln e=1
4) x →0 x x →0 x x →0
 x
a −1
lim =lna
5) x →0 x

x x
Indeed, putting a −1=t →0 as x →0 . We have a =1+ t hence x ln a=ln(1+t )
1
x= ⋅ln(1+t )
therefore ln a .Making substitution we get

x
a −1 t t
lim =lim =ln a⋅lim =ln a
x →0 x t→0 1 t →0 ln(1+t )
⋅ln(1+t )
ln a

( )
x
1
lim 1+ =e
The limit x→ ∞ x has a wide application and is called the second
remarkable limit.

One – sided limits

The function whose graph is shown below is defined for all values of x except
x=2. y

4 -2 O 2 4 x

As x approaches 2 from the right, the graph shows that the corresponding values
of f (x ) get very close to 1. Consequently,

lim¿ x→2 ¿ ¿f (x)=1¿ lim f ( x )=1

x>2 ¿ or x → 2+0 .

The notation x →2+ 0 indicates that only the values of x with x> 2 are
considered. Similarly, as x approaches 2 from the left, the graph shows that the
corresponding values of f (x ) get very close to 4. Consequently,
 lim¿ x→2 ¿ ¿f (x)=4¿ lim f ( x )=4
x<2 ¿ or x → 2−0

Here, the notation x →2−0 indicates that only the values of x with x<2 are
considered.

These “one-sided” limits are a bit different than the “two sided” limits
discussed in previous sections. When x approaches 2 from the left and from the
right, the corresponding values of f (x ) do not approach a single number, so the
lim f ( x )
limit as x →2 , i.e. x →2 does not exist.

Let us introduce the following notations:

x →a−0 ⇔ x →a and x<a

xa
x →a+0 ⇔ x →a and x >a ax

f (a−0)= lim f (x)=lim¿ x→a ¿ ¿f (x)¿

x→a−0 x<a ¿

f (a+0)= lim f (x)=lim¿ x→a ¿ ¿f (x)¿

x→a+0 x>a ¿

Definition. The numbers f (a−0 ) and f (a+0 ) are called respectively the left-
hand limit and the right-hand limit provided that the corresponding limits exist.

The computation of one-sided limits is greatly facilitated by the following

fact. All the results about limits in previous sections, such as the properties of
limits, limits of polynomial functions remain valid if “ x → a ” is replaced by either

“ x →a−0 ” or “ x →a+0 ”.

Now we state the following necessary and sufficient condition for existence
of limit.
 ∃lim f ( x )= A ⇔ ∃f ( a−0 ) ∃ f ( a+0 )
Theorem. x→a and f (a−0 )=f (a+0 ) = A .

It means that if a function f (x ) possesses a limit as x →a (i.e. x approaches a

in an arbitrary way) the left-hand and the right-hand limits also exist and coincide
with the limit of the function. Conversely, if one-sided limits f (a−0 ) and

f (a+0 ) exist and coincide f (a−0 )=f (a+0 ) =A then the function f (x ) has the

same limit A as the argument x approaches a arbitrary.

{
1 , x >0
Example 1. Let f ( x ) =sgn ( x ) = 0 , x=0 .
−1 , x <0

It is clear that lim ¿and that lim ¿ Since this one-sided limits
x→ 0+¿ sgn ( x ) =1 ¿ x→ 0−¿sgn ( x ) =−1 .¿

are different, it follows that sgn ( x ) does not have a limit at 0.

Example 2.For the function g ( x )=e 1/ x , x ≠ 0 , x→ 0+¿lim

e =+∞ ,¿
¿ but lim ¿
1/ x
x→ 0−¿e =0.¿
1/x

Example 3.

f ( x )=Ent ( x )= [ x ] = max k .
Z ∋k ≤ n

For any n ∈ Z x→lim Ent ( x )=n−1, lim Ent ( x )=n .

n−0 x→ n+1

Infinitesimal and infinitely large functions

Definition. A function α : X → Ris called infinitesimal as x → x 0 if

lim α ( x ) =0.
x→ x 0

1 1
Example. f ( x )=xsin x is infinitesimal as x → 0 , since lim xsin x =0.
x →0

lim f ( x )= A ⇔ f ( x )= A+ ¿ α ( x ) , ¿ where lim α ( x ) =0.

Lemma. x→ x 0 x→ x 0
 Property. The sum and product of a finite number of infinitesimals as x → x 0,
as well as the product of an infinitesimal as x → x 0 by a function bounded on X , are
infinitesimal as x → x 0.

Definition. A function f : X → Ris called infinitely large as x → x 0 if

lim f ( x )=∞.
x→ x 0

1 1
Example. f ( x )= x is infinitely large as x → 0 , since lim x =∞ .
x →0

Property. If the function f : X → R is infinitely large as x → x 0 , then the function

1/f ( x) is infinitesimals as x → x 0 .

Local comparison of function

Definition. If for a function f and g there is such a constant C> 0 that in some
neighborhood of the point x 0 for all points x ∈ X the inequality

|f ( x)|≤ C|g( x )|

is satisfied, then the function f is called bounded in comparison with the function
g in a neighborhood of the point x 0and in this case we write

f ( x )=O ( g(x ) ) , as x → x 0.

It reads: " f ( x ) is O large of g ( x ), as x tends to x 0"

1 1
(x ) 1 1
| | |x |
Example. x =O 2 , as x → 0 , since x ≤ 2 as x → 0 .

Property. If f ( x )=φ ( x ) g ( x ) , x ∈ X ,and there is a bounded limit

lim φ ( x )=k ,
x→ x 0

then f ( x )=O ( g(x ) ) , as x → x 0 .

 Definition. If f ( x )=O ( g( x ))and g ( x )=O ( f ( x )) as x → x 0 , then they are called
functions of the same order as x → x 0and this is written as

f ( x ) ≍ g ( x ) , as x → x 0 .

(1
)
Example. x ≍ x 2+sin x , as x → 0.

f (x )
Lemma. If lim g( x) =k ≠ 0 , then f ( x ) ≍ g ( x ) , as x → x 0 .
x→ x 0

Definition. Functions are called equivalent as x → x 0 if there exists a function

φ such that in some neighborhood of the point x 0for all points x ∈ X the equality

lim φ ( x )=1.
f ( x )=φ ( x ) g ( x ) satisfied and x→ x 0

This is written as

f ( x ) g ( x ) , as x → x 0 .

2 6
x 2 x 2
Example. sinx x as x →0 ; 4
x as x → 0 ; 4
x as x → ∞ .
1+ x 1+ x

lim u ( x )=0 , then

Lemma. If x→ x 0

u ( x ) sinu ( x ) tanu ( x ) arcsinu ( x ) arctanu ( x ) ln ( 1+u ( x ) ) e

u (x)
−1.

Definition. A function α : X → R is said to be infinitesimal as x → x 0 in

comparison with the function f : X → R if there exists a function ε : X → R such that
in some neighborhood of the point x 0 for all x ∈ X the equality

α ( x )=ε ( x ) f ( x )

lim ε ( x )=0 ,
holds and x→ x 0

and this is written as α ( x )=○ ( f ( x ) ) , x → x 0 .

In the case when f ( x) itself is infinitesimal as x → x 0, they say that the function
α =○ ( f ) as x → x 0is an infinitesimal higher order than f . Moreover, if
α =○ ( ( f (x)) ) as x → x 0then infinitesimal α is called infinitesimal of order n , n=1,2, …
n

with respect to infinitesimal f .

Theorem. In order to the functions f and g to be equivalent as x → x 0 , it is

necessary and sufficient that the condition

f ( x )=g ( x ) +○ ( f ( x ) ) , x → x 0 is satisfied as x → x 0.

1
Example. cotx= x +○ x as x → x 0 . ( 1)
Chauchy’s (criterion) test .The limit of the function  f ( x) at the point x 0exists
if and only if for all  ε>0, there exists  δ>0  such that for any x ´ , x ´ ´ with

0<| x ´ −x 0|<δ , 0<| x ´ ´−x 0|< δ the inequality

|f ( x ´ )−f ( x ´ ´)|<ε

is satisfied.

TEST

2
x −√ x
lim
1) x →1 √ x−1

A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5

3 3
lim
√1+ x−√ 1−x
2) x →0 x

2 3 4 5 7
A) 3 B) 4 C) 5 D) 6 E) 8
 lim ( √ x +1−√ x −1 )
2 2

3) x→∞

A) 1 B) 2 C) 0 D) 3 E) 4
3
lim x 2
( √ x 3 + 1−√ x 3−1 )
4) x→∞

A) 5 B) 4 C) 3 D) 2 E) 1

2 x−arcsin x
lim
x →0 2 x+arctan x
5)

1 1 1 1 1
A) 6 B) 5 C) 4 D) 3 E) 2
1
5x
lim ( 1+ 5 x )
x →0
6)

A) e B) e
2
C) e
3
1 E) 2
D) e
2
lim ( 1+ 8 x ) x
7) x →0

7 3 16 8 2
A) e B) e C) e D) e E) e

lim
√1−cos x
8) x →0 x

A) 0 B) √ 2 1 √2 √3
C) 2 D) 2 E) 2

sin 3( x−1)
lim
9) x →1 6( x−1 )

1 1 1 D) 1 E) 2
A) 3 B) 4 C) 2
 sin 4 x
lim
x→
π x
10) 8

A) 1 8 4 D) 4 E) 0
B) π C) π