Topics №2

LECTURE 2

Subsequences. Fundamental sequences.

Subsequence.

Definition. Let
∞
{a n}n=1 : a1 ,a 2 ,. .. ,a n ,...

be a sequence of real numbers and let

∞
{n k }n=1 : n1 < n2 <. ..< nk < .. .
∞

be a strictly increasing sequence of natural numbers. Then the sequence {an }

k k=1
∞
is said to be the subsequence of the sequence {a n}n=1 .

∞
Examples.1) Let us consider a sequence of positive integers { n }n=1 : 1,2,3,…,n,…

Then each of following sequences

∞ ∞ ∞
a) { 2k } k=1 : 2,4,6,… ; b) { 2k−1 }k=1 : 1,3,5,… ; c) { 3k } k=1 : 3,6,9,.. .

is the subsequence of the sequence { n } .

{}
n=∞ 1 1
{ } {
1 1
2) Let { a n }n=1 = n .The following a) n+ 2 ; b ¿ 2n−1 ; c ¿ n ! } { }
are subsequences of n . {1 }
n 1 1 −1
3) Let x n=(−1 ) ∙ n . Then each of the sequences a) y n= 2 n ; b) z n= 2 n−1 is the
subsequences of { x n } .

πn π
4) Consider the sequence x n=sin 2 . Then a) y n=sinπn ; b) z n=sin 2 + πn are( )
subsequences of { x n }
 Because all terms of a subsequence are also terms of the original sequence,
the properties of the subsequence are closely tied to the properties of the
sequence, and so a great deal of information about one can be determined by
studying the other.

Here are some obvious properties:

1. If a sequence { xn } is bounded then any of its subsequences {x n }

k is also
bounded.

2. If a sequence{ x n } is increasing (respectively decreasing), then any of its

subsequences { n } is also increasing ( respectively decreasing).
x
k

3. Monotone subsequence theorem. If {an } is a sequence of real numbers,

then there is a subsequence {an } of {an } that is monotone.
k

Convergence of Subsequences

The convergence of a sequence can be characterized in terms of the convergence

of its subsequence.

Theorem. A sequence converges to a limit a if and only if every subsequence

also converges to the limit a .

lim a n=a an →a as n → ∞ and consider

Proof. Necessity .Suppose that n→∞ i.e.

some subsequence { n k } , { k }
a n ⊂ {n }
.

Because
an →a , for every ε > 0 , there is N >0 ,such that for all n> N ⇒
|a n−a|<ε .
∞

Then, for { }
an n > N , because
k k=1 , there must be some K such that k > K ⇒ k
the

{nk }↑ are increasing. But if nk > N |a n −a|<ε an →a

, then k , so k as
lim a n =a
k →∞ i.e. k →∞ k
.
Thus, any subsequence converges as well.

Sufficiency. Suppose that every subsequence { an }

k converges. In particular we

can take k {n }= { n } {a }
, so the sequence n converges because every sequence
can be regarded as a subsequence of itself.
n
Example. nlim
→∞
a =0 if 0< a<1. Since 0< a<1 , then

x n+1=an+1 < an=x n, so the sequence x n is decreasing. It is also clear that 0 ≤ x n ≤ 1.So
the sequence is convergent. Let x=lim
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ (n → ∞ )
x n.Then x=lim x 2 n=lim a2 n= lim x n 2=x 2

.Therefore we must either have x=0 or x=1.Since the sequence decreasing and
bounded by a< 1, we deduce that x=0.

Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem. Every bounded sequence has a convergent

subsequence.

In other words, if
xn { }
is a bounded sequence, i.e. | n|
x ≤ M <+ ∞
then there exist a

subsequence { n k }
x ⊂ { xn}
such that converges.

First Proof.It follows from the Monotone Subsequence Theorem.

∞
Second Proof. Let { x n }n=1 be bounded sequence. Then there exist an interval
[ a1 ,b 1] such that a1 ≤x n ≤b1 for all n .Let us divide the closed interval [ a1 ,b 1]

into two equal (congruent) intervals

[ a1 ,
a1 +b 1
2 ] [ and
a 1 +b1
2
, b1 ] . At least one

of them contains infinitely many terms of { x n } .That is, there exists infinitely

many n such that

xn
is in
[ a1 ,
a1 +b 1
2 ] or there exists infinitely many n such that

xn
is in
[ a 1 +b1
2
, b1 ] [
. If
a1 ,
a1 +b 1
2 ] contains infinitely many terms of { xn } , let

[ a2 ,b 2 ] = a1 ,[ a1 + b 1
2 ] . Otherwise, let
[ a2 ,b 2] = [ a1 +b 1
2
,b 1 ] .
Either
[ a2 ,
a2 +b 2
2 ] [ or
a 2 +b2
2
, b2 ] contains infinitely many terms of { x n } .If

[ a2 ,
a2 +b 2
2 ] contains infinitely many terms of { x n } , let [ a3 , b3 ]= a 2 , [ a 2 +b 2
2 ]
.Otherwise, let
[ a3 , b3 ]= [ a2 + b 2
2
, b2
.By mathematical induction, we can
]
continue this construction and obtain a sequence of intervals {[ n n ] } such that
a ,b

i) for each n , [ n n ] contains infinitely many terms of

a ,b { xn } ,
ii) for each n , [ a n+1 , b n+1 ] ⊆ [ an , b n] and
1
bn+1 −a n+1 = ( b n −an )
iii) for each n , 2
The Nested Intervals Theorem implies that the intersection of all the intervals
[ a n , bn ] is a single point
ξ=¿ n=1 ¿ ∞ [ an ,b n ]=lim an =lim bn .
n→∞ n →∞ We will now construct a

subsequence of { xn } which will converge to

ξ.

Since [ a1 ,b 1] { x n } , there exists k1 such that xk

contains infinitely many terms of 1

is in [ 1 1 ] . Since [ 2 2 ] contains infinitely many terms of { n } , there exists 2

a ,b a ,b x k

,
k 2 >k 1 , such that x k2 is in [ a2 ,b 2 ] . Since [ a3 , b3 ] contains infinitely many terms

of { x n } , there exists k3 , k > k 3 2

, such that
xk
3 is in [ a3 , b3 ] .
xk xk
n such that n is
Continuing this process by induction, we obtain a sequence

in [ a n , bn ] for each n. The sequence {xk } n is a subsequence of { xn } since

k n+1 >k n for each n. Sincea n → ξ , b n → ξ , and an ≤x n ≤b n for each n, then by the

squeeze theorem x n → ξ as k → ∞ . k
 Fundamental sequence(Cauchy sequence )

A Fundamental sequence( or a Cauchy sequence ) is a sequence whose elements

become arbitrarily close to each other as the sequence progresses. More
precisely, given any small positive distance, all but a finite number of elements of
the sequence are less than that given distance from each other.

Definition. A sequence n : 1 2 3 {x } x , x , x ,...

of real numbers is called a
fundamental sequence ( or a Cauchy sequence ) if for every positive real number
ε there is positive integer N=N ( ε ) such that for all naturel numbers
m ,n>N
|x m−x n|<ε .
∞
{ x n }n=1 is a fundamental sequence ⇔ ∀ ε >0 ∃N =N ( ε ) : ∀ m , n>N
|x m−x n|<ε .

The Cauchy Convergence Criterion

Theorem. If { xn } is a sequence of real numbers, then { xn } is convergent if

and only if { xn } is a fundamental sequence.

{ xn } is convergent ⇔ { xn } is a fundamental sequence.

Proof. drarrow Suppose that { xn } is a convergent sequence of real numbers, It

lim x n =A
means that there is the real numbers A , such that n→∞ . It follows that for
every ∀ ε >0 there exists a number N=N ( ε ) such that for all ∀ n>N ,
ε
|x n −A|<
2 . And so for m> N and n> N we have

ε ε
|x m−x n|=|x m− A+ A−x n|≤|x m− A|+|x n − A|< + =ε
2 2

that means { xn } is fundamental.

Thus, we already proved that a convergent sequence of real numbers is
fundamental.

dlarrow Suppose that { x n } is a fundamental sequence. Then for ∀ ε >0 there

exists an N=N ( ε ) such that if m> N and n> N then |x n−x m|< ε .

Now look at the a subsequence {xn }k

'
which converges to A . Thus there
exists a natural number
k >N 1 where k belongs to the set of indices
' ε
|x k −A |<
{n1 ,n 2 ,. . . } such that 2

Since
k >N 1 then if we substitute m=k we have that for n>N 1 :

ε ε
|x k −x n|< |x n −x k|<
2 or 2

And so for
n>N 1 we have that:

' ' ' ε ε

|x n −A |=|x n −x k + x k− A |≤|x n −x k|+|x k −A |< + =ε
2 2 .

{ xn }
'
lim x n =A '
Thus, n→∞ , and therefore is convergent to the real number A .

Now let us summarize the proved theorem (The Cauchy Convergence Criterion) as
follows:

1. Any sequence of real numbers {x }

n that is convergent is also is a
fundamental sequence
2. Any fundamental sequence of real numbers is also a convergent sequence.

Examples:
n
x = (−1 ) has no limit since it is not fundamental. Let us show
1.The sequence n
it.

Denying the statement that the sequence is fundamental looks like this
 ∃ε >0 ∀n , m> N : |x m−x n|≥ε

In our case, it sufficient to put ε=1 . Then for any N we have

|x N +1−x N +2|=|1−(−1 )|=2>1=ε

n
x = (−1 )
Therefore n is not fundamental .

1 1 1
x n=1+ + +. ..+
2.Consider the following sequence { x n } , where 2 3 n

Since for any n ∈ N ={ 1,2, . .. }

1 1 1 1
|x 2n −x n|= +.. .+ >n⋅ =
n+1 n+n 2n 2

So according to the Cauchy Convergence Criterion the sequence { xn } has no

limit.
1
3.Let x 1=1 , x 2=2, and x n= 2 ( x n−2 + x n−1 ) for n>2. Find nlim
→∞
x n.

1
It is readily seen that |x n−x n +1|= n−1 for n ∈ N .Thus if m>n , we obtain
2

|x n−x m|≤|x n−x n+1|+|x n +1−x n+2|+∙ ∙∙+|x m −1 −xm|=¿

¿
2
1 1
n−1
2
n
+
2
1
2
1 1
2 ( 2
1
2
1
)
+∙ ∙∙+ m−2 = n−1 1+ +∙ ∙∙+ m−n−1 < n−2 < ε . Therefore ,{ x n } is Cauchy

sequence.We infer that the sequence { x n } convergence to a number x .Since { x n }

convergence to x ,so does the sub sequence with odd indices. By induction
x 2 n+1=1+
1 1
1
2 2
1 2 1
(
+ 3 +∙ ∙∙+ 2 n−1 =1+ 1− n .
2 3 4 )
2 5
It follows this that x=lim x n=lim x 2 k+1=1+ 3 = 3 .
n→∞ k→∞

Partial limit

Partial limit of given sequence is the limit of some subsequence.

 ∞
Let us discuss this concept in more detail. Let us consider a sequence { x n }n=1
and let a ∈ R∪{−∞ ,+∞ }

Definition.

A number a ∈ R (either symbol a=−∞ or a =+ ∞ ) is called a partial limit of

the given sequence

xn { }
if it contains a subsequence { n k } converging to a .
x

a is partial limit of { x n } , then there exists subsequence { x n } ⊂ { x }

k
n

Thus, if
lim x n =a
such that k →∞ k
.

Examples:

1. Suppose sequence { xn } is defined as follows 1,2,3,1,2,3 ,...

of { xn }
Let us consider the following subsequences :

{ x }= {x
' ∞
nk } =1,1,1 ,. . .
3 k−2 k =1

{ x }= {x
'' ∞
nk } =2,2,2 , .. .
3 k−1 k=1

{ x }= { x
''' ∞
nk } =3,3,3 , .. .
31 k=1

It is clear that

lim x 3 k−2 =lim 1=1

k →∞ k →∞

lim x 3 k−1 =lim 2=2

k →∞ k →∞

lim x 3 k= lim 3=3

k →∞ k →∞

and 3 are partial limits of { n } .

1,2 x
Therefore, the numbers
n
2. Let us consider the sequence { x n } , where x n= (−1 ) .
−1,1,−1,1,...
Consider the following subsequences of given sequence:

lim x 2k −1 =−1
{ x 2 k−1 } :−1 ,−1 ,−1 , .. . with k →∞ { x 2} :1,1,1 , .. . with klim
→∞
x 2k =1
and

Therefore, the numbers -1 and 1 are partial limits of the given sequence { xn } .
Theorem. Any sequence of numbers has at least one partial limits( finite or
infinite)

Proof. In the case when a sequence { n } is bounded the statement of the

x
theorem follows from the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem. It remains to
consider the case when the sequence is unbounded.

Let { xn } be unbounded. Then for k ∈ N we will choose

nk ∈ N such that

|x n |>k nk <nk +1
k and

As a result we get a subsequences that tends to infinity: nlim

→∞
x n =∞ . k

Upper and Lower limits of a real sequence

{ xn } can be defined
The upper and lower limits of a sequence of real numbers
in
several ways and are denoted, respectively as

lim x n lim x n
n→∞ and n→∞

One possible way is following Definition:

Consider the set A of elements a ∈ R∪{−∞ ,+∞ } for which there is

subsequences of { xn } converging to a .

{
A= a: ∃ { x n } → a
k }
It is clear that the set A is the set of all partial limits of the sequence { n } .
x
Then

lim x n =max A lim x n =min A

n→∞ and n→∞

Example 3.
n
x n= (−1 )
Consider .

It is clear that A= {−1,1 }

lim x n =1 lim x n =−1
Therefore n→∞ and n→∞

The upper and lower limits can also be defined in several alternative ways.

In particular as follows.

Definition.

lim x k =lim sup x k lim x n =lim inf x k

k →∞ n→∞ k≥n
k →∞ n→∞ k≥n ,

Example 4.
k
x k =(−1 ) k ∈ N ={ 1,2,3 ,. . . }
,
k
lim x n =lim inf x k=lim inf (−1 ) =lim (−1 )=−1
k →∞ n→∞ k≥n n→∞ k≥n n→∞

lim x k =lim sup x k =lim sup (−1 ) k=lim 1=1

k →∞ n→∞ k ≥n n→∞ k≥n n→∞

Example 5.

x k =k k ∈N
,

lim x n =lim inf x k=lim inf k=lim n=+ ∞

k →∞ n→∞ k≥n n→∞ k≥n n→ ∞

lim x k =lim sup x k =lim sup k=lim n=+ ∞

k →∞ n→∞ k ≥n n→∞ k≥n n→ ∞

Example 6.
 1
xk =
k k∈N
,

k →∞ n→∞ k≥n n→∞ k≥n

1
k n→∞
1 1
lim x n =lim inf x k=lim inf =lim inf ,
n n+1
,
1
n+2 {
, .. . =lim 0=0
n→∞
}
k →∞ n→∞ k ≥n
1
n→∞ k≥n k n →∞
1 1
lim x k =lim sup x k =lim sup =lim sup , ,
1
n n+1 n+2
1
{
,. .. =lim =0
n→∞ n
}
Example 7.

x k =−k 2 k ∈N
,

lim x n =lim inf x k=lim inf ( −k 2 )=lim inf {−n2 ,−( n+1 )2 .. . }=
k →∞ n→∞ k≥n n→∞ k≥n n→ ∞
lim ( −∞ ) =−∞
n→∞

lim x k =lim sup x k =lim sup ( −k 2 )=lim sup {−n2 ,−( n+1 )2 , . .. }=
k →∞ n→∞ k ≥n n→∞ k≥n n→ ∞
lim (−n ) =−lim n =−∞
2 2
n→∞ n→∞

Example 8.
k
x k =(−1 ) k k ∈N
,

x k :−1,2,−3,4,−5,6 ,...
k
lim x n =lim inf x k=lim inf (−1 ) k= lim ( −∞ ) =−∞
k →∞ n→∞ k≥n n→∞ k≥n n→∞

2
lim x k =lim sup x k =lim sup (−1 ) k=lim ( + ∞ ) =+∞
k →∞ n→∞ k ≥n n→∞ k≥n n →∞

Theorem.

The limit of {xn }

is a real number A (respectively −∞ ,+∞ ) if and only if the
upper and lower limit coincide and are a real number A (respectively −∞ ,+∞ ).