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MOOEl AERONAUTIC
encyclopedia vol. 1
BY FRANK ZAIC
 FULL SIZE PLANS
the
DIGITAL LIBRARY
project
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 MODEL AERONAUTIC
I .
ENCYCLOPEDIA
VOLUME ONE

Edited By

?~1ate

I MODEL AERONAUTIC PUBLICATIONS

NEW YORK

-
 FOREWORD
One of the greatest tools of scientific men is the record of
past discoveries. cxperi men ts and inventions . Just think of
I
the number of hou rs . effort and money that are saved in ~

knowing what has been done in the past in a particular field . I

Not only can an experimenter start where others have left
off. but he can also co - relate facts of many researchers and by
(
applying his own experience discover new ideas that will bene-
fit mankind . We wonder where we would be today or what
we would be doing if it were not for the millions of books
that contain the records of man· s achievement in science and
other fields .
It is hoped that this first volume of MODEL AERO -
NAUTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA will be the beginning of data
collection in the model aeronautics field . Those of us who
have been making and flying models for a long time know how
often similar ideas and designs are presented under the im-
pression that they are original developments .
Another purpose of this book is to tr y to give credit for
'the original work. It is about the cnly recognition that a re -
searcher in model aeronautics receives for his efforts . In this
respect . please mention the originators of the ideas which
you may be reviewing or incorporating in your design articles.
Major portion of the following mater ial was taken from
the l 9H. 1915 - 36 and 1917 MODEL AERONAUTICS
YEAR BOOKS . It was dur ing this period , 1912 - 1937 . that
model aeronautics as we know it today was developed. So that
besides being a scientific resume of that era. this book may also
be considered as a roster of pioneers of model aerodynamics.

January. 1947
New York . N. Y.

Copyright, 194 7
by
MODEL AERONAUTIC PUBLICATIONS

PRINTED IN U.S.A.
 LOW SPEED AERODYNAMICS
•·,; The goal of the c0ntes t model builder is to have his modelB re -
main in the air for the longest possible time. To obtain maximum
duration from the pure merits of the model, he must know just how
the air acts on moqels at their relatively low speeds. By knowing
just how the air behaves at low speeds he can pattern his model to
conform to a shape most efficient for 16w speeds. The results of
such procedure will be the possibility of flying models very econom-
ically, which in turn will prplong their limited power.

Although interest in low speed aerodynamics is expressed by most

model builders, very little testing has been done. However, the de-
sire for facts is spreading, and several clubs are constructing slOY
s~eed wind tunnels. It ls quite possible that by next year we will
have some positive results. Until then, we can only review the
present thought about the subject.

It might be mentioned here that a great deal can be learned a-

bout low speeds from early Aerodynamics books, dated from 1900 to
1914. Unfortunately, most of the formulas were assumed for speeds
over 30 miles per hour. The real low speed tests (2-10 miles per
hour) are presented as comparisons, to show that certain laws do not
~old to specific bounds throughout the whole range of speeds.

One of the best pro ofs that we cannot accept the present airfoil
chart val~es for model worki without modifications, is presented by
the followiQ.g photographs from an article appearing in the Journal of
Aeronautical· Sciences, Aug., 1936, prepared by H. C. H. Townend, Nat -
ional "Physical Laboratory, England. The light lines showing the air
flow are streams of electrically heated air which were photographed
threugh the use of certain optical properties of heated air.

l-"'
"'
"'
0

Increasing ai r s pe~d ------

4
In Photograph 1. the airfoil is at zeru degrees angle of attack.
The close spacing of the spark dots shows that the air speed is com-
paratively slow. In this position the lift of the airfoil is small.
You all know that to increase the lift, the angle of attack (the
angle between the airfoi.l and the airflow) must be increased, and
that the greater the angle, the greater is the lift. However, there
is 13.n end .. to this. happy con incidence. Aft.er n certain angle is reach·
ed, t he air refuses to flow smoothly (see Photograph 2.), and it
spills over the leading edge Bnd be c omes turbulent. When such a con-
dition arises th e lift drops off, and consequ e~ tly the plane st alls
bec ause there is not enough lift to keep it up. The stalling nngle
depends upon the air speed'and also upon the airfoil.

In Photograph 2. we see the airfoil in a sta.L.led p o s ition. The

air speed is the same as that in Photograph 1 . Note t he low angle
of attack and also the rolling action of the air behind the wing. In
this position the ef f ect of the upper camber is lost and we can only
depend upon the lower surface to lift. It would be very unwise t o
try to pull the wing through the air in this condition, as the power
necessary to ov er come the drag of tha turbulent air would be tremen-
dous. 'fhis might exp lain why certain models with improper line-up
refuse to gain altitude no ma tter how much power is applied.

Photograph 3. shows the airfoil at the same angle of at t ack as in

Pho t ograph 2 ., but with the air speed increased. Notice how the bur-
bling or stalling air has straigh tened out, and so has restored the
lift of the upper camber. From this illustration we can see tha t a
high speed plane c en fly at higher angles of attack than a low speed
job, without stalling . Photos 4., 5., and 6 . amulify the princip~e.

Spe ci al note should be mad e of the fact that by judgin8 from the
spacing of the spark dot~, the air 5pe<:!d in Photoe;raphs· 5. and 6. is
3bout three times th a t of Photographs 1. anQ 2. Also note 'that t he
a11g1e of attack is ioo in Photo g raph 2 ., 18° in Phot".Qgraph 4 ., and
28 in Photograph 6.

It has also been proved that the lift coeff i c ient is much small-
er at low speeds than at high. Therefore we can assume a i rfoil
characteristics for mo~el work to be approximately ae ~how n in Fi6.A
nnaae'C 10 e84 ~l'o~t 'al ·c~r4 7 0~·';~'·
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 The drag will nLso be f ound to be actually greater for models
thnn that ca l culated from the standard drag coefficients. This can
also be explained by the photographs. Since the drag is the result
of disturbing the airflow, and the airflow is easily disturbed at
low speeds, the drag coefficients are much greater for low speeds
than for higher speeds. See Fig. B. for the coefficient difference
and also Fig. A. which shows the drag curve assumed for model work.
These pr_o ofs should convince the most sceptic&l that it pay l! to
streamline ot low speed. We should not use the record list as a ba-
sis for an ·ar gumerit against streamlining as . the record flights were
almost all made with the aid of thermal currents. What we want is a
much higher average flight. The chances of getting a ten minute
flight are about 1 in 50, and a five minute flight, about l in 20.
The odds a»e getting better yenr by year, as we pay more heed to low
speed aerodynamics.
Just where does the dreg come in on all this? Well, the point
ts that if, for example, it requires 2 oz. of thrust to fly a model,
~t least one oz. of t his thrust is used up in overcoming the drag of
the fuselag e, landing gear, and tail. If we did not have all theee
things, it would be possible to fly the model twice as long for the
3ame power, thereby doubling our duration in calm air, es well as
doubling our chances of catc hing a thermal. With this in mind, let
us remember how the airflow behaves at low speeds, so that we may
pattern the mo del t o conform to t he shape most suitable for low dr&g.
The b e st possible shape for each part, as well as the effect of
streamlining on stability, will be considered under their own head-
ings.
-~:~"'-...-,7~L-W•~.-)0 '"'":::' "! ~Kot> 0 7 • ,•·•;'!,;,••

1 - -1--1--1-..,f--,1--1 . . _ or •0Uon 1tur.1 Ul (Leo.......,,) -"' lul or •oUoa i tl . 8. l. ~•

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.tnpeolU t Hl lnh..... H , blll el AUMk la h . .H .

ADDITIONAL AIRFOIL SECTIONS may be found in N.A.C.A. Reports

Noe. 93, 124, 182~ 244, 286, 316, and 460. These reports m~y be
se.en in your library or be purohaaed on applioation to the ---
Superintendent of Doownents,---Government Printing Office, ---
Washington, D.C. For further information write to tne National
Advisory Committe for Aeronaut.ios, Navy Building, Washington, D.c.
 6

AIRF·O ILS
The first ste p 'in desi gn i n g a contest model is to decide upon
the size desir'ed. ·After t h i s is done an approximation of the weigh t
should be made. From the we i ght estimate, the a rea of the wing
should be determined. Bef ore the final decision is made, remember
that the performance of the model depends a great deal upon its wing
loading, so crowd in as much area as the rules allow . . The next and
perhaps the most important step is to select the airfoil.

Since airfoils stall at lower angles, at low speeds, we must se-

lect a section that has sufficient iift at low angles o f attack.
The sections having this quality are those whose thickness exceeds 8'f,
of the cho rd and whose lower p or ti o ns are flat or undarcambered (con-
cave). Although lift increa ses with an increase in thickness, an ex-
cessive increase in drag and o ther d isadvantages become evident wi t h
the use of section of over l ~~ chord thickne s s, at low speeds. A
thickness of 12% of the chord s eems to be the best compromise.

_.a:,rz;P'l1<Pb22~

One way of increasing the lift without the add.ition of too nruch
drag is . to use an undercambered airfoil. The reason that the under-
CaJnbered section develops more lift than a similar section with a
flat bottom is that the airflow acts at a greater angle against tme
lower portion of the airfoil. See Fig. 1. Thus we c an increase the
angle of attack of the lower portion of the airfoil, without increas-
ing t he ang l e of the upper portion. (Remember that it is the air go-
ing over the upper camber whic h burbles at high angles of attack.)
This increase of lift be comes especially prominent at angles greater
than o0 . Since w~ usually s et the airfoil at about 3° positive we can
use the under c amber . advantage ously. The undercamber. may be quite
deep, but we nrust k eep in mind that too much of it will caus e apprec -
iab~e drag by the edd1 behind the l e ading edge. Se e Fie.z. From
this diagram we c an se e t h a t the highly undercambered section should
have the maxinrum heigh t at about 40~ of the chord to minimize the ed-
dy tendencies. 'l'he under camber ed sections have a greater center of
pres sure travel and al so a lowe r lift-drag ratio. However, these
points shou l d . not be used. as criterions in selecti ng the airfoil.
What we went is enough lift, even at the expense of a bit of addi-
tional drag (which is very small in comparison with the rest of the
model). The center of pressure travel is taken care of by the abnor-
mal s ize of stabiliz er used on models.
Every so often someone asks w ~y a stable section like an M-6
should not be used instead of an RAF :32. Then the fact that the RAF
32 l if ts a.s much at o0 , as the M-6 does at 7° is p o inted out. 11 But
why don't you set the M-6 at 7ti and get the same lift a.s t he RAF 32,
and get the advantages of a more stQble section?" --Well, the fal-
lacy here is that most sections stall within a few degrees of each
other. ·The M-6 with 70 set t ing will stall nruch sooner than the RAF
32. For example; if the M-6 stalls at 20° it has 13° leeway, and if
the RAF 32 stalls at 18° it has 18° leeway. These figures, by the
way, are for full size work. The stalling angle is much lower for
model ~izes-- pos$ibly half of the above figure~, and the leeway is
~hat much smaller.
 In choostng the airfoil, the structural requirements of the par-
ticular model nnist be kept in mind. The best · airfoil is useless if
the wing does not keep its shape, or if it breaks at the . slightest
.' Collision. In fact, all the advantages of the finest airfoil can be
spoiled by poor balance, improper incidence, and high total drag.
After considering structural re~uirements of airfoils, the fol-
lowing standard sections will be found suitable for model work: RAF
32, Eiffel 400, u. s. 358, Gottingen 392, Eiffel 431, Gott. 496,
Gott. 529, ISA 923b, and Clark y, . (Also see sections developed by
model builders.) The specific recon:nnendation is made under the
individual report. On these reports you will also find tl'E approx-
imate values for model work. Use them and check their accuracy.
The Editor believes tha t the best practical section . is the RAF
32 which was introduced to use on models by him several Jears ago.
Its characteris~ics are very good, a.s it has all the desirable poin12.
It may be used in thinner or thicker form for light or heavy models.
The Eiffel 400 almost matches it in characteristics, but the thin
trailing edge, and the comparatively high leading edge place it sec-
ond.

Airfoil Characteristics Charts

Airfoil characteristics charts show the wind tunnel results,
translated so that they can be used for power plan.es and gliders.
Eventually we will have such charts for model work, and therefore a
short summary of the chief curves will give an inkling as to what
they are all about, to those who do not kno~ how to use them ~ The
curve labeled CL shows tt~ coefficient of lift at different angles
of attack. Note that the slope of the graph is almost the'same for
all airfoils. The only difference is that the curves c~oss the oo
line at different points. Notice tha t the airfoils chosen for model
work have this line quite high. The higher this crossing, the better
the section, providing that it is not too thick. The termination of
the upward trend just before the slope downward indicates that the
section has reached its maximum lifting point, and that it is close
to ~he burbling point if not actually in it. This st~lling point
occurs sooner at low speeas, and also occurs slightly sooner for high
aspect rations. The method of using lift graph for calculations is
as shown in the example.
The next curve is the CD line. This shows the drag values at
different angles of attack . For best results this line should be as
close to the .00 mark as possible, providing that the section has e-
nough lift. The CD line is the result of two kinds of drag_, the para-
sitic and the induced. Parasitic dra,g is that part of the resistance
which is caused by moving objects disturbing the air.flow. It is the ·
drag with which we are all familiar when streamlining is talked about.
The induced drag is evident mostly on inclined planes such as wings
and tail surfaces. It is caused by the airflow from the compre ssed
air area under the airfoil into the rarefied upper portion. See Fig.
3. At the tips this equalizing fluw is especially great. The degree
dep~nds upon the size of the tip. The larger and blunter tips will
have a greater flow, while the small and gradually tapered tip will
heve a comparatively small spill-over with consequent smaller dis-
turbance of the air. The dras is calcule.ted as shown. (The topic of
induced drag brings 1us right into the Aspect Ratio question, bu.t as
we are on chart reaqing, the Aspect Ratio will be discussed later.)
The curves that remain are the C. P. tcenter of pressure) and the
L/D (the ·11ft divided by the drag). The C. P.. line shows the center
of all lifting components at the particular angle. For example; in
the airfoil shown, the center- of lift.at zero degrees is 45~ behind
the leading edge.
 B

'l'he lift over drag ratio is an indicator of how much th& lift is
greater then the drag. Remember the L/D line ~hould not . be the only
deciding factor in the selection of an airfoil.

The fornrulas used to c alculate lift and drag ar e as follows, as

per the N. A. c. A. report s:
-WO.Hf
LIFT FORMULA
Lift (in lbs.)=CL .ES v2
e
DRAG FORMULA
Drag (in lbs.·)= Co .£ S V2
2
CL= Lift Coefficient
CD= Drag Coefffoient
p = Density of air .00237
(at lsoc & 760mm
Surface area in sq.ft.
Air Speed in Ft. Sec.

Lift =.7 X . OO ll85 X 8 X 29 . 3 32

Ans, 5 . 2 u8 ~ lbs.
1.-(...sjlJl-.-+-+-+--l : : :~ =~:n;,~:~:l:c~.:::
J -. J ::..e:. -::::~ : ci!~:~~/..a . DH• : l t • Drag = .0 45 ~ .001185 X 8 X 29 • 332
- U -10' -1 -6 -4- -z O z - 6
bll• of Attack la
I 10 U
n..,..••.
1, l' 11 ID • Ans. ·• 3660 78!38 Hrn lbs,

When we have cha rt s for low speed work, we will be able to find
out the minimum speed at which the win12. wi lJ. lift the we ight of the
model. The calculation of tot!'ll dra g c e.n be base d on tllis speed,
and once the drag is known, · the pro per design of the propell e r can
be easily selected. When we ':1i l l make mod els in this way, vre re a lly -
will be abJ 0 to say without blushin~ that we d e~ign models .

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 Aspect Ratio 9
Aspect Ratio seems to be the favorite topic of most writers.
The only difficulty is that some recommend high aspect ratio and
others recommend low. Sometimes opposite recommendations appear in
the same issue of a magazine, which is rather confusing, to say the
least. Well, let's see just what aspect ·ratio is, and how it affects
the wing o~ficiency.

Aspect ratio is the ratio expresaed by dividing the span by the

a~erage chord. Its effect upon the wing's efficiency, is that it
determines the size of the tip whorls and other whorls caus e d by the
pres sur~ differential between tba upper and lower cambers. A low
a&pect ratio wing will naturally cause greater tip losses than a
high aspect ratio wing. These losses result in less lift and great-
er drag. The dr ~g is called induced drag, and has be en described be-
fore.

T/P ;t)~T/CLS
dW' TAP~UZI 'T/P-5

As previously mentioned, the drag shown on a regular airfoil re-

port is composed of two p a rts, that due to tip losses; induced drag,
and the profile drag which is due to the friction of the airflow
by the passing wing. The formula for induced drag is:
2
Induc ed Drag • CL
'fr x Aspect Ratio

As can be ascertained from thP. formula, an increase in the

aspect ratio decreases induced drag. From ~n1s we c~n see that
high as pect ratio is especially important in soaring gliders
where the lift coefficient is very high becsuse of the thick air-
foils used. On ~model the lift coefficients are comparatively low
because of the low air speed ard comparatively low angles of attack,
and the section or parasite drag is comparatively very high, also
due to the low speed. For the reason that the parasite drag is more
.important in models than the induc·ed drag, it is best to reduce the
parasite drag by using a large section, which of course with a lim-
ited area means a lower aspect ratio. It is just one of the minor
differences between models and power ships.

The exact aspect ratio depends on the design of the model. If

the model is large the aspect ratio may be fairly high as the air-
foil is wide, but ·for-small designs the aspect ratio should be low
enough to pr ovide an airfoil 3hape sufficiently large for aerodynam~
ic.al effect. Judging from experience, airfoils with a chord of un -
der 3" are seldom of true sha.pe, a nd h ov e results approaching fl a t
plate characteristic s. Therefore, no matter what the aspect ratio
is, the tip airfoil should never be smaller than three inches. By
using three inches as the minimum tip chord, th~ aspect ratio can be
very e as ily decided upon.if the wing area is know. An as pe ct ratio
of about 7 'to 10 will take care of . most models, both in overcoming
the torque and in pr<rviding stability.
JO
The shape of the ti ps should be caret'ulJ.y a~s igned, ·especiall y
on low aspect ratio designs. An elliptical outline starting at a
dis ta.nee of about twice the tip chord from the tip,· is about the
best. When makiAA tips, be sure that they are smooth and do not of-
fer a resistance turnin~ mome nt to be overcome by the rudder.
Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wing Tips
It is a known fact that the tips on a tapered wing stall before
the center section, and that on a straight 'wing the center portion
stalls first.
The tip stall on a tapered wing is explained by the fact that on
such wings we have two extreme sizes of airfoils , the large at the
center and the small at the tips. It is this difference in size
that causes the early tip stall on a tapered wing. 'rhe small air-
foils do not hold the airflow as well as the lar~er sections at high
angle~, with a consequent early stall fGr the small ai foils. This
can be substantiated by noting that the smaller the airfoil becomes,
the closer 1t approaches the flat plate in its characteristics (the
break of airflow at low . angles). It may be noted here that the air-
flol' bre,a ks away very easily from sharp corners, and since small
airfoils have very little curvature, the early stall effects are es-
pecielly prominent.

The reason that the center portion of a straight wing stalls

first is that the tips have a relatively continuous flow of air
from underneath the wing at all angles. When the wing does stall,
the overflow over the center breaks away from the airflow, while the
tips still get a fairly smooth flow from the pres s ure differential,
therebJ increasing the tip stalling angle.
The question, 11 Why does not the same phenomenon hold true for
tapered wings?", can best be answered by noting that on a tapered
wing the airfoil gradually decreases in size, so thatl;he tip sec-
tions are comparatively small ~or quit e a ~ distance near the tip and
tha t the pressure differential is also smaller because of the grad-
ual t aper .
The advantages of h aving th e tips stall last are apparent when
we consider that in a st all the tip portion of . the wing is behind the
C. G., and therefore will help to restore the model to Q level or
flying position. See Fig. 4. The tips may be washed out to decrease
incidence and stall later than the center s9ction, but th:Ls ~ives us
a loss of lift. A llklch better method, which has been recently intro-
juced by engineers, is to thicken the tip airfoil, especially the
leading edge, as shown. See Fig. 4a. This provides the needed rib
curvature for a late stall.

,.,A.("/.Mf" ~ T/P.5 8Y A
~R/e.S (),I:' £"'-~IP-SE:S
By il«,,ry Sfiglml!/~,.
 JI
STABl.LITY
The stabilit~ of a model may be divided into several divi~ions:
longitudinal or up and down" ' stability, rolling or r~tating stabil-
ity, and dir.ec tional stability. The longitudinal stability is taken
care of by the proper position of the C. G. and the stabilizer. The
rolling stability is obtained by the proper dihedrai and side area,
plus the correct position of the ·c. Q. The directional stubili ty is
taken care of- by having the center of side area behind the C. G., to
enable the model to swing into the wind in case of sudden gusts.

Longitudinal Stability and the Stabilizer

Longitudinal stability seems to be well under control because of

the present tendency to use large stabilizers, which keep the wing
well within the narrow safety margin of nngle of attack, caused by
low speed. Another present tendency is to use slightly lifti ng tails
to h~lp lower the wing loading. The liftillf, tail can be used to ad-
vantage, providing the builder knows how to · use it.

The area of the 5tabilizer may,vary a great deal without affect-

ing the performance of the model, except for finer adjustments for
smaller areas, and a slight increase of drag for larger areas. The
present trend in stabilizer design is to use from.30% to 40% of the
wing area for the stabilizer area. In figuring this area, the mom-
ent arem the weight of the model, and the chord and area of the wing
should be taken into consideration. The light model and the model
with a small chord wing IDHY use a smaller stabilizer because light
models are subj ec t to less violent displacements. For heavier mod-
els and for models with large chord wings, the full 40~ may be used
to enable the tail to da11.pen out the upsetting forces. The area of·
the stabilizer is also determined by the tail moment arm. A short
moment arm necessitates large area, while a long moment arm can
stabili ze the model with a much sma.ller st abilizer. The size of tm
fusel age in front of the wi ng also }\as a sli 8 ht bearing on the final
area. The longer rortion requires a larger stabilizer to dampen out
any possible o~cillutions caused by the large inertia distance.

The ideal stabilizer keeps the model just below the ~talling
point artd has a bi gher stalling angle than the wing, to bring the
mod el level wit hou t loss of altitude after the wing stalls. One way
of raising the s talling angle of the stabilizer is to use a low as-
pect ratio on the stabilizer, with the trailing edge almost straight
and the leading edge s~ept back. In case of a lifting stabilizer,
use an airfoil that stalls later than the wing. Wallace McBride of
Winnep eg, Canada,. re port s that tip rudders help in recovery by pre-
venting the tip ai rf low from spilling over the end of tne ti~s &t
high angles of attack, thereby giving the stabilizer extra high lift
at large ang les, just when it is needed most.

Since it is a poor practise to sp proximate important areas, we

would. benefit a great deal lf we were to formulat~ a simple equation
for the ~tabili zer area. The formula used by aeronautical engineers
ls:

Stabilizer Ar ea = Wing Area x Coefficient x Average Chord

Stabilizer Moment Arm
 12'
The coeffici en t s vary for different designs. The coefficient used
fo r tr anspo rt s is about .35, while f or light planes, the coefficient
i s some time s ~s rm.ich as .50. For model work, use 1.00 for light
ship s and 1.35 for heavier jobs. A good procedure to follow i3 to
record the wing area, avera ge chord, s tebilizer area, and the moment
arm of every model we ma ke. If we know the s e figures we can very
e us ily d e termine the c oeffi c i ent for later reference . by usinv, the
f ollo wing equation.

Co efficient z: Stabilizer Area x Moment Arm

Wi ng Are a x Average Chord
Aft er u while we will hov e a complete s et of c oefficients for e a ch
t yp e of model, and also for stubil i zer s using different airfoils.
Although a flat or symme trical st ub ili~er may lift if it is set
at a pos itive angle, t he pir actic ul d~ f f erenc e bet ween t he liftine
tail nnd the fl s t or symmetri c al tail is thnt t he lifti ng tail c ~m­
tribute s lift end bring s the C. G. back, sometimes even be h ind the
wi ng , V{hile fo r n non-li fting tail th·: C. G. i s not mo r e th ~·n 30% of
t he cho rd of the wi ng behind the le nd:lng edge .
To adjust a non-lift in g s tabiliz s r model , t he C. G. shoul rl be.
30% of the chord be h i nd the le adin~ e d g~. The wi ng should be left
at t h i s ~o i nt no mnt t e r how t he model flies. · All the adjustinB
s hould b e done with i nc i dence s . The incidence of t he wing shou ld be
about 30 po s iti ve and the stab il ize r shoul d be s et nt zero, or e ve n
sli ghtly plu s , to t ake car e of the d ownwa s h . Now i f the morle l dives
with thi s se t tin g , incr·ease t he incide nce of the wing vary s li t:: htly,
1f a t hick winp~ sect i on is u s ed ; a nd incr ease the 1.ncidence of ti1e
s tabilizer if a thin wi ng section i~ u s ed. Alway s keep in mind that
the wi n e; must h ave en ough lift to fly the model with th~ C. G. e.t
the 30% of th e c hord pos ition. As so on a s t h e po sitio n of the wi ng
is changed c omplic at.lons set in anq nd ,1 usting becomes dif fi c ult f or
maximum e ffi c iency . It i s qui te p ossible ·t o adj ust for fair flying
and g li d ing by rr~ving the wi ng back and forth, bu t what we want is
the best that the model can do.
The s t21bili z i ng action of the no n- liftlng tai l is :shovm in Fig.5.

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The lifti ng ta il c~ r ries part of the tot a l lo e d of the mode l us

well as pr oviding longitu d i n al s t ab ilit y . The C. G. can b e almost
any pl nc e b ehi n d the wing, the exact po s iti on depend i ng u pon the
size and inc i dence of t he stabili zer. However, most model buil ders
se em t o f avor the position of the C. G. ,i ust behind the truilinc;
edge of t ile wing. To ad just for flyin g this Cle.sign, . have t he -w i ng
at 3° positive incid ence and the C. G. behind t h e trailing e d ge
then o o 1:111 ad .~ us ti n~ by varying the s t ab iliz;er' s incidence un ti l a
~a ti s factory fligh t i s obta ine d .
 The sections used in the stabilizer vary from synnnetrical for
non-lifting tails, to single surface cambered sections for lifting
tails. In selecting airfoils for lifting tails, keep in mind the
fact that the stabilizer may develop too much lift and keep the mod-
el flying low and•fas,t, or may for<;e the model into a dive from
which there is no recovery. See Fig. 6 •

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The ideal wing-tail combination for a lifting tail model is to

have the force of the wlng 1 s lift x its moment a.rm, greater than the
force of the stabil.izer's lift x its moment arm, when the angle of
atta9--k is from negative to about 3° positive. At greater positive
angles, the stabilizer should have a larger force, to keep the wing
within the safety zone. If the s tabilizer's force is larger than
that of the wing at angl~s below 3° positive, th~ model will have a
tendency to fly tail high, or eve n dive. See Fig.G. It is there-
fore evident that the stabilizer should be so designed that the air-
foil will have relatively little lift at zero degrees angle of at-
tack. The safest sections that wi.11 fulfil this requirement are of
the M-6 variety. The flat bottom or Clark Y type should b~ about the
limit in the direction of underca.mber. The heavily undercambered
stabilizers work well so long as the incidence is positive and the
wing is able to take care.of its s ide of the load, but as soon as the·
model gets into ~ negative angle of attack, the undercambered sec-
tions will force the model into a dive because of their 11 lift at low
angles" characteristics, which provide the stabilizer with more force
and overbalances the wing/tail ra t io.

The above longitudinal stability suggestions will suffice if the

model flies on an even kee l and in a straight line, and also for mod-
els having the thr\.l.st line at the center of drag, so that such flight
adjustments will b e the same as those in the glide. However, since
the power flight is usually of a circular or spir8l typ e , the final
flight adjustme n t depends upon the rudder and counter torque adjust-
ment. Whatever may b~ such adjustments, keep the positio n of the
wing . and .stabilizer fixed and work onlv on the turn1n~ controls
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 14

SPIRAL ST ABILl·T Y
Dihedral and Rudder

Most stability problems are caused by the lack of knowledge con-

cerning the forces that tend to roll (barrel roll, bank) or turn the
model. On a stable model these forces are kept ~nder control by the
d~hedral and rudder or fin. On an unstabl~ model these controls are
' usua~ly poorly proportioned with respect to each other. In designing
these elements, keep in mind that they rnust remain within certain
bounds, and that the "little extra to be on the safe side" usually
causes most of the trouble.

The purpose of the dihedral is to keep t h e model in its most ef-

. fective flying position. To accomplish this, it must perform a large
variety of corrective :f\lnctions, such as counteracting the torque and
preventing excessive side slipping and banking on the turns. All of
these things must be done with the minimum of dihedral, to keep the
wing efficiency high. See Fig. 8 for comparison.

The general impressi on among the model builders is that the di-
h.e dral functions as in Fig. 9. This is the old theory, and does not
explain why some models with little dihedral possess certain definite
stability f ·a ctors . . To explain the modern theory, we must realize
that the lift of the wing elements is always perpendicular to the
wing surface, and that the resultant of llft is passing through the
C. G. See Fig. 10. Now if the model is upset · as shown in Fig. 11,
the lift of the wing and the weight of the model produce a side ' force.
This side force induces a side slip, so that the airflow now affects
the wing as shown in Fig. 12. From this figure it c en be easily per-
ceived that the lower wing has more lift than the upper by virtue of
its greater angle of attac k. This tends to raise the model into a
level position. The important point to remember he1•e is that every
such corrective tendency is brought about when the model is side
slipping, and that side slipping affects the surfaces seen in a side
elevation of the plane.
 Effect of a High Fin on Stability
Another .method of obtaining stability is to mount the wing on a
fin. The stability is obtained when the model side slips, because
this fin area exerts a leveling force as shown in Fig. lZ. However,
it is not as effe~tive as the normal dihedral which makes use of the
lift to bring the model level. The high fin may be used, in which
case the dihedral msy be decreased, but not entirely eliminated.
When using a fin, remember tha·t it acts as a rudder also, so be sure
to check its position before every flight.

Torque and Dihedral

The torque of the motor is the most upsetting force with which we
must contend. It actually transfers the wing loading, so that one
wing m..ist lift more than the other. See Fig. 14 .. If the wing is per-
fectly lined up, and the rudder and thrust line are set at neutral,
the only counter-torque element is the dihedral. The action of the
dihedr3l is as follows: the torque causes the model to roll into a
side slip. As the wing side slips, it produces more lift on one side
and the dihedral tends to straighten out the model. The torque roll
continues, however, until the wing produces enough extra lift to e-
quallze the torque force, thereby producing a balance. The reason
that the model now circles is because the lower wing has rrruch more
drag due to its higher angle of attack. The danger of controlling
the torque by only_ this method is that the rubber torque is so vari-
able that the initial force might be so large that i t will overcome
the dihedr·a1 counter-torque for-ce, and force the model into a spiral
dive. There are ·other mean.s of applying counter-torque, but they all
depend upon having the affected wing produce more lift. The manner
in which this -is accomplished will be discussed in a lat e r paragraph.

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So far, we lmow that the only time that. the dihedral comes intc.
play is ·when we get a side slip and a consequent side airflow. This
side airflow affects the side of the moder; and the reaction of the
model depends upon the _manner in which the side are a is proportioned.
around the center of gravity. It ils apparent tba.t if the areas are
balanced nothing will happen, but the moment that the ba:\_.ance is dis-
turbed, the side that has the most area will tend to swing into its
least re~istance position. See Fig. 16. For 0ur purpose, it is best
to have the tail portion of greater area so that the model will tend
to point into the airflow whenever a side gust occurs. However, it
nrust not be too grea~ or the wing will have but . a small chance to re-
cover by the dihedra l -side slip effect, since the tail portion will
always be trying to point the model into the newly f ormed airflow.,
and so eliminate the needed side flow for the dihedral to take e ff ec~
The ideal situation is that in which ' a sltght side slip does not af-
fect the side area proportion.
Rudder
In a side gust or cross wind the model with a small rudder will
be turned so as to fly with the wind, and the model with a large rud -
der will point into the wind. Of the two ·, the large r lldder is prefer-
9ble; as a gust is liable to upset the small rudder model while it is
turning. See Fig. 16. I n a side slip with its accompanying . side
airflow, the model with a small rudder will tend to increase the side
slip by having the tail port1on drop. It la also possible that such
lowering of the tail portion will increase the angle of attack to a
stalling position in which case the entire model will be out of con-
trol. The larger rudder model will tend to f e.ce the side ail'.flow,
preventing the model from s ide s l ipping, and banking it instead. How-
ever, remember that the rolling tendency due to the torque is still
12res e nt and continues to produce the side slip, forcing the model in-
to a tight banking c ircle, with a consequent spiral dive. A rudder
of the correc t area will allow the wing to have a slight . side slip,
and when that is exceeded 1 •.will bank it into a slippi.ng turn. See
Fig. 17.

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Size of the Rudder and .Dihedral

It i s a rather difficul t ~reposition at this time to give an ex-
act mean~ of finding the correct dihedral angle and the rudder area,
as the effectiveness of the various p~ ts is unknown. The only meth-
od is to approximate as closely es possible from experience, and then
to watch the · performance of the model, noting its actions. If we can
tell which forces are dominating the' situation, it is then a simple
matt~r to make .the necessary corrections, if something is wrong; ..
 17
For the average model, the dihedral depends upon the span and
area of the wing, as well as the power used nnd the size of the pro-
pel~er. The dihedral should be large if the span is small or the
area is small, and +.he motor powerful and the propeller large. For
these extremes as much a.s ~" may be used at each tip for evecy foot
of span. At the other extreme we have large area and span, and low
power and a small prop. (Almost ~lider characteristics.} For such
models, li" dihedral at eacri side for every foot of span, is suffic-
ient. These angles will allow fo~ torque as well as other upsetting
forces. For models between these extremes the angle mey be small if
the torque is small, or if it is neutralized by twin props.
The correct rudder area depends upon its distance from the c. G..
the shape of the fuselage, the size of the prop and the whe els, and
the dihedral. The effect of the d·is tance from the C. G. is self-evi-
dent. The effect . of other elements can be best seen in Fig. 18, in
which the model is seen from the sliding or airflow dire ction. Since
we know that we must have slightly more area behind the C. G., we
therefore can assume that the center of side area is slightly behind
the C. G. Now, the a:tm of the builder should be to have the areas on
each side of the vertical !tne balance each other. This can best be
done by drawing a side view of the model end then celculating. the
area-distance force5.
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Since the size and shape of the elements other than the r~dder
heve already been determined, we can slowly build up the rudder
while we are calculating. In calculating side area-distanoe, we
should assume a full side view of the propeller, li times that of a
single wheel, li times that of the total dihedral, and a full size
fuselage if a square or d i amond shape is used. A round fuselage, be-
cause of its low drag at various angles, may be considered as a stick,
while the elliptical fuselage should be about 1/2 of its height, and
an octagonal one almost full size. In using this procedure, the rudder,
should not exceed its calculated size for that "just to be on the safe
aide" reason. The above mathematical procedure is simple, but if you
want to, you can make a side view cardboard pattern of the model with
the areas as reconnnended. The rudder portion is left large and bal-
ance is obtained by trimming it cautiously. If the calculations are
exact, you should have the correct rudder area. Chee• by flying the
model, and note if any changes are necessary. The above methods fa-
vor a generously size9 rud~er, prov~ding that the propeller effect is
not greater than its side view. For the average model, assume the
center of s id e area to be a Pew inches behind the C. G.
Requirements for Ideal Spiral Stability
To have• model possess · spira~ stability, we . must have enough di-
hedral to straighten it when it begins to roll or side slip, the rud-
der should be juat large enough to bring the center of side area be-
hind the c. G. and so . alwa7s tend to turn the model into a gu$t, and
the dihedral and rudder should be so proportioned· that they-will work
in harmony. The exact combination is hard to &et, but we·can ·~sily
detect a model without it by the following flight examples .
 18

If the rudder area or the area behind the C.'G. is too large or
if the dihedral is too small, a side gust will tend to turn the model
into the wind. As it turns, the outside wing travels faster and pro-
duces more lift with a consequent bank. The momEtnt the wing banks,
we get a side slip in which the whol e side o ~ the model is effected.
The greater Bide area behind the C. G. noses the model still further
into the benk, and thi s is followed by more side slipping until even-
tually the model is in a vertical tu~n, and finally a tight spiral
dive. The above cycle may also be startsd by setting .the rudder fvr
a sharp turn, which is almost equivalent to the side gust effect.
Torque also rolls the ship into a side slip. The conclusion that may
be drawn is that if the c~nter of side area is too far behind the
C. G. and · the dihedral is small, the model will be very unstable or
easily affected by side airflows, snd in great danger of spinning.
The cure for this is to d~crease the rudder are a or the side area be-
hind the C. G. ur to increase the dihedral.
With the present tendency to make all control l ing surfaces extra-
large, it is unlikely that the rudder area will ever be too smell, or
the Center of Side Area in front of the C. G. However, if the model
tends to benk on~ way, and the n the other, ~r if it slips from side
to sida, the indications are that the dihedral must be too large or
that the side area is just on or is in front of the C. G. Check the
side area position, end if it is behind the C. G. decrease the dihed-
ral, · and if it is in front of the C. G., increase the rudder area.

Position and Shape of the Rudder

It has been noted that the rudder has a powerful effect and that
it should be so place d and shaped so that its action wLll be gradual
If the rudder is of high aspect ratio and placed above or below the
fuselage, the sl ighte s t side airflow will t-.end to upset the model.
Of the two, the upper position is preferable, as i t . tends to keep the
model on ~n even ke el , whi le the lower design tends to overturn the
model. The logi c al s olu tion to the problem is to make the rudder of
low aspect ratio, and t o divi de th9 area above and below the fuselage
as shown in Fig. 1 9 .

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Round or elliptical fuselages offer comparatively small resistance.

when exposed to the side airflow and they are not very effective with
respect to side area control. In such cases, it is recommen~~a that
fins be macle on the fr ont of the fuselage and that the rudder be made
as shown in Fig. 20. Iff a si de slip, such an arrangement will tend
to slow down the sliding motion and also present forces of similar
strength, due to the flat fins in the front and re a r.
Twin Rudders
Twi n ructders seeut to be aerodynamic ally sound, and it is quite
po ssible that they are more effe cti ve then the single rudder design,
because of the j_r smaller fuselag e interference. They also benefit
the longitudinal stability by raising the stabilizer's stalling angl~
Their t ot al area should be slightly greater than that calculated for
a single rud der . When using double rudders, be sure that the line-up
is identical fo r b o th, rind that they are well fixed to a 5t:rong stab-
ilizer.
 19
Counter-Torque Adjustments

As previously shown, the propeller torque transfers part of the

wing loading to one side of the wing and causes the model to ·roll,
unless corrective measures are applied. One of these corrective
measures is the dihedral, ~ut since a large .amount of dihedral lowers
the wing·efficiency, the dihedral must necessarily be as small as
possible. Another measure used is to change the incidence of the
wing so that one half has more than the other, with a consequent in-
creasa of lift. A modification of this method is to increase the
area of one half of the wing. The only objection to these methods
is tne.t as· soon as the power is expanded the counter-torque setting
produces spiral instability if the adjustments are excessive. Re-
cently, the side thrust control of torque has been used successfully
when used with moderation. The principle here is that the angle of
thrust produces a turning tendency which causes the torque wing to
travel re la ti vely faster and so produce the needed counteracting lift.
Whil e the model is under the side thrust influence, it is in a skid-
ding turn, and it is here tha~ the danger lies. If the center of
side area is not properly bBlanced, the model may become unstable.
S~e F'ig. 21, for force diagram. The rudder may also be used but its
effect will not b e as pronounced as the thrust. However, the prin-
ciple is the same-- that of forcing the rnodel to turn in order to
proquce the needed counter-torque lift. The rudder effect depends
upon the power and propeller, and the speed of the model. It is
small on low power ships, and large on high power ships such as ~s
jobs.

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to use a small amount of each type of adjustment and to allow the mod·
el to turn with the torque , so tbat when the power is completely ex-
pended, the mode l wil l turn in th e opposit e direction with no upset-
ting tendency. Anothe r method is t o have an sutomatic aileron con-
trol, self-adjustable by th€ motor torque. Whichever method you use
to count e ract t he t o r1tue, remember that it is the wing that actually
produces the result.

/ I

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 20
THE THREE CENTERS
The Center of Gravity, the Center of Drag, and the Thrust Line
To enable us to get a good glide while using the power fli}Qlt ad-
justments, we must c onsider· the position and effect of the various
forces. The center of gravity anil the thrust line can be fixed, but
the center of drag keeps wandering with every change in the relative
airflow. It is this varying position which oft en makes adjusting
difficult. The strength of these three forces de p ends upon their re-
lation t o each othe r, as well us upon t~ e flying conditions.
The v ert ical position of the C. G. is usually determined by the
rubb e r motor line, the weight of the wing, Qnd the weight of the
landing g ear. Since the wei ght of the landing gear does nbt often
equal that of the wing, we can assume the c. G. to be slightly above
the r~bber line. The fore and aft position also depends upon the
~enter of the rubber line. Since the weight of the tail ~urface~
usually balances the weight of t he prop, we hav e only to consider
the wing and landing gear. Since these two are i n front of the rub-
ber motor c ent er we can assume the final C. G. to be in front of this
center, wit h the exact position determined by the wei ght of each item.
You may test this premJ se f or yourself bv balancing a completed model.

The thrust line depends upon th~ axi s of the p ropeller shaft, a nd
can be made independe nt of the _rubber line by the use of a suitable
plug. In making these plugs, remember t h at there is side friction at
the rear of the junction of the shaft and the plug, and that this
friction should be minimized by the use of a metal tube, and eyelets
o.nd washers.
The c enter of drag is the point at which the drag of the indiv-
idual parts is balanced . Sinc e the dr ag changes with the speed a nd
shape presented to the airflow, the cent e r keeps shifting under dif-
ferent fl y ing condit ions . On a norma l model , the c. D. is hi~,h be-
cause of ~he high wi ng . 'l'h0 forces on a normal model are as shown
in Fig. 2~ ' , und the act.ton of th o v nrious c enters is as follows:

,
--1l..,L.--J.______.:..-~---------1

"' "·"
During power f.Lying tht3 thrust is the strongest forward force .
Gravity, !::l.Ct ing through the C. G. , cont ributes slightly when the ship
in a di vj ng f•Os i ti on, but it also detracts in a c l imb. The reac-
ti ·:Jn of t he cent er of drag with the thrust line usually de.termines the
posit1on of the model in res pe ct to the flight line. A high center
of drug has a tendency t o incre,ise t he angle of attack, and if no
co~nter acti ng for ce i~ appli a~ will even tually stall or loop the mod-
el. Ho•.rv ove1• , we do have a counteracting for c e in the stabilizer ,
whic h tr:les t o ke ep the ungle of attac k within SRfe bounds and so
pres e rve st3b ility . So e Fi g . 23 . Not e t hat the stabilizer 's cor-
r ectiive force · rrn1 st take cnre of the drag forcB as well a:1 the lift of
t,i·1e wi ng .

c. ~

\
 2.1

The oojection to this arrangement is that with an increased angJ~

of attack, a greater frontal area is introduced which adds to thQ
~otal drag. The setting of the stabilizer required to counteract th~
~rag force is that of increased incidence or the use of a high lift
airfoil. This setting tends to dive the model in the glide, as the
drag forcQ is decreased at lowsr speeds. To offset this, the wing
mu.st be moved forward, which adds an additional corrective load to
the stabilizer while in power flight. The setting is now as shown 1h
Fig. 24. Note that this arrangement is the one used-on almost all of
the present types of models.· From the above we can see why we use
such large, and very often lifting, stabilizers, and why the c. G. ie
almost at the t r~ iling edge, when a high wing is used.

Another way to counteract the high center of drag is to have the

thrust line pass through the C. D. as shown in Fig. 25. This relieves
the stabilizer considerably, but not altogether, as the center of
drag shifts from the thrust line, at different speeds and angles.
During the glide of a down thrust model, the stabilizer controls the
situation as described.
We have seen that a h i gh center of drag requires balancing with
other forces, and that e greater .frontal area is exposed, with con-
se~uent lowered total eff i ciency. The ideal theoretic.al combination
would be to have these forces meet at one point. Such a design calls
for a low or midwing. Comparatively few low-wing or midwing mopels
have been made, and the results have been merely average. It is
quite possible that a more thorough practical inve~tigation will e-
ventually bear out the above theory for model work. At the present
time it would seem that a high ce~ter of drag provides an·automatic
adjuster of the angle of attack, i.e. when the speed is great, the
an~le is increased, and when the speed is low, the angle is low. How-
ever, this setup places adjusting in the cut and try class, and is
also responsible for many longitudinal stability problems.
The effeet of havine the center of drag below the C. G. and thrust
line is evident from Fig. 26. The stabilizer corrections will be just
the opposite of those recommended for the hi~h C. D.

(\

The degree of downthrust uud stabilizer settine; depends upon the

particular model. The first adjustments should be m~de to obtain a
good glide by setting the winG and the stabilizer. Then the power
flight should be adjusted with the aid of downthrust. If the requir-
ed downthru5t is too great , increase the stabilizer's incidence and
move the wing forward slightly, and then try o.gain with this combin-
ation. To obtain a fine downthrust gr~dation use a variable nose
plug as shown in Fig. 27.
 22

"PROPELLERS
The present tendency or using a s~anaard size propeller for a
particular type of model gives us very little opportunity to learn
exactly how the propell~r operates. Although'the subject is well
covered in technical books, popular explanation still leaves us in
doubt about several important points. 3everal of the most important
are: Wha t determines the slip of the prop? What effect has the air~
foil and what effect has the blade area? When should the pitch be
high or low? How is the angle of attack of the prop determined?
What . pitch-diameter ratio is best? What is the best prop for a par·
l:;icular model?

Explanations that can be found in technical books are based on

the wing or airfoil ~heory. That is, it is assumed that the prop-
eller blades are a set of wings which are rotated i n order to pro-
duce lift. As such, they are subject to all of the reactions attrib-
uted to the regular wing. (We should therefore be careful to use t ha
most effi c ient blade outline 8nd airfoil, j ust as for an ordinary
wing, especially since the p ropeller is the only means of converting
our limited p ower into forw 2rd motion.) The following text will de-
scribe the forces ac ting on the propeller while it is in various pos-
itions, and is presented in t he wing principle theory.

Assuming that a rotating propeller has no load to pull and that

the airfoil is symmetrical, its path would fol l ow the line of least
resistance. See Fig. 28. You will notice that the path of that par-
ticular prop portion is along the line of the geometrical pitch, and
that the lift is zero while the drag is at its minimum value. (If a
crunbere d s ect ion were used the resulting pitch would be as shown by
the dotted line, due to the lift of such airfoils at zero angles of
attack.) Very little power is required to rotate tne propeller when
it i s in this pos ition. However, no work is being done since the
lift is zero. Tne distance such a propeller travels in one revolu-
tion depend~ upon the angle of the blades. It is evident that a high
angl e will give a gr eater diS'tanc e than a smaller one.

I
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If we were to prevent the propeller fromrn oving forward, but

still permitted it to rotat e , the reaction of the blades upon the air
would be as shown in Fi g . 29 . The path of the blade is now perpendic
ul9r to th e center line, end the angle of attack is very high, with
connequent high lift. and drag . The exact value of these two forces
'can be calculat ed by breaking u p the blade into several segments end
by c&lculating with formula~, the lift and drag o f the entire prop
while it is revolvi ng a t a certain speed. The imp ortant point to
remember is that t h e rota'ti ng action of the angled blade is produc-
ing a forward for ce and also an anti-rotating force. To get the
forward for ce we rrrust o~ercome the anti-r ot ating force. We do this
by furnlshing the necessary p ower.
 23

The above two examples showed the extreme positions in which the
propeller may be. In both positions, the useful work is nil; in the
first case, the propeller had no load to pull, and in the second case
it was held stationary by a force greater than its thrust or lift.
1
Useful work is accomplished somewhere between these two extremes.
If, for example, the propeller were fixed to a trolley with a
load which requires a force of 10 pounds to start it and keep it in
motion, a one pound thrust will not budge it. To move the trolley
we must either increase the thrust or reduce the load, or perform
some sort of compromise. · Assuming that we comP.romise, and the load
is now 5 pounds and the thrust is also 5 pounds at a specific r.p.m.,
the trolley will still remain stationary as the forces are only neu-
tralized, because the propeller is still spinning with the blade path
at right angles to the center line. Now i{ the speed of th e propel-
ler is increas.ed ever so slightly, the increase of thrust will be
greater than the load, and the trolley wiiI move forward, At the in-
stant that the trolley begins to move forward, the angle of attack is
decreased and the thrust is the same as it was before, when the trol-
ley was at a standstill. The difference is that the r.p.m. are high-
er and that the path of the propeller blades is in a forward cirect-
ion. Consequently, with every prop turn, the trolley advance3 for-
ward. The exact distance it travels forward depends upon the angle
of the path of the' blades, the dismeter of the prop, and the number
of revolutions per minute.

If the conditions do not change, the trolley will trevel forward

at a unifo!'Ill rate for an indefinite period of time. However, let us
suppose that part of the load drops off the trolley so that the load
is decreased. At the moment that the load decreases the trolley
speeds up because the7thrust is greater. But as mentioned aboys,
the angle of attack also changes with the speed, until the angle is
reached at which the thrust is equal to the load. These c onditions
are represented in Fig. '30 . Here we see that the angle of the path
of the propeller blades has been increased and that the distance now
cov~red in one revolution is much greater, so that if the number of
revolutions per minute remain tbe same, the speed of th e tr o ll e y in-
'1 creRses.

From trJe abo.ve example we can readily see that the thrust or the
propeller always equals the load except at the Moment that the cond-
itions c~ange, that the distance covered in one revolution depends
upon the angle of the blade psth, and that the speed depends upon the
number of revolutions made within a certain time.

To clarify the statement that the thrust and load are almost al-
ways equal, let us explain it by the use of the analogy of the trol-
ley. If the load .is greater than the thrust it will tend t o slow
down the trolley. But as soon as the forward speed is reduced the
angle of attack is increased with its consequ~nt increas€ of lift, .
for the increase of thrust, except that in this case the angle of at-
tack is lowered with an in~rease of forwar~ speed, with a cons e quent
lowering of thrust, until it is equal to the load. The whole thing
may be boiled down to the fa.ct that the propeller blades, in wishing
'to go forward, are hindered by the drag of the model, ano that this
drag nm.st be neutralized by tbe thrust.
24

It is ~vident that t h e trolley may be replaced witb a plane, and

that · as . soon as the forward motion is fast enough fo r the particule.l"
model the fli ght will beg i n. Note that the thrust of the propeller
always equals the drAg of the model, regardless of the speed the mod-
el rnay be travelling. It c ~n also b e seen that enough thrust must be
developed.to produce the necessary flying speed.

The aoove are 1'undamenta.l pr1nc iples, a.nd we s hould keep them in
mind when designing .a propell e r. From them we ca n see that a compar-
atively sma.11 propeller mu s t be r e volved a.t h i g h speed, and that a
large propeller may ·go sl ower. Th e choice o f t he p ro pel l er pitc h
rests upon the power avai l able. With ga.s eng i nes we ma y use small
pitch, h igh spe ed props, and for rubber we must u s e t he l a rger pitch,
slowly rotating type . To g et t h e utmost effici e n cy from a propeller,
we must mak e it so that we g et the maximum ou t put f or th e power we
use. To achieve this end we must go into mor e d e t a il e d p ropeller op-
eration de sc ri p ti on.

Th e mo r e e xacw for ce d iagram of the pr o peller s egments is shown

in Fig. 31. The most imp o r tant p oint to cons i der is the dir e ction of
the lift force. Noti ce t h at if it is p l a ce d i nto a f or ce diagram it
produces an anti-rot a tio n for c e. This f or c e b ec omes greater as the
angle of the blad e s i s increased. Besides the ant i -rotntion f o rc e
produced by the lift, the power rrrust als o ov e r c ome the ordinary ni r-
foil drag. Thus the tot a l torque is e qual t o the a n ti-rotati o n
for c e produc ed by the lift and the airfoil d r a g. From this we can
see that low p it c h p r ops with l a rge angle s of atta ck will produce the
most favorable lift for c e s , but that in such p osi t ions t he props may
produce enough thrus t onl y at high speed prop rev o lutions, which a re
und es irable f o r rubb er mod e ls.

--'4/Z,t:D./1- PO~
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From the above force diagram and the wing lift fo rJ!1Ulas, we c a n
als o se e that if we inc re a se t h e b l a d e a re a , the thr u st will be in-
cr ease d wi th the c onseque n t incre ased model sp eed , with out incr e a s -
i ng the r.p.m. The blade a rea i n cre a s e will enabl e t h e p rop to d e -
velo p sufficie n t thrust at c omp arativ e l y low a ng les o f attack, so
that the drag coef f icient will b e lower. The ide a l angle of at t a c k
will be at the po i nt whe re the L/D ratio of ·the par tic u l a r section
is t he highest. ~t this p oint the efficiency will be the greate s t
since we get the most lift for the power expended. (It i s quite
oossible that model prop e lJer s do work at t hi s angle when the prop
rota t es at hi g p speed und e r t h e initial burst o f p owe r of the rubber
motor. However, as t h e power sl~ckens, the model sl ows down unti l
there is j ust e n ou gh pow e r to produce the need e d t hrust for flying
speed, and the a ng l e of attack is then qui t'e high ~-n order to pro-
dµce the needed t h rust.) To remain at this ideal angl e of attack
the propeller must con tinue d eve loping ~nough lift to kee p it in that
pos i tion. If t he tot a l drag or lo a d of the mo~el i s hi gh, the thrust
nrust be great, wh ile low d r ag o r streamlined mode l s can fly with a
small er thrust. P'rom this we can conc lude th a t a high drag model re-
quires a larger prop a r ea than d oes the low drag d esign. The exact
areas can be cal c ulat e d if we know the flying speed, the diameter and
pitch of the prop, the drtlg, &nd the power at the cruising point.
However, some of these factors are still incalculable and for the
present we 1IJL1St be c ontent with what experience h ns shown.
 25
Pitch and Diameter
. We have seen that the forward speed depends upon the distance
that a segment travels in one revolution of the prop and its relation
to the angle of attack. The forward speed can be increased b_y in-
creasing the distance that the segment travels, as well as by setting
it at .a steeper angle. Both of these are accomplished at the expense
of drag, and of the two, the increase of the distance of segment tra~
el (or diameter) is the most economical. However, if the diameter
becomes exceasive for practical purposes, and we still have power to
spare, we can increa~e the angle or the pitch. These facts become
very useful when we are designing a model. If the m..odel is intended
for high speed, the propeller should be of such diameter and pitch
that the power will revolve it at high speed at the maxiunun efficien-
cy. These conditions call for a prop whose angle of attack would be
such that most of the lift is in the flight direction, and who~e di•
ameter would be as large as the power would allow for the speed.
This means that the P/D ratio should be small (pitch 20 11 /diameterlS",
1.1). See Fig. 32.
If the model is intended ~or cruising then the prop should con-
serve the power for as long as possible. This can be accomplished by
using a large diameter as well as large blade angles. This type of
prop will revolve slowly but it will still give the needed thrust for
the flying speed. In this case the P/D ratio is high (pitch 36"/di-
ameter 18 11 , 2.0). See Fig. 33.
The drag of tne model should also determine the P/D ratio. It
can readily be seen that a streamlined model can have a high speed
with a slow but high pitch prop, since the needed thrust is lpwer
than for the blunter ship. However, the prop does not work at its
best efficiency point, and if it is possible to increase the motor
length, do so by all means, and decrease the pitch of the propeller.

From this text, you should know just what type of propeller will
ibe the .best for your particular conditions. Although a list of stand-
a~d prop sizes is given, keep the following points in mind, and try
to fit the most suitable prop to the model.
1. Thrust equals load. If the drag of the moae".l. is great, the
thrust nru.st be large.
2. The speed of the model depends upon the r.p.m. and the dis-
tance that the prop travels in one revolution.
3. Thrust is the result of the lift force, end a part of the
lift force produces en anti-rotating force.
4. The power required must be equal to the drag of th~ propel-
ler's airfoil at the particular angle of attack, plus the anti-rotat-
ing force produced by the lift.

~
:ws, ,.,, ~- J;;"i,."fo"_,,;~4:/,,;;
26
Blade OUtline a nd Construction Rint s

The volume of air influenced by the rotating propeller is shown

in Fig. 34. Notice that the airfl ow begins quite a distance in front
of the pro peller, and tha t the increase of airspeed behind it reduces
the air p ressure so that the slip stream is actually of smaller diam-
eter than the p ro p eller. However, the peculi a r flow f ormat:L-on near
the tips should not beguile·u s into believing that the tips are un-
important. The tip loss e s or eddies ar e still there, and the tip
shape and aspect ratio ar e just as important on the propeller as on
ordinary wings. Conclusive proof of th e fact t ha t osses occur at
the tips was made by the Editor. The e xp eriment was performed as
shown in Fig. 35. The interesting part is that the silk thread ac-
tually moved forws:rd into the bl ade s while held behind the pro'pelier.
This effect was especialll strong on a square tip de s ign propeller.

The elliptical tip blade outl ine seems to be ab out the best. The
blade area should be concentrated at the one half point so as to min-
imize tip losses and high drag at trre hub. In fact it is desirable
to cut the bl nnk so .that the pitch ungle will be about the same at
the hub v1c1ni ty. •rne blan!< lay out, blade out line , and the recommend-
ed sizes of p ro p ell e rs are s h ow n in Fi g . 36.

For ba..J.sa props, use b a ls a blanks of about 10 lb~1./cu. ft. hard-

ness. If it is at all pos s ibl e , try t o have the g ra:l.n crisscrossing
parallel with the width of the blank. This wi ll provide identi ca l
grain on both ·blades, and also gi v e a str ong hub.

Very little can be said about carving for the youngsters, exc@pt
that practice makes perfect. However, no trouble should be experi-
enceo if the blank i5 well laid out and carving is done slowly with a
~harp knife.

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Since the propeller works on the regular airfoil principle, the

airfoil section of the propeller hns reactions similar t o those of
the main wing . Therefor e , · the camber should be decided by the design
of the model. Fast and short motor propellers may have a Clark Y
section while slow, duration propellers may be ver y deeply undercam-
bered. Just remember that undercamber gives greater lift at a given
incidence than a flat-bottom section, but th~t the drag is also grea~
er. If you have plenty of power which you Wflnt to bo u.sed up slowly,
use plenty of und$rcamber.
 27
Aerodynamic Reactions of Freewheeling Propellers
11
To freewheel or not to freewheel: .. " has been t he question for
quite a while. The best way to settle this soliloquy is to analyze
a propeller while it is standin~ still and.while it is freewheeling.
The action of t he airflow on a still propeller is shown i n Fig. 37.
Note that.the angle of attack varie s with the point on the blades.
That is, it is high at the tips and low .st the hub. The f o rces set
up are relatively great, due to the large angle of attack. The lift
force tends to rotate the model via the prop shaft, and tries to up-
set it unless counter adjustment is provided. This is an especi&lly
bed feature since the force is in the counter-torque dircctioL, which
1.s also favoreo by the normal model adjustments . 'l'he rtra.g fDrce L~
directly backwards which make the total ~ r o~ drag cal culation s com-
paratively simple.

The airflow reaction on a freewheeling propeller is shown in Fig.

38. The angle of attack here i s much lower. The exa c t angle dep ends
upon the component of lift needed t o overcome the drag of the prop-
eller. Of one fact we can be sure, and that is that the angle is
negative to t he nnrmal airfoil to such u d eg ree that t he lift is al-
so negative. If the ang le were above that point, the pr opeller
would revolve in a counterpower turn direction. Since th e zer o an-
gle is determined by the center line of the airfoil we can see th a t
.undercambered props will have much more d r u~ than symmetric 8 l o r flat
bottom sections. 'I'his incr e a se of drag will require o. lar r;er lift
componen t to overcome it, and since both the dr o~ and lif t forces nre
in a backward direction, they both constitute d r ag. ~here is noth-
ing that we can do about this except to minimize drag as rmJc h ag
possibl e so that the total will b e reduced. Thi s can be done by hav-
ing a very smooth finis h on the blnd es, by usin ~ the best ball bear-
ing washers, and by having a freewheeli ng that does not dep.end u~on
a spring for its operation. If a spring is used, t he pressure it ex-
erts against the hub c auses additional friction whi ch rrrust be over-
come by the lift force. The logi cal solution is to use n freewheel-
ing o f the s-piral ty pe or any simil ar type, and a r ubbe r tensioner tc
spring the shaft out.

Note from the diagram that we have no rotating force trying to

roll the model. The only rotating force is the one which neutral-
izes the drag, which in turn has a very sli ght rolling effe ct at the
hub caused by the friction. The exact drag of both types of pro pel-
ler actiqn can be only estimated. An attempt was made (3e e Fig. 39),
t this should not be considered conclusive.
From the above it would seem that the freewne e ling pro pel ler is
better, as it usually has lower drag and does not affect the model
adjustments. The drag may be slightly higher thun that of a still
prop on certain occasions (such as in the case of ver y h~h pitch),
but it still s eems better. The fixed position will be all right if
the blad es can be made to straighten out and conform to the airflow.
~f course. a p.erfect folding prop would solve the whole problem.
 28 THE GLIDE
Although it is the u su al procedure t o descr i be the glide at the
eonclusion, the Editor deemed it advi sab le to pr esent it At this eer-
ly point, to emphasize the fact that th e gre a te r part of the duration
of the model depends upon it. Sinc e rt i s so import ant, it is worth
our while to design the model with the id e a of i ncreasing the glide
as much as practically possibl e .
Once the power is exhausted the only t hin g left t o produce propul.
sion is the weight of the model. Gravity e xert s a downward force on
the model equal to its weight, and the aerodynami c balance changes
thia force in-to a sloping moveme n t known as the g lide. It is evident
that the model which use s this for ce mos t e co nomi c ally will rema in in
the air longest. This c an be done by h a vinG a well balanced &nd
streamlined model. The fo llowin g e xample s h ows why an efficient ship
has a better glide th on a n inef f i c ie nt de si en.

We have two model s o f identi c al wing l oading. The wing s and

tails ure identical , and the bal anc e ls perfect in both. The only
difference between the mode l s i s tha t one has smooth lines, whil e the
other is about as aerod yn ami c ally e f ficient as t he cowcatcher on a
locomotive . Both models must fly at t he same s peed to produce the
same lift. It is t he re fo re ev i dent t h at the mod el with poor line!'!
will need more power to ke ep u p with the streaml ined job. Now when
the models go into a glide , the !'ltreamli ned shi p will dip only s ligh~
ly to kee p up its flying s pe ed, while the high drag model will have
to point d own quite a bi t to g et to its flying s peed. The conc lu-
sion drawn is that the ineffi c ient ship will come down much more
steeply, with a con s equent loss of duration.
The gliding angl e c en be very eas ily pre d ic t ed if the lift o nd
drag of t he model are kn own. For exampl e , if t h e lift of a model is
four ounces, and it r e qu i res one half ounce of t hrust to keep its
flying speed, the lift over drag (L/D) ratio is 8-1, That is, the
,J..ift is ei_ght times the drag. This means that f or every foot ·the
model has to descend to keep up flying speed, i t will travel eight
feet and the gliding rat i o will therefore be 8-1. From this example
we evolve the following f ormula:

Gl iding Ratio • Lift of the Model

Drag of the Modil
We can see from this simp~e relati on that an increase of 11~ will
improve the glide, and that an im:reas o of drag will detract front
it . The' . ideal model should have a minirrrum of drag and the lowest
possible w,._ng l o ading. (This allows the model to fly slower, thus
red~cing ~he drag.) The low drag can be obtained by using stream-
+i ning at all practical points. If the model nrust con.from to the
weight rules do not make it heavier th a n nec essary , and use high-
l i ft airfoils, as recommended in the airfoil chapter. A small
additional amount of weight may be use d i f s treamltning is impos-
s i ble without it.
A steep glide is caused by low l i ft, hi gh d r ag, or a combina-
tion of both. (It is assumed that the adj u stments are as recom-
mended in the "Stability" text.) Lack of lift can be eesily cor-
rected if a fairly high-lift airfoil is used, by increasing the inci-
dence of the wing and tail. Thi s will incr e ase the lift greatly
without increasing the drag very much. However, if the model stalls
or mushes with s uch an adjustment, the gli~e can be improved only by
decreasing the drag.
For JDaxinn.un pfficiency, unles·s an automatic variable control is
used, the glide adjustments must be flight adjustments. How to ob-
tain this combination will be explained later.
 29
Since gliding requirements usually necessitate a well designed
model, we ,should remember the following facts about gliding.
1. The gliding angle depends upon the lift and drag (L/D) ratio.
2. The speed of the model is controlled · by its wing loading; a
model with e. light wing loading atte'ins sufficient lift at low speed,
and one with a high wing loading needs high speeds to get s~fficient
lift. If the gliding angle is the same, the wing loading determines
the duration.
3. It is a poor policy to increase the angle· of attack or incid-
ence too much for improved glide, as at low speeds th1is procedure
places the model in a critical position in relation to ·the stalling
point.
4. The distance that a model travels with relation to the ground
depends upon the air conditions. Therefore the gliding ratio cannot
be determined by estimating the height at which the glide started,
and the distance traveled from that point. See Fig. 40. Nor should
the gliding ratio be assUDted to be that distance between the point
of launching from hand to the landing point, ·as the initial speed is
greater than the normal glide, snd the closeness of the ground also
has a cushioning effect, because of the compression of the air be-
tween the w1~ and the ground.

/t'/N.D K/.N'ZI
For Clarification
"The angle of incidence is the angie between the chord line and
i;he thrust line 11 •
"The ,a ngle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the
P$th of relative wind".
The above defini tio:qs are of fie ial for power plane use;' Since
the construction and position of the element-'s of models va!ry greatly
from one design to another we might accept the following definitions
for model work:
"The angle of incidence is the angle between the chord line and
the line drawn from the center of the prop to the rear hook 11 • Let
us make this definition semi-offic i'al, so that we will know what is
meant when we mention "two degre·es downthrus t 11 or "one degree posi-
tive", etc.
"The angle of attack in smooth air is the angle between the chord
ll'ne and the path in which the moo el is moving". Sudden gusts change
the angle of attack until the mode l readjusts it~elf to the new flow~
when it will again bfl; about the same.
 30

PRACTICE
OUTDOOR

Fuselaae

The four longeron type of framework construc~ion still dominates

:t'uselage construction.. The simplicity and ease of construction make
it a favorite among builders, especially those who have little time
for model work. This type has served well under the prevailing weight
rules, because the low wing loading of the model has helped to offset
many of the disadvantages . However, the expected change in weight
rules will put it into the discard and new types of construction will
become popular.
The official 1937 Wakefield rules require a minimum weight of 8
ounces for the 190-210 sq. in. model. The N. A. A. rules are almost
au.re to be jumped up to 3 oz. per 100 sq. in. (just multiply the wing
area by .03 to obtain the required weight in oz.). It is highly im-
probable that these rules will ever be lowered. The heavier wing
loading will not change the general design very much except that the
various points of junction will be cleared up, and the fuselage will
have to be strengthened to take more power. The builder wh~~ makes
the most e!'f icient use of tm high power ratio w111 undouotedly win
the contest.
The strength of the regular longeron type of fuselage can be
greatly by :using larger and stronger balsa and covering i t two ply or
with bamboo paper. However, the mortality :@ate will still be high--
:mainly because of rubber breakage ard coll is ions. \Ve must remember
~hat the increase in weight will speed up tha model and endow 1 t with
plenty of kinetic energy.
It is problematical how well the removable motor:1tick will fare
with this change. The removable motor stick hes its points, and it
is possible that a well made built-up stick will hold up under the 2C
odd strands. It is amazing how strong balsa can be if it 1s used
correctly. The next proposition is the all-balsa fuselage desi~n,
and it is the opinion of the Editor that this type deserves most at-
·tention for the coming era of half-pound jobs .
.There are several different t,ypes of fuselage cons true tions des-
cribed in the plans or individually, and there is no need for describ-
ing them here. Therefore this particular section will deal with only
the sheet balsa design

There are many forms or the all-balsa fuselage, ranging anywhere

trca the elliptical to the square section. Of course, the elliptical
one is best from all viewpoints, with the exception. of the time re-
quired to construct it and the necessity of using high grade supplies
The next best is the round cross section type. This is nruch simpler to
make as the bulkheads are round, and the covering balsa can be made in
'Patterns. On such fuselages the work will be simplified if the model
has straight lines. On all circular jobs the bulkhoads should be of
"C" stool< and the coveril18 of "A". The other forms consist of varia-
tions of the several flat-sided type, and also those with curved top~
and bot toms •
 The Editor has made the several models shown in sketches during
the past summer, and all of them hav e held up well under all condi-
tions. ·.The secret here is to use "c" or quarter-grained stock throu~h­
out. By using this g rain the sheet need not be more thnn true 1/32
thick for any model using up to 20 strands. s·-9 lb. balsa should be
used. The corner type of joints give a stringer effect, making long-
erons unnecessary. The beauty of this construction is that the
weight compares favorably with the ordinary typ e of fuselage with a
rrruch greater safety factor. It is quite p ossib le to have a big sec-
tion knocked out of a sid e without losing stiffness, and t he repair
work is a mat t er of mi nutes, as the model can be flown as s oo n as the
patch i s set for a hold-on , while a broken longeron call s f or a major
Operation with splints and upsets the adjustments as well. The con-
struction time with balsa sheet is less, providing that t~e l& yout a~
~aterial are on hand,

W/N<i i"!AY6e /,+' .4N!' l'Q:r/ mvr

/IOU! IT llY!'t..4Ce KIT# trV64~~
f' ...._ ;-

The balsa sheet const ruction requires ver-y accurate work and exact
bulkheads and patterns . If the perts are well made, it is a r e r=t.l jo:,'
to see ·everything j ust click into place and the whole fusel a ge s mooth
throughout. Befor e starting to work, decide on the cros s se c ·~ion
shape . desired, makin ~ s ure that 2" sheets can be used thr oughout. A
wider section c alls for joining, as 3 11 stock i s expensive as we 11 8.3
difficult to obtain in the required grain and weight. Now draw the
·side wiew on a piece of 1s tiff white paper, a nd lay out the bulkheads.
The side pattern should be transferred to a temp late or directly to
the balsa. Coat the bulkhead outlines with w n~ &nd begin to assemble
them. There are sever al forms shown, and you c9n use the one most
suitable to your own part icular conditions. Be s ure to make them ex-
act and do not spare the cement.

The assembly is quite simple. Cement the 1md bulkheads first, and
then cement the center to the sides. Be sure to cement them on the ex-
act spots. Aft er all of the bulkheads are in plece, th'e landing g9ar
tubes can be fixed in place. The remaining sides are cemented on
without the ai d o f a pet tern. The surplus is trimmed · off after the
cement is set. In joil\ing the balsa sheets, uGe l°i generous amount of
cement to from s bead along the joint. The final finish is to S8nd
and dope. For super-strengtn, cover with paper.
32

The above covered the polylateral fuselage. If a square or a tri-

angular fuselage is used, the bulkheads can•be made while assemb l ing
is . takj,ng ,pl~ce_. cut to s 1.ze the side pat terns and cam nt them in the
proper places. If the fuselage is absolutely square or equilater a~ ,
all strips can be cut at one time an& set aside. The sid e s are as-
sembled by cementing the upper and lower strips and then covering with
sheet. This method is &specially recommended f or encl9sed rubber
stick models. rt compares well with t he tubular type of construc tio n .
This type of construction lends itself very well to mass produr.tion.
Thia idea should be .especially appeal i ng to clubs as the si de patterns
and bulkhead jigs ca n be passed around, once a s ati sfactory design ~s
reached

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Although the fuselage design can be impro ved a great deal, the Ed-
ito~ believes that we should c onc entra te more on the wing nnd gener a l
layout, for the next few years. By using th e s a me fuselage we can get
a better picture of what occurs with different wings and different ar-
rangements. We can modify the fuselage to a high wing, midwi~, or
10rt wing design, keeping the general shape the same. A good ex ample
of this practise in the connnercial field is the system of the Locl<heed
Co ., which made all of their single engine fuselage jobs on the srune
form and yet worked out numerous designs.

Aerodynamical Notes

The main considerat i o n in fuselage models is to have the fuselage

as much as possible in li ne with the flight path. It is here that the
round and elliptical jobs shine above the square section. The square
job of streamlined outline is fair if kept in line, but the moment it
becomes angled the drag increases tremendously. It is for this reason
that a fuselage . set on edge is better than one which is level. Try to
come as close as. possible to the ellipse by breaking up the perimi ter
into numerous sides or else by rounding off the top and bottom. De-
~ign the models so that the thrust line will go through the center of
the fuselage, or at least adjust it so that the fusel~ge will be in
line in the glide. All of these points will mean a great deal when
the wing loading i~ increased during the coming year. Other aerodyn-
~ical points are covered in the Theory chapter.
 33
T~e . most connnon wing failure is,the breakage of tte spars when
an excessive up or down force is applied.. A head-on collision u-
sually . only dents or cracks the leading edge. From this- we see that
we must improve the vertical structure, as the horizontal str~cture
is sufficiently strong due to the rib and covering combination. rt
has also been noticed that the wings with many small spars of almost
square cross s action have a higher breakage ratp than those w1 ngs ir
which the spars are deep and narrow. It therefore seems advisable
to follow. regular aircraft practice, by using deep and narrow spars.
The strength of ' a deep s par can be ire !'eased vrithou t additional
weight if quarter-grained or 11 C11 stock balsa is used. This cut is
vm-y stiff and when t h e spar is under pressure, will ·tend to keep
the spar in line instead of crinkline;. The moment the spar wood'
rolls, its value as a spar is lost.

On a normal model a single spar will be sufficient for models

having a chord of not more than five inches. A larger chord nec-
essitates more spars or a strong sine;le spar with a built up
lead-
~ng edge to serve. a s a box spar. structural sections also give a
high strength-weight ratio. If the y are unobtainable ready made,
the simplest to ma ke are the box spar and the I section. It is
surprising how str one parts can be made witl1 the use of these sec-
s.

r
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The spar and rib combinati ons ·shown in the plans will prove sat-
·isfactory for the increased wing loading, e'x cept that the spars will
have to be strengthened on some. In the opinion of the Editor, the
construction shown on the sketch should prove to be the most satis-
factory, as all points are taken care uf. The leading edge does not
have any seg, and at the same time the weakness of an ordinary sheet
leading edge is removed by the addition of a solid spar. Note that
the rib is c ontinued for the full chord length. The construction
procedure is simple providing that the ribs are accurately cut. The
between-rib spar is usually fitted in by indivigu nl sections.
The ribs must be made of "C" stock to obtain the greatest bene-
fit from the weight of the wood. Here again the grain serves the
purpose of keeping the desired airfoil section and also provides ad-
equate torsional strength. In designine; the wing structure always
be sure to have a full chord rib. Such ribs keep their shape well
nnd nlso lessen the chances of having the leading edge rip off. If
the rib is cut in two to pro"4Lde for the spar structure, the celtl3nt
and covering are the only things tnat keep t he structure toe;ether.
Another point to keep in mind is to use strong ribs at the cen-
ter and tip. Th e tip rib should receive s pecinl c ons idere.tion .s it
takes the brunt of
most collisi ons. If t h e tip rib and th e t ip it-
s elf are we~k, it takes a comparotively small force t o break the m,
nnd once they are gone, the rest of the ribs ard spars just crumb le
as the force is nciw concentrated on each indivi dual item, and not o n
tpe wing as a unit.
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 INDOOR 69

The construction arrl the flying proceoure of the indoor model have
been well oovered in the preceding Year Book end in numerous articles
appearing in the model magazines. Therefore only new hints of the
last year have been sketched.
Success in indoor building and flying depends mostly upon the in-
dividual. High"time can only be attained by knowing how to adjust,
as well as how to.make strong models with the minimum weight. Fairly
good duration may be achieved by most builders, providi~ that they
build a smooth steady model and pay particular attention to adjusting
so that the counter forces will be at a minimum.
The most important point to remember when making a model from a
.plan, is to have all parts the same weight as shown on the plan. An
accurate scale is indispensable. But remember, there is a difference
between th:3 contest model and the record model. In most cases, the
record m6del was flown under the most favorable conditions, while a
contest model usually has to overcome many di fficul ties, mainly low
ceilings and drafts. Therefore, the contest model shoµld be bui lt and
designed to meet any expecte4 conditions . Fo.r wintry days, the mod-
el should be strong, so that it can be handled with stiff, cold fin-
gers. For a low ceiling don't forget to let out turns, and use plen-
ty or slack rubber. By keeping in mind that a contest model does not
necessarily have to be a re c ord-breaking one, you should be able to
develop a cup-getter suitable for your particular conditions.

The speediest method of laying out the elli pse is to use the met h-
od shown by J . P. Glass in the 1935- 36 Year Book. Just consider the
final double ellipse as being a combination of two halves of the srune
length but of different widths. It is from t his fact that the name
,double ellipse" is derived.
1

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_.,-
70 MICROFILM
A satisfactory microfilm solut ion can be made from standard
good clear lacquer, model dope or a mi ~ture of the t wo, and the ri ght
amount of castor oil 1w tricres yl phos phate. Th e last two mention-
ed are called p l astic isers and a re used to gi ve t he film flexibility.
VH thout flexibilit y, the f' i lrn i s brit t le and bre a ks very easil y and
when a tear is made, it spreads very r ap idly.
Before pouring any solution on the wa ter it is advisable to
check t he following point s :
The film should be made, if 1':'>ssible, in a tank u sed exclusivel y
for mi c ro f ilm. If a bat ht ub is u s e-0, be sur e that it is scrupulously
clean, as t he sli ght est trac e of soap will break up the cohesion of
water molecules. If the a ir is too humid or the wa t er too cold, the
fil m will beco~e smoky, by collecting moisture before drying. A
cold draft will also oaus e this. The water should be of norma l suin-
mer temperature. llot water wi 11 spread the film, and oo ld water will
ret a rd it.
The lifting hoop should be made of 1/8" diameter aluminum wi re.
( Costs about 2¢ pe r foot. )
Have a t least si x inches of cle a red s pa ce a round the hoop, so
that the film spreads evenly over it.
Divide the ta:g.k into small portions f or small s ize f rames. An
unlimited wa ter surface a rea will tend to spread t he film until it
is to o thin f or practical purpose s .
It is advisable to have some way of measuring the amo unt of sol-
uti on use d , as it is p ossible to get film o f t he same color time
after time, provi ding t he same amount of solut ion is used on simila r
space.
Now that we have the pro per equipment we can try our solutions .
The f irst solution should be of just clear lacquer. Pour a short,
ste a dy stream on the water a nd watch the film spre a d . A:fter s while
the e dg e s will be g in t o crinkle and the whole fil m wi ll begin to
contract. This is a s ign that not enough plasticiser is present in
the solution. l1~ ore plasticiser is added in small qua ntities with
trial te st s in b etween. Th e s a tisfactory solution proportion will
b9 reache d when the ed g e s do not contract and the film- is not ta.cky
after 3 m1ns. of drying.
Now t hat we have the s olution we can be~in t o make tbe sheets
which can b e u se d on the mo d e l. · The following t abl e shows the col-
ors of the film whi ch sould be used on differen t classes of models.
11'· 1 '/J

Blue Violet--ROG tail I

Red Vi ol€t--ROG wing
Violet Red --Class B and
C tails
Ap ple GreeB Class B and
C wings
Dark Green--Fuselages

The color depends on the amount of solution used and on the

water area upon which it is poured.
To make small sheets, the solution can be poure rt on one spot.
For l arge and long sheets the solution muat be poure d i n a long con-
tinuoul!I stream.
 Films can be removed from the water by hoop under or abov~ it.
Just be sure that the film overl Gp S the wire und thnt it <loP.s not
sli p once it is on the hoo p . 'L'h e narrower the hoo p , the easier it
is to re move the film in one piece. De g inners should not Upe n
hoo p mor e t han 1 0" wide. The fil m should be removed by ge ntly lift-
ing one side, until it be gins to clenr the wuter, and then raising
it r api dly, edge fi rst, so that the opp osite ed ge of the hoo p leaves
the water last. Most of the film that is lost is done so by lifting
it too slowly. Never raise the hoo p on a level plane, as the wa ter
will break er cre ase the film in the middle.
The f ilm is normally used when the wa ter has evapor a ted but if
you arc in a. hurry, it can be place d ri r,ht on the wing frame. The
be st ad he si ve is sali vu 1 which is rrpp lied only to the outline of the
wing or tail surface. A fair adhesive solution can be mad e from l
pa rt of rubber cement t o 5 parts of be nzine. However, ~his increases
the wei ght as it does not evapor a te as completely as the saliva.
The film is applied either by placing the surfaces on it, or by
pla cing the film on the surfaces. The last method is recorrunended
for the be g inner. Be sure to have the tab le a rea around t he wing
frame or other par ts to be covered, mo is t s o tha t the film sticks to
it and nat ur a lly press es on the wing frame.
There are two methods of trimming t he f ilm. One is with banana
oil or dope on a small brush. The other is with a hot wire or elec-
tric soldering iron.
Do not use a very liquid solvent such as acetone as it is liable
to run over t he spars ruining t he covering. The trimming stic k or
wir_e s hould be held a bout 3/8" from the side of wing frame. The film
should melt be f or e the stick, a nd t he ed ge of it s hould form a small
bead alo ng the sp a r. Repleni sh the trimming liquid, or reheat the
wire as so on as the fi lm stops melting a nd touches the trinuning ms-
dium.
Wings are usua ll y covered in se ctions, es peci a lly if they are
large. Smaller wings , suc h a s R.O.G's, c a n be covered in one oper-
ation by the foll owin ~method s:
1. Cover the wing first and then make the dihedral and crease
the surplus film with the breath, or wute:;-.
2. Divide the film on the hoop and remove the side nearest to
the handle. '. :' he rema ining filrn is applies a s shown on the sketch.
3. Bend the hoop into the dihedral and place the wing on it.
In this case the hoop is bent after the film is plaoed on it. In,,
this case .the film is removed f rom the wuter by placing the hoop on
top of it.
To cement wing s ections to gether, it is best to cement the cen-
ter port}on of the rib s first, and then to bring the sp a rs together.
Microfilm jobs c a n be transported on long tri ~ s by using the
packing method s sho wn below.

12 :Ti tr a te Dope 4 Collodi a n

1 Castor Oil 2 Amyle Acetate
Microfilm Formula used by Ma yhew Webster
 INDOOR CONSTRUCTION
Th e si zo s of the particular components .:er e s hu vm in the draw-
ing s of the record shi ps .
?he spars a re t ape red by sanding the whole ba lsa sheet into a
ta per. Th e strips or the spars are t apered by slicing them off the
sheet at a n angle. The fi nal shaping should be do ne with fine sand -
pape r.
The ribs a r e slic e d from "C" st ock bals a sheet, sand ed to the
requir e ci thickness . Use a n alur:1inum, fiber or .:i b ri stol board for
a template. The ri bs a re cut to s i ze while a s s embling the winp..

~or ro 7Aff',(! -'A N O 7V TAPE~ n--------~

[~---------------------'· ~ 1 IOTPUJ T£ J=~

ASSEMBLING THE WING
Draw the full size plan of the wing on a piece of corrugated
board. St ick pins on the spar line just opposite the rib lines.
Plac e the spars on the outline and hold th em i n plac e with p in s .
Cement all t he . ribs to the leading edge. When dry, trim the ribs
by snipping off the part that overlaps the rear s pa r. Cement in
p l ace.
Tips are made by the method ~h o wn:

M OI ST
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The tail surfaces are made in a similar manne r:

MOTOR STICKS & BOOM

Make former out of hard v1ood or metal. Cut bl ank to shape;
moisten it and bend it around the form a s shown .

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 73

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II~ 3 TVAlNS ~~~T~~

Tungsten Wire has amost twice the

A perfect indoor propeller can be suc-
cessfully used for years. It should be in
balance by weight, blade area, shape and
flexing. Carving should never be .rushed.
Four to six hours is not too long. Cut
block to "X" blank and follow the carving
system as shown for outdoor P.rops. Use .a
very sharp knife and carve m long thm
slices. Constantly inspect for thinness and
avoid "windows". Use every bit of will
power to sand away. Your workmanship
on the propeller mirrors your ability as a
strength of ordinary steel wire. It is rust-
proof; will not stretch under strain and can
be obtained in sizes small enough for in-
door work. It only has about 1/lOth the
drag of finest thread.
Successful application requires experi-
ence. Use the following suggestions: Work
on white paper so you can see the wire.
Cement ends to balsa strips fqr ease in
handling. A kink will break wire when
pulled. Double end for larger cementing
surface. When applying diagonals on. mike
fuselage do not pull tight or you will get it
out of line.

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~. ;i:D•'- 'R.oc( ' I lll!19l-

74 MICROFIIM PROPELLERS
Developed By Lawrence Smithline
The advantages of microfilm props are evident, and there ie no
doubt tha.t they will be used more extensively in tho future. The
highest ti~e made, up to da.te, with microfilm prop i s the 22m lls
flight whioh Herbert Greenberg made at the 1935 National in St.
Louie.

The method of constructing microfilm props, as shown below, baa'

been ueed for several years and has been proven to be dependable •

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ASSEMBLING PROCEDURE
1. Place the L.E. epa.r ~s ~tlown and hold it in place with pin.
Moisten it so that it will retain its shape when removed.
2. Poeition ·the T.E. spar. Moisten the tip and bend. i t a.round the
form by holding it at the extremity. Always hav1! preasur e on
it or it will kink and spoil the job. Hold it in place with pin.
3. Let the spars dry and cut ribs while waiting. All the ribs can
be of the same chord.
4. Cement the ribs to the 1.E. When set,. trim the ei:xoeaa at the
T.E. with razor or curved scissors. Cement and let dry.
5. Remove the outline and prepare the other blade in s1m1lar manner.
G. Attach the two blades to the center block as shown.
 COVERING

Make a rectancular frame of ba lsa strips.Cover it with film

by transferring the film from a regula r hoop. (Pour hands required
for the following operation.) Twist the frame, equivalent to the
prop pitch, ~ nd have your partner contact the saliva moistened prop
outline on the concave side of the frame. (The prop is covered on
the outside or convex side. Trim with hot wire or banana oil. Use
the same procedure in covering the other blade. Wrinkles can be
removed by passing the prop over an electric bulb, soldering iron,
or a not stove.
While using the prop be careful to hold it at the center at
all times. It can be patched up by transferring film to it from
small hoop of spare film. Superfine will also do in a pinch. Just
moisten the area around the break and the film or the paper will
adhere to it.

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76
Indoor Pu~her ............................. by Jirruny Throckmo r ton
There has not been very much written about pusher model s , and the
hints listed below were found by the tedious but practical 11 t e st and
try" method, during six years of experimenting with indoor pushe rs.
1. Have a sturdy elevator and boom. More ships are erratic and
unsuccessful because of this than from any other cause. The motor
sticks must also be straight and strong , or the ship will almost im-
possible to adjust.
2. It is of the utmost importance to have the Cont e r of Gravity
near the elevator end of the model. This calls for the prop to be as
light as possible. The wing, you will find, can be made li g hter than
a tractor wing, and will still ~tand up.
3. I have seen dozens of pushe rs fly well for a minute or two
and then begin to spin or settle down prop first. I found that by
placing a rudder in front, the flight is normal throughout and is def·
initely improved. The rudder is needed Jn the front to balance the
side areas caused by the wing and prop. The dihedral of the elevator
is usually to small. The rudder in fro~t and below has better con-
trol with less area with a consequent saving in weight and a lowering
of the C. G. A high Center of Gravity is usually the main fault of
most pushers.
4. I balance the torque by offsetting the thrust; line and I get
my turn with the use of the rudder.

I believe that the pusher stands an e qual chancE1 with the tractor.
The mode l shown would tick off 15 minutes consistently. With re de -
signing and the incorporation of the latest ideas, maximum areas, and
a good microfilm prop, the pusher will be able to fly more slowly and
will come into the 20 minute class. I hope to demonstrate this fact
in the Open class, if time permits.

--------AERONUTTICS----------.
COPY Rl<>MT ltj l'fl.P

"And when I die, I want to go wher e lubbed knots stay tied."

"The only tree in th e place and my model had to hit id 11

Poor Chap; so young; calm most of the time but keeps nrut-
tering, "Why[ oh why! did I back stroke! 11

Air Molecule Altimatum from the city of Airmoleculistia:

11
Tit for Tat. You mess us and we will mess you."

"I owe it all to Assco," said .Mr. Paguin after his first solo.

It's always swear weather when model builders compete togethe r.

A contestant's greatest asset is his lie-ability.

Statiscally speaking: If all model builders v10re laid end ~o

end, a steam roller would come very handy.

"Oh, so that's dope~ I always thought dope was something the

pilot had to take before going up."

"All I said was, 1 It looks nice with all that lacquer but
will it fly? 1 Then his eyes went queer."

Correction: Substitute 1 GUESSTIMATED' for Scientic Design.

(Merrif ield)
"How do you like the new 'ANTI~AIRCRAFT' rules?
(Schumacher)
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78
Doublf"' .. Surfa41•f"'d 'lonos1u1r •' Uif•roftln1
Devel oµ e d b y Sidney Axl0 r od
Sugge s t e d by Cu r l Goldb e rg

The pro peller d e si g n as s h own is the s i xth of th e e xperime nt a'l s e -

ries. I t is 1 6-~ 11 i n di a me t e r and we ig h s o nly . 0 07 oz .; wit h a v a r i able
pitch de vi ce it wei ghs . 0 1 5 o z., whi c h i s st il l b e l ow t l~ av e r a g e of
the wooden propell e r. It h as ha d num e rous f l ight te s ts an d it hu s
proved to be su pe ri o r to t h e o r din ary microf i lm p r o p . Th e c en t e r s par
arrl t he d ou b le surf a ci n g r e mov e all t h e d i s a d v antag es forme r l:v et t r i b -
u ted to t h e -microfilm pr op .

The c ons tru c ti on p ro ce dure is simi l a r to wi nr, con st r u c t i on , nnd is

comparativ ely s impl e if dir ec ti ons a r e fo ll ow ed f a it~ f u lly. Th e r e s ult
will be a pe rfe c tl y tru e a nd stu r dy p r op .

1. M8ke t h e form fr om a b l o c k o f w- ood wi th the des ir e d l' i tc h and

diameter dime nsions . Cut the hel i x perfe c t l y flat f r om th e l ead i nc; to
the trailing e dge. This i s i mpo r t en£ and s h ou ld b e d o n e ce r e f u lly .
2. Draw t he pr op ou tl i n e a nd c u t th e pat t e rn i n t il e IA' OOd .
3. Cut t he spars a nd r ibs t o spe ci f i c ation . No t e the c u rv e o f t he
center spar to a ccomod a.t e t he u nde r c amb er var i atio ns . Al so no t e th Rt
the ribs a r e of qu a r ter - g r a i n s t o c k , a nd t h at the c u r v e gi v en wi l l fit
all points on t h_e diame t e r .
4. ?o s i ti on t h e s p a r s on t h3 E-F li ne , un d be g i n t o c e me nt t m l ow-
er ribs i n to p lace . Aft er the l owe r r ibs ar e se t, the upp er o nes c 1rn
be c ement e d. Trim t he end s to t h e outli ne li ne .
5. Th e le nd i ng and tra i l ing ed g e s a r e mad e of c n e p i e c e, which is
cement e d on t o the c ente r a nd l e~di ng edg e r i bs fi r s t and t hen r o l l e d
-around th e f orm and ceme nt ed to t he t r aili n g e d ge r i b s.
6. Re e nfor ce t he hub wit h 1/ 32 11 balsa a s shown, a n<'l also ce me n t
turuz:ste n to t he to p and b o t tom of t h e r i b s t o ke e p t he film fr om st ick-
ing to g et h er. Th e p r op nalf is n uw ready t o be r e mo v ~rl fr om th e fo rm .
7. Make t he ot h er ha lf . As s emb l e b y l a p ping t h e hubs f or e xtr a
strength. I nse rt t h e pr op sha f t and c ov e r wi th fi lm. Aft e r c o v e r i ng
let the wat e r adhe s iv e s et and d r y bef'0 re tr ying t he p r op o u t . The
construction t i me is a bou t 4 h ou rs , i n c omparis on to th~ 5 - 6 h our s r e -
quired for t h e carv ing of a wood e n u rope lle r .
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BO FLYING AND APJUSTING INDQOR MODELS
By Carl Goldberg
When launohing an Indoor Tractor, hold th~ model in your natu-
ral writing hand, placing the thumb and the first finger on the spot
where the wire saddle of the rear wing clip encircles the motor stick.
The wire will keep your fingers :from crushing the stick, and at the
same time allow you a firm grip. Inspect the prop shaft to see that
there are no knots of rubber whioh might make the prop wobble in
flight. Usu.ally such knots are present when the mo~or is tightly
wound. Pull them toward the center of the shaft hook and grip the
rubber with your free hand about ~" from the hook. allowing the rub-
ber in front of your fingers to unwind until the knots disappear.
Loosen ytiur grip slowly, letting tlie winds from the I'ear come into
the front part of the motor, allowing the prop to spin meanwhile.
When it is apparent the knot will no longer give trouble, hold the
model up in launching position, which is banked over about loo. in
the direotion in which the model will normally bank, and with the
nose· pointing up at exactly the same angle at which you expect t:Qe
model to climb; then push it gently into the air along the line the
motor stiok is pointing, and at about the speed at which the model
flies.
'.i'he best method for adjusting that I know is to set the wing in
such a po_s i tion that the model glides well, and flies smoothly on a
few hundred turns. Then make a series of test fligh1;s starting with
about 800 winds, and adding 200 to each flight . If the model shows
any stalling tendency on one of the flights bend the bearing slightly
so that the prop leans forward very slightly then try again. on the
same number of winds. If it works all right, on the ~ext flight
again begin acding 200 winds, until you run into more stalling dif-
ficulty, which requires a little more of the same medicine. Event-
ually, by this method you will. approach and reach full winds. If
the model dives then, bend the bearing back towards its original
9osi.tion a trifle and also turn it so that the prop faces just a
shade in the direction in which the ship is to turn.
The writer has been asked a great many times about the advan-
tages of a cambered stabilizer as compared with a flat stabilizer.
When using a camber, as the angle of attack is increased, the lift
developed . is gr~~ter than the lift for a flat section, providing the
areas are equal. For this reason, it is apparent that a oambered
stabilizer will ha ve better "anti-stalling" qu.ali tie.s.
But another, and even more valuable asset of the cambered stabil-
izer is its use in pulling the ship out of a dive. When a cambered
section is set at zero angle or a few degrees negative in the air
stream, the section tends to dive~ A flat section set at negative
angle tends to l?traighten out to zero degrees. So cambered stabil-
izers are made with the leading edge just weak enough so that when-
ever the ship's speed increases, no matter how shallow the dive, the
leading edge will bend down, increasing the negative angle of the
stabilizer, thus slowing down the ship, and bringing it out of the
dive. However, you must be careful to make the leading edge strong
enough to withstand the pressure of diving, and rigid enough to
_m aintain its angle \Wien the ship is in normal flight. The proper
streng~h can be found only by experience, as it must not only be
strong enough to remain at the proper angle in normal flight, but
must also be delicate enough to start assuming a larger negative
angle whenever the ship a bit ~aster due to drafts getting
under the tail, a weak m~ tick,.....§tc.
-. ....,,..
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 Petrol Model Hints
100
by Captain C. E. Bowden

General

The testing period is the most dangerous period of the life of

the petrol nodel. It is therefore worthwhile thinking out a system
that ensures the"maxinrum 8Illount of success that can be achieved.

The method I have adopted for several years now has proved it-
1elf very satisfactory and has been also used by a number of my
trlepds, with very little damage to their models.
Before describing the actual m~~nod itself, I wou l d like to de-
scribe certain features that I incorporate into all my gas models,
whether they are high WiflS, low wing, or biplane. Thnse features I
consider a help toward testing end stlbsequent flying vrithout dam.age.

Firstly, all of my models have a detachable nosep:l'.ece upon which

the engine is mounted. This nosepiece is held into the nose of the
fuselage by rubber bands to wire hooks, in the S6D'le vrny that the
nosepiece of many rubber models is attached. The engine on striking
any object can therefore be knocked out and the rubber• bands give to
the blow ins.tead of the crankshaft. Again, this method allows slight
alteration of the thrust line and offset <:£ the thrust to counteract
engine torque, by the simple method of inserting s 11p~1 of packing
wood between the detachable mounting and the fuselage.. Fig. 1. is a
sketch of the method.

All of rrry models have their cantilever wings and t ailple11es at-
tached by rubber bands to wire hooks that protrude fr<>m the f1Uelage.
Tlius the rubber bands hardly show, end yet allow the win.gs, etc. to
be knocked off in the event of a crackup.

Thirdly, I always fit a type of undercarriage that assures a

backward movetMnt ;twist followed by an upward movement. This takes
up the blow of gliding into the ground, for e. gas modE~l is naturally
not "flattened off" and stalled to a three point land i ng by a pllot.
It glides into the ground. The undercarriage tnU8 t tho ref ore be well
forward anT""gI've backwards first. ----

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Fig. 2. shows the type of undercarriage I !it. I he.ve never

known one of these to become damaged and seldom do they allow any
damage to a fuselage, owing to their large range of travel in the
ri~t dir~ctlon.
 101
Fourthly, I consider it essential to fit a model with a device
that will definitely control th3 duration of flight to within sec-
Qnda. Thia is both a saf'ety device am .a great help in test work
as the reader will shortly see.
The best control device .L AllOW of is l11l de from "the "works 11 of a
half-dollar simli clock. The mechanism operates an ignition switch
and cuts the current from one of the battery leads after any prede-
termined time.
The mechanism is extracted from the case of a cheap clock, and
the case, the hands, and the dial are scrapped. The escapement move-
ment is next removed and discarded .with the exception of the escape-
~ent wheel which is converted into a governor. Little metal strips
are attached at one end to the escapement wheel opposite each other
ard the other ends of the strips are left free but have blobs of sol-
der attached. A small tin cylinder is then made for the escaperrent
wheel to revolve inside with its weights on the ends of their strips
of sheet metal ·, but not touching the tin cylinder which is soldered
into position in -the works of the clock. Th~ above is a governor
which at a certain speed whirls the strips with their weights out in-
to a light frictional contact with the walls of the cylir ~ er.
. A small starting and stopping device is next fitted to a three
ply top to the clock. See Fig. 3., which is a side elevation of the
clock timer.
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The top portion of the clock's winding key is now replaced with
a pointer made from a nail. A paper dial is next fitted to the three
ply top. See Fig. 4 . which shows the top of the device.
Electrical contacts are also fixed as shown, and the dial is cal-
ibrated with a stop watch fn seconds.
102
~o operate the time switch, the ~op and start lever is raised and
the pointer wound up to the required number of seconds as shown on
the dial. The switch is connected and the engine is started up. Just
before releasing the model, the c.loc1c starting lever is pressed and
the time switch will stop the engine after the correct time as set on
the dial.
,
With this 'device 1t is possible to test out a model with com-
.plate safety, starting with a short hop of, let us say, five seconds,
!lild gradually increasing t~ duration until perfect trim is obtained.
It is also pofisible to fly a lJ'Odel in a small field. Jlr .. Allman,
a former winner of the Wakefield Cup, designed this device. This
clock device can be made detachable and f.i tted into various models.

Testing a Gas Model

I invariably carry out the followi~ procedure when trying out my
new models, and as a result of this procedure and the methods of de-
sign already described, I very seldom indeed do any damage during
tbis critical period.
Having obtained the correct wing position in relation to the Cen-
tre of Gravity of the model, i. e. the C. G. at about 1/3 from the
leading edge of t~ wing, and ~vi~ also allowed for the correct an-
gles of incidence of the wing and tailplane in the design, the model
should be glided carefully b~ hand into a sli8ht wind, and any small
adjustments made so that the model makes good flat glides: The mod-
el must be a good glider if good landings after power flight is com-
pleted, are to be obtained. ·
Now a five second hop can be tried under power, controlled by the
clock mechanism. But before this is tried, the detachable nosepiece
must be tilted downward { i. e. "downthrust") by packing wood slips
between the detachable engine mount and the fuselage nose. The nose-
piece nrust also have a slight offset to ccunteract the engine torque.
Release the model, and if it will not rise during its f ive second
run, reduce the downthrust a little at a time until the model just
starts to get off the gro.ind. Now try a longer flight and if all is
well and a good landi~ is obtained, as it should be af ter a good
glide, the wood packings between the detachable nosepiece and ·fusel-
age can be permanently glued into position and covered over with silk
and doped to keep into position.
If you have never tried the above method, just givEi it a trial
and give ' up ·crackupal
As the re ad er. will probably know, if the wirg is placed very high
in relation to tne eng_ine thrust line (as in a parasol or high wing
model), then there will be a tendency for the engihe to pull the nose
up around the very high centre of pressure af t he wing and so cause a
stall. ~any people firs~ test their models under power and in order
to stop stalling under these circumstances they move the wing back a
little. When the power ceases ttw model becomes nose heavy and dives
to a crackup.
The correct method i s to give the right amount of downthrust to
counteract the stalling tendency and to leave the wing in its correct
gliding posit-ion over the C. Q. Good landings and glides will then
be obtained. The detachable nosepiece allows this to be obtained
very easily. ·
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~ 1:- Place wheels bef ore prop to save
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"
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~ transparent with clear dope and use
~
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_.,ATT~RY Ttl(',4(",-t'
thin section climbs we ll but the g lide
is poo r. A thick section is s lightly
slower but it g lides muc h better.
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 1.24 Low Speed Airfoils
by Fred J. Rogerson
Reprint from "Canadian Aviation"
Realizing tha~ we have been handicapped by, lack of data concern-
ing low speed airfoils, I decided to make a series of free flight
tests. I built a weight rule model and a number of wings with iden-
tical plan forms, areas, and weights, but with different airfoil sec-
tions. Then with the aid of a stop watch, a 100 foot tape line, and
plenty of blue sky, I preceded to make some tests.
Early in the experiment, I found tha t the Reynolds number is not
a reliable measure for comparing airfoil sections at low speed. The
rule adopted by the Germans for comparing glider sections seems more
suitable for our purpose, especially since the spe ed of soaring glid-
ers is reasonably slow, and the prime requisite of a model is· to soar
well. This comparison rule is based on tha median line (mean chord
line). The greater the ·arching of this line, the maximum thickness
remaining the same, the slower will be the sinking velocity and great·
er the soari~ ability. See Fig. 1. This I found to.hold true with
the airfoils tested.
The above rule serves gliders very well, since they are continu-
ously gliding down, but for power model work we must consider ot her
factors, mainly, that of getting the greatest he i ght with the limited
power. Although ai-rfoils with a thiclmess relat i on of 1:5 have proved
successf'ul, it would be next to impossible to design a propeller of
reasonable proportions that would fly such a wing to sufficient al-
titude for the mean cAmber to · get in its work. I found that the pow-
er required depends a great deal upon the angle (N) at which the lead-
ing edge meets the air, and also the maximum thickness of t~ airfoil.
See Fig. 2. A "Phillips " entering 'iidge can be used to reduce the
value of N and yet retain the good mean camber. See Fig. 3. In the
tests, pointed leading edges, and those of very $mall radius showed
up r~asonably well for · this purpose. They also provided better stab-
ility at large a ngles of attack. I believe that the reason for this
latter characteristic is that the dividing line between the upper and
lower airflow is determined by the form of tha leading edge·. The
blunter edge will tend to change the C. P. gradually, while t~ point-
ea edge delays the ·shifting, until at; large angles of attack it shifts
suddenly, causing a stable moment.
. The ai~speea af a model airfoil is too•low to build up high pres-
sure at the leading edge, as in commercial practise. The absence of
this condition causes a very heavy boundary layer of tur:tmlent air a-
bout the airfoil which reduces the lift/drag valu e. However, t he
pointed airfoils cut their way cleanly through the air, causing very
little resistance, although the lift value is slightly reduced with
thi s feature.
 125
AIRFOIL N in B in ~u. Thick.
Degrees Degrees of Chord
.
St.Cyr 52 Caudron
Gottigen 436
C-72
8.0
9.0
9 .0
3 .5
4.0
4.5
10.
11.08
11.73
G. Light 9.5 5.25 11.7
U.S.A. 40 8.5 4.5 13.72
Dria1Zs 11.0 3.5 13.72
N.A.C.A. 6409 13.0 6.75 9.0
Eiffel 385 - 8.0 3. 5 13.3
Grant 11.5 6.0 13.4
Gottigen 81 16.0 7.0 7. 3
R.A.F. 32 10.4 6.25 12.7
Martin 40 ll.5 6.3 22.1
Clark Y 12.0 5.0 11.7

The lift of an airfoil is in proportion to the maximum thickness

and the angle (B) made by the chord line and the mean camber line at
a point 50% from the trailing edge. See Fig. 2 . The chord is defin-
ed as .the line be.tween the extreme leading edge and the traili~ edge.
It should not be confus~d ~1th the datum line, from which the airfoil
is layed out. Undercamber carefully applied is an efficient method
o! increasjno lift
These are the n.ost important airfoil characteristic requirements,
and cen be applied to any section we choose. Tabie I shows the angle
of the leading edge to the airflow ·( N), the angle betwe en the chord arrl
mean camber lines (B), and the airfoil. The choice will be left to thE
reader as the requirements depend upon the wing loading of the model.
The test wing construction consisted of a 3/32" x 1/4" l e ading edge,
a 1/16 11 x 1/8" top spar, a 1/16 11 x 1/4" trailing edge, and ' rib spacing
of l~". The grain of th~ tissue was parallel with the chord and the
wing was doped w~th water and two coats of clear dope. On a .highly
cambered section, the sa~ in the covering was found to be as mµch as
1/8 11 at a point about 20% from the leading edge. After the fir·s t test9
these wings were covered with 1/64" sheet balsa from a point 30% from
the leading edge on the upper surface to a point 2o% on the lower .sur-
face. This gave an average increase in duration of 25 to 30% . Still
greater improvement should be obtained from wings covered entirely wit h
balsa
Speaking generally, an airfoil should have:
1. A general pleasing streamlined appearance, ·without nny very ab-
rupt changes in the curvature.
2 . A leading edge of small radius, or one that is pointed.
3. The maximum height of the mean camber line at a point 40 to 50%
from the leading edge.
4. No excess upper camber or under camber, as this may mean excess-
ive drag with no compensating increase of lift.
5. No excessive camber below the chord line of the "M" type of air-
foils, as this will decrease the lift.
6. A mean camber of .045 to . 0 55 of the chord, as this seems to
give the best - performance.
To predict or calculate the performance of any wing, the finished
wing :nrust have no sag in the covering. I might add tha~ in tests a .1
oz. greater wing loading per sq. ft. makes the difference between soer-
ing and a straight glide in. I have found that the "Grant Section", as
used on c. H. Grant's twin pusher and twin tractor, a very good all-a-
round section. The greatest draw-back ie that it absorbs considerable
power from a single motored job.
 126
Twin Pasher

oy Edward I. Manulkin
You old timers wi],l remember that in the days before 1934, twin
-pushers were wirming almost eve-ry contest, bringing to their build-
ers every sort of prize, from kits to trips to Europe. Usually the
winning flight time was about three minutes. Very fEiw of the pre -
1934 tractors compared well with · twins in performance.
This state continued until about two years ago, when the exper-
ienced builders began to understand more thoroughly the importance
of streamlining, of design, and of proper adjusting. Since the sin-
gle tracto_r wns the easiest to streamline and t .o adjust. the twin ·
pusher was greatly neglected, so that at present most of the records
are held by tractors. You will note that it was the appl+cation of
stre omlining and adjusting that caused the increase of tractor time.
Of the two, probably adj us ting · is the more important ..
Some reasons why the tractor has superseded the s1tandard twin
pusher ~re:
1. The enclosing of the rubber motor, thereby eliminating that
source of drag in glide and flight, as well as eliminating rubber
shifting.
2. The use of soaring airfoils.
3. The use of larger and slower props, permitted because of tm
:iecrease of ·arag.
It can readily be seen that the standard "A" frame with exposed
rubber is a t a disadvantage against the slick tractor· . Such twins
fly by the use of sheer brute power, and it is this. f'ea ture that is
tl;leir downfall, as in the case of all brutes. Howeve1r, new. stream-
lined versions of the twin pusher began to appear early in 1934, but
not very .much at tenq.on was pu id to them in the grond rush to get on
the tractor's bandwagon. T:tiose who did build these new designs were
pleasantly surprised when they found that these streamlined models
would fly with less povrer End larger props, as well as have a flat-
ter glide.
I have been building outdoor twin pushers for about :five years.
I obtained durations of u p to 12 minutes with the orthodox designs,
after patient surface layout and numerous adjustmentB. Howev~r,
when I designed and built my first streamlined twin, my duration -in-
cre a sed tremendously. My first official flight in a contest resulted
in an out-of-sight flight. It was reco~.rered a few days la tar, about
3 miles from the starting point. During the second contest, it climb-
ed like an elevator until ~he power was exhausted and then soared out
o:f sight a f te 1· about 17 minutes. This time :1,:t was rEicovered after I
was informed of its whereabouts by mail. The d1stanqe of this flight
was about 15 miles f_rom the starting point. This fUght s trengthenea·
my belief that tractors were not as superior as some would have us
believe. The combination of a staggered "A" frame and enclosed mot-
ors seems . to point the way toward wresting the durat:ton record from
tractors, especially when the new weight rules are put into effect.
A conservative estimate of the duration of that remaI•kable flight is
two hours or more. The point to keep in mind though, is that every
flight was of top-·n otch quality.

I have never l~d any real difficulties with twin pushers. How-
ever, I have found the following adjusting hints hHndy, and they may
J>rove of value to. other twin pusher flyers.
1. If the model flies well under power but stallE1 in tm glide,
check the relative incidences. The cause is usually excessive incid-
ence. lo negative for the wing and 3° positive for the elevator is
just about ri ght.
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128

2 . If the model refuses to turn, the trouble may oe caused by too

nruch dihedral in the wing or elevator. A safe rule to follow is to
use 1 inch per foot of wing ~p an for the wing , on each side, and li
inches per foot of elevator span for the elevator, on each side.
3. Use freewheelings that work every time. You n_e ver can tell
which flight will use them most.
4. Props s h ould spin very freely and not grind at the bearing.
Ball bearing wa shers are excellent for eliminating Emch friction .
. 5. Make sure tp.at props are in line and do not hit each other un-
aer power or in the glide. Use double bearings to prevent this and
also to ins ure true runni~.
6. The "A" frame should be very rigid. When your twin does a
half-roll-loop int o the ground, you can be sure that the torque ha~
twist e d the frame.
7. Use plenty of power and hove a light, stre2mlined ship. This
combination has broken many records.

If the above remarks are k~pt in mind at the next contest or

while making a new model, you may be reasonably sure of seeiqs your
handiwork "a slig ht speck in the blue ceiling", giving those tractor
boys something to worry about. (Ed. note: and anyway it takes a man
to wind up a powerful twfnl)

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 129
''X" Ribbed. WJng ~~~~~~~~~~~~~by John Whitehouse
After aeeirg .an article 1n a magazine on the geodetic system of
wing conetrm tion, I made a simplified design for model use. I test-
ed it on a contes·t model and the result~ were better than I expected
Although the aspect ratio was 12 to 1 the strength equalled that of
a 7-1 wing of the .same spar and rib sizes. Below is shown a sketch
ot the principle. By placing the ribs at 45°, they.assume several
functions. First, they provide the airfoil curvature; second1y, they
assume part of the spar load; and thirdly, they also provide a diag-
onal brace effect.

Although 45° ~~agonals are best, tte · angle may be changed if the
chord is too wide. For larger models and gas jobs, the number of
i;ibs. hlpy be increased. The ·Size of the leading am trailing edge
spars should be slightly greater than on a normal multi-spar wing.
The leading edge can also be covered with sheet balsa or stiff paper
to prev~nt sagging at the triangle.
The wing mentioned above had a 1/8" sq. leading edge and a 1/8 11 "
by 1/4" trailing edge. The spanwns- 44" with a 4 11 center chord taper·
ing to a 2 tip.
11
The span of the gas model wing is 15 feet and is
made up of three 5 foot sections. :rhe leading edge is 1/2" square,
and the trailW edge is li" x 3/8". The ril;>s are built up of 1/8"
sq. A capped channel berun l~" x ~ is placed. close behind the lead-
11

ing edge, which is covered with 1/16" balsa sheet. To date, no troub-
le has beAn experienced in covering the undercamber.
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J:JO J•apiPr-Ma,!he :\lodel
by Fred Mayfield
Usually papier-mache work is•made b.y SOR.king paper in water un-
til it becomes pulpy and then making a mixture from this nul n and a
small amount of Plaster of Pa ris. This mixture i s pl nstic enoueh to
be worked with the hands or moulded from pa tterns , i nt o any de sired
shape. When the water evaporates, the result is a li ght and fairly
strong form. For model work the µrocedure u se d is ~1lightly differ-
ent, i1 that the paper is not reduced to a pulp, but is u5ed in sheet
form.

The first step in preparing the parts of a papier-mache mod e l is

to carve a ~orm or a pattern of the part to be constructed. This
form can be made of white pine or bals a . The flat wing mounting of
a fuselage c a n be carved to shape or built up with clay. Any other
.protuberances (such as headrests, wing fillet s , etc. ) can also be
built u~ of clay. The pine form should then be sanded smooth and·
varnishe d. If balsa is used, s everal coats of shell ac should be a n-
plied. The form should also be rigged up so tnat it can be rotated
on its lateral center line as shown. The papier-mache construction
procedure is as·follows:

Cut a sheet of bamboo paper into strips app.coxima.tely 2" x 8".

Cut up only· one sheet at a time until you know j119t a.bout how many
you will need. Grease the form well with Vaseline, cold crea~, or
some other greasy substance. Be sure to apply it liberally so that
the paper will not stick to the form. Next,· mix a bowl of wallpaper
paste. (Common library paste may be used if it is mixed with water
until creamy. However, it is quite expensive.) Now drag one of the
paper strips through the paste. Wipe off ·the excess. Apply this
coated paper strip to tm form in a s piral direction by rote.tine; the
form. Repeat this process. with other strips until the fo:r;m is com-
pletely c~vered with one coat of paper. Be sure to have a sligh t
overlap at the junction of the strips.
AnQther layer: of paper. is to be applied in th~ same manner, ex-
cept that the spiral should run in the op posite direction. We need
still another layer to obtain a safe margin of strength. This third
coating is applied in the same direction as the fir s t. For nohnal
Nork, three coats will suffice. Use more lay ers if greater strength
is desired. Let the completed job dry for about 24 hours to allow
the paste to set and dry.
To remove the fuselage from the form, cut the fuselage on the
bottom either in front or in the back and slid e i t off the form. If
it sticks, or if the shape does not allow the 'removal t.o be mad e in
this fashion, cut it full length. If it sticks too hard to the form
it may be necessary to cut it along the top as well. I found that
two bulkheads situated directly beneath the wing mo\Vlts are the only
necessary inte~nal supports. These should be made first of card-
board and fitted in ard then cut out of laminated 1/16 11 she e t. Af t er
the bulkheads have been glued in place, the seam should be glued and
sealed with a 1/2 11 strip of bamboo paper.
 131.
Tne tail surfaces ard the landing gear may be cemented in place
in the usual manner, except that the landing gear should be fixed so
that it contacts a large area. The front and rear portions of the
fuselage should be reenforced with balsa bulkhe nds to accomodate the
plugs. "'

The use or· papier-mache in model work is practically unlimited.

I have found that.excellent cowlings may be made for gas models with
this method. Mould a clay form right onto the nose. When this is
dry, remove it from the plane and apply paper, using the above pro-
oess. Instead of using three coats of bamboo paper, however, use
tram three to five layers of newspaper and one or two coats of bam-
boo paper. The final finish is the standard one of sandirg well arrl.
doping

AU-Balsa Wini& s
A sheet of quart e r- s awed, 5 ib./cu. ft., 1/8" thick balsa is need-
ed for t he win g . (If t he e xactly specified wood in unobtainable, use
the be s t you ca n ge t. The width may -be built up by cementing two or
more s h eet s .) Cut to outline and sa nd the bottom free from saw marks.
Ne xt, sand the u p per cambe r to th e desired wing section. In the case
of a ta per e d wing , be sure to taper ·the thickness eve.nly from the cen-
ter to the ti p . A ha.rd balsa leading edge, and a -bamboo tip are ad-
visable in order to save the efficiency of these highly important
edges. They shoul d be cemented in place before the top surfaces are
work e d dow n ~ It is ' n easy job to finish balsa wings if three g rades
of sandpap er are us &u , finishing with ten nought.

The wi ng is made in two halves, and the halves are bent on the
same form, one after the ot lle r. To b end for the lolt'er camber, moist-
en the to p only, and bind the half on the form with 1/2" gauze. It
may be left to dry overnight, or it may be paked in an oven. When
dry, carefully sand the rai~ed grain on the top surface, while the
win g is still o n t he form. Do pe twice with_ thin shrinkless dope,
snndi w, between . c oats, and wr x with Simoniz or a similar wax, exce p t
in the - c e nter wher e a ce ment skin of a.bout l" is ap plied. Make the
other half in the s ame ma n ner.

Before c eme nting t be two halves together, set them at the desired
angle· and car e fully san d the ed ges for a perfect j oint. Cement them
to g ether and hold in pla c e with _pins. When the unit is dry, coat the
joint well with two or three coats of cement. Be sure tha t the init-
ial joint does not lossen with the fres h cement.
If the · work is done c nr e fully, the balsa wing will be more effic-
~.ent and will also stand up better than any paper covered wing of the
sama size. The method has been used on several ships, and has been
t h oroughly te~t e d.

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#1416 CL.IP.5 ,4Nb

17IL Ll.rL" --hy Ht1rw/, S.tzke.
 ia2 ( :o-Ax lal Prope 11 .. r
by Jim Haffey

The torque pr?blem in mod els is very important due to the large
propeller and relatively powerful rubber motor. It is a source of sur-
prise to me to see th a t more model builders are not interested in this
solution of the torque p roble m.
The main drawbacks of c o-axial props are the weight, the difficulty
of making suitable ge nrs, and also th e difficulty of winding the rubber
with a winder when a torque tube in heliocopter form is used. The meth-
od which I have used successfully for over a year is to use a torque
tube, but with modifications, to enable me to wind the motor with a
winder. Incidentally, fli ght results have been more than satisfactory.
The above method may be used on all types of models. The oply change is
in the sizes of the component parts.

The torque tube system is used by provi.d ing a bearing in the front;
and rear nnd a revolving anchorage. There is very little bearing fric-
tion, and the 1 prop pull is taken care of by the ball bearing washer.

Construction: The torque tube is made of 3/64 11 sheet balsa. For ex-
tra powerful models it is advisable to use two or three 1/32" sheets,
rolled one on top of each other. Tl).e front portion consists of plu~ "A"
which fits snugly in , the spinner "S" which is cemented to the tube. Tne
two bearings "B" are made of sheet aluminum. The holes are made to al-
low the tube to rotate freely without vibration. Thd holes should be1

finished with a blunt reamer to provide a ·round contact surface. Coat

the tube with 5 or 6 coats of cement where i t contacts the bearings.
Do this every .3 0 or 40 flights to make up for wear. The rear plug is
not cemented to the tube because of replacement of 'rubbe~, but is made
to fit snugly. · The spinner "T" must be very smooth in operatiop. For
light jobs a light trout fishing troll will d~, but for heavier motors
make as shown in the sketch. If the model is of the fuselage type, th€
whole assembly can be made removable by providing the anchor pi~ "M".

The rubber is wound by the front prop shaft, a nd may be stretched

by removing the plug 11 A'). Freewheeling need be applied to only the
front prop in the 'usual manner. Be sur e to use plenty of Vaseline on
the torque tube bearings as well as all other revolving points.

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 133
Feat he rin~ Propeller
Developed by Marvin Setzke
Suggested by Carl Goldberg

"Feathering: the ability of 0. pl voted or free surf o ce to eutomat:1.-

cally assume its best L/D position or present minimum frontal area."

The propell~r as shown in the pl e ns is tho third of the experiment-

al project to determine the value of feathering pro ps. The ' first one,
hinged but withou t a s pring and with only the main sto p , fluttere rl but
it nevertheless improved the glide beyond rrry expectations. Since then,
I have mA<ie numerous excellent flights when using the fe dherin§ pr op.
01710 evening at about 7 o'clock with the temperature close to 60 , I
wound up the rubber a bou t 340 turns for n test flight. The model rose
to ~pproximatel y 250 fe 0t with R 30 second prop run . The glide lasted
for 3 minutes, turning in a flight of 3m. 30s. under still air c ondi-
tions. The pro p may be used in conjunction with fre ewhe el ing to f a ci-
litate removal RS well as to take care of any p ossible accidental fail-
ure~. It may be stopped in any de sir 0d po sition by usinf, t h e rubber
tensioner and any appropri8tely placed stop. The exnct combination can
best be determined by individual requirement s. The best duration · ob-
tained to date with a feeth~ring prop ls 2 hours and 30 minutes, with
an 18" prop with 18 strands on u 2.8 oz. N. A. A. Cabin Fuselage j ob.

1. Carve the pI"'Op in usual mann13r. Determine and mark the hinge
point. Cut in 3/32" for the wire and tube . parts. Cut and shape the
needed hardware. · Be sure to sli p the alwninum tubing into the hinge
wire before bending the ends as shown.
2 . Cement the tube to blades nnd wire to the hub. Reenforce
with•staples and tissue or ~ilk covering.
~. Cement the wire stop "A" and reenf o rce it with sta ples and silk.
4. Cut the blades at the pivot points. Cement t he coil spring to
assure positive actiun.
5. Face the prop And equalize the upper a nd lower areas. Fix them
in position temporarily with pins and cement .014 wire sto ps.

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 1.34
Finishes and Flying ~ale

by Roger Harmner

Flying Scale Model s

It is possible to make almost exact scale models fly well pro-

vided that care is taken so that they will be adjusted properly.
Befcire attempt ing the initial flight, check the incidences, whi ch
should be the scale settings. Rem ove al l unintentional warps. The
C. G. position should corre spond with that of the full size ship;
that is, it should be at a point 30% of the chord behind the lead-
ing edge. If necessary, weight the nose wi th lead o r cl ay . •
The first step in testing is to place the model on smooth ground,
rnisA the tail until the model is in a horizontal position , and then
to give the model a sufficiently strong shove to make it clear the
ground. Make any necessary corrections with int e rmediat e flights
until a smoo th glide and ~ s light right turn are obtai ned. If the
model stalls, weight the nose, and if it di ve s set the stabilizer at
negative. The ·tur n is obtained by the rudder adjustment. The model
is now r eady for th e next test.
Launch the model with a str ong and ~straight forward throw from
a three foot altitude at a 10° negative aIJ.gle . If the moa~l i s cor-
rectly adjusted, it will remain at the 10 ° nega ti~e angle and have a
slight right turn. The next step is t o win d the mot or about i- of its
maximum turns and to launch the model about 12 11 from th~ ground down ·
about 10°. If the model is underpowered, the glid e will just . be - pro-
long ed and the model will land with wind s . If it is overpowered, it
will zoom and stall. The model that is correctly powered will ri se
about ofi.e _foot and then gradually as sume the glid ing pos j ti on. Not-
ice the turn carefully a t this s t age . If it is exce ssi v e , the mo d -
el will spiral dive when fu ll powe r i s used. If the model behaves
cor r at!tly, the same tes ti'ng pr ocedure may be carried through ! turns
and t turns, unti l the maximum wind up is re ached. If the model does
not climb, increase the p ower and recheck from the beginn ing for the
C. G. and other po ints. For the zooming mod.el, r emove a bit of rub-
ber and try again'after check i ng the balance . If i t now mushes to
the ground, the trouble probably lies in the thrus t li n~. Replace
th.e rubber and S.jt the prop to point down until a sat i sfactory fl:lght
is obtained.
Be su re to go throuGh this test pro c edure before attempting full
turn flights. Many good models are ruined just beca se the builder
is too impatient to take his time in ironing out the kinks.
~~~t-~_1?-_aracteristics of Different Desi gns
·PARASOL MONOPLANES should be capable of tig~t and steep ly climb1I'l:1'
turns with the torque and should obtain good altitude. Ex.: Fair-
child 22. ·
CONVENTIONAL MONOPLANES should circle with the Pt o rque in circles
of about 40 to 60 fe et diame ter, with very shallow banking but climb-
ing rapidly. Ex.: Fairchild 24, Cessna and others.
MII.WINGS are a bit mor e tricky to obtain s ati sf actory ~esults .
Thes e models should turn in large diameter c ircles of ebout 100 feet
with medium climb so that th e climb will b e comparatively shallow to
prevent a stalling tendency at the end. The midwing adjustments
should be for a slight zoom at the beginning, turns of about 100
feet and flat climb. Ex.: Bull Pup, Corbin Racer, Art Chester Racer.
LOW WINGS usually take a straight run and begin to bank afi:er
they reach about 20 feet altitude. Low wings mad e by the writer
hav e climbed fairly steeply in large circles. No difficulty was ex-
perienced with stalling when the power was exhausted. Ex.: Howard
Ike and Pete, and numerous conunerciel and military designs.
 13/i
BIPLANES have the same flight characteristics as the convention-
al monoplanes. The adjustments are practically the same as mentioned
at the beginning of the article. Double check for incidences and any
warps. Note: the right turn should occur on all models after the pow-
er has been expended.
Flying Scale Propellers
Since the diameter is restricted by the scale landing gear, the
needed thrust is obtained by making the blaQeS very wide, almost a
paddle sha~e. For example, a 7 11 diameter prop should have blade width
of about 12 11 • The blade section should be a regular airfoil section
with about 1/4 11 undercamber. 'The props should be made of very hard
balsa (15 lbs./cu. ft.) or pine esp~cially since weight is usuallt
needed at the front.

Paint and Lacquer Finish~

The method of finishing depends upon the surface upon which the
finish is to be applied. However, the pores of the surface nrust be
filled in first, in all cases. Several coats of clear dope will do
the trick for paper, which has a rather poreless but absorbing sur-
face. On wood and silk, which has deep pores, use Jasco Prepared
Wood Filler. It has a nitro-cellulose base upon which dope, lacquer,
or paint can be applied without fear of the filler rising from un-
der the finished surface. It also contains the lightes~ possible fil-
ler ingreqients obtainable and which no standard connnercial filler
has. It is of a clean white color, and is plasticised to prevent the
warping of thin surfaces. It can be sanded smooth with ordinary sand-
paper without fear of clogging the sandpaper. It should be applied
with a brush.

The pain or lacquer should be flowed on the surface with Q good

soft brush, preferably a red sable brush. For a paper finish, one or
two coats will be sufficient.. For wood and silk, the number of coats·
'd epends upon the type of model. If lightness is desired, about two
coats will do, but for the best possible finish, add as many coats as
are necessary to completely hide the surface normally seen through the
lacquer and paint. After several coats have been applied, they should
be rubbed down with 320 "Wet or Dry" paper. Add several more coats
and rub down with 400A 11 WoD" paper. For the final finish, rub down
with a polishing compound such as Valspar Rubbing and Polishing Com-
pound. For additional weather a:rrl moisture protection apply two coats
of Simonize. Apply it with a wet cloth to prevent the burning of the
finish. A high gloss may be obtained by rubbing briskly with a soft
cloth like flannel.
NOTE: Be sure to let the lacquer, paint, or dope dry thoroughly
between each coat, and allow it to harden before rubbing.
For a glider finish, just use one or two coats of Jasco Prepared
'Wood Filler, sand very smooth with 10 Nought .a nd finish with Simonize
For weight rule ~liders, several coats of plasticised dope should be
applied before Simonizing. Be sure to apply the Filler evenly, first
with the grain and then against it. The surface should be sanded un-
til the paper begins to scrape the top of the wood.
 136 ThP-rmals

by Dick Everett
Thermals utilized by models are mostly of the c onvection type.
Such currents are developed by the differences of air temperature.
As you all know, heated air expands and · increases in volume and so
tends to rise above the. colder air. Such phenome na occur whenever
there are groun6 spots thnt have different rates of heat absorption.
For example, bodies of water require a large amount of he nt to raise
their temperature, while concrete requires a relatively short expos-
ure to the sun before becoming heated and a cting as a mirr or to the
,s urt' s heat • ·
The following ty pes of terrain have a quick heat-saturation pe-
riod, after which the air in illllledia te c·ontac t with the ground is
warmed: ooncrete, asphalt, sand, hard ground, plowed fields with a
hard-crusted surface, ripened grain fields, and t h e like. Bodies
,of water, green'fields, trees, and objects which ke ep on absorbing
the heat, do not heat the surrounding air.
From the above explanation we~can see tha t for best results we
should f~y the model in ~ch thermal-producing areas. On the air-
port, the best spot is in t he center of the runway or the large cir-
cle of concrete or asphalt. The tops of administration buildings
am the concrete aprons in front of the hangars also give u p hot
risers. However, these risers have a limited altitude and it is
best to wait for cumulus clouds if there are any in t h e sky. These
cumulus clouds are the peaks of upward convection currents formed
'somewhere and carried over the cruntryside by the wind. Therefore
our objective is to have the model raised high enough by the local
thermals to have it contact the cloud thermals. The rest is up to
your eyesight and possible horizontal velocity.
If the clouds are high , release the model just when the clouds ·
are ap ~ roaching the field, to enable the model to rise to. its high-
est point just when the cloud is passing over it. For low clouds,
release the model when they are about ncross the field. In this man-
ner the model will not be drawn up into the clouds too fast, as it
will more or less be on the outskirts of the thermal. Thermals can
be found as late as 6 o 1 clock in the afternoon, and on many occasions
we have clocked over 12 mirrutes on risers over Pittsburgh Airport at
this, time.
On windy days there are few ground thermals as the wind cools the
ground and st the same time swe e~ s them away in case they a~e forming.
On such days we s hould also be c nrefui where we l aunch the model. The
behaviour of the wind is such that it provides an upcurrent in front
of a n obs tac le and a down current behind it. (This current rs util- ·
ized by soarers to glide in front of a hil l .) There f ore we should
launch the mode],. away from such obstacles unless the model is a pow-
erful ciimber, in which case. the upcurrent would be r a ther helpful.
This upward deflection of wind can be used advantageously for tow-
line or hand.lvunched gliders .

Gener!:l.l Hints
Place clay on the bottom of your glider wing~ at the C. G. to
get th3 gliders up higher, outdoors. This increases the spe~d which
in turn flattens t he glide c onsider ably. For best result have the
glider highly polished. Dope pro pellers silver for visib i lity. The
shining propeller reflects t he light. Al50 cover the fuselage silv&r
or yellow. Cover the winp; red a1~ "the s tabil1ze-r yellow, 8rD dope
three times to obt a in a c ol ored tra·n~areney.
 137
Hand Launebed Gliders
by Tex Rickard
In rrry experiloonts with glide~s, I have found that there are two
types of designs whic~ are dissimilar but which can be made to give
almost identical· performance indoors. The first type and the one most
often used, is the one with a short elevator arm and a long nose. I
have used as high as a 2-1 ratio; that is, a 4" elevator arm and an 8 11
nose length. I find this to be an excellent arrangement for low ceil
1ng flying, although altitudes of up to 100 feet may be obtained with
it if it is adjusted correctly. The second type uses just . the oppos -
ite ratio relation; i.e., an elevator arm of 8 11 and a 5 11 or 6 11 no se.
The tail surfaces can be made nruch smaller because of the l onger mom-
ent arm. Such gliders seem to get u~ higher, a nd also have better
floating tendencies. When using these gliders, it i s necessary to
wash in the elevator. If this is not done, the glider will require
too nruch clay for balancing at the 1/3 chord position.
I still use c·ambered rudders on all my gliders. They give a nruch
more uni'form circle and make adjusting easier during the contest. 'l'he
thicker section also provides a larger cementing surface to take care
of the terrific launching heaves.
I have made several tests with the fuselage sizes, and I find that
1/8" hard balsa stock will stand up better than too 1/4" stock. There
1a very little weight difference, and in practice the hard balsa is . a
bit lighter. I was definitely convinced of this fact when I made two
.46 oz. gliders whose fuselages were of 1/4 11 stock. One shfp lost its
tail portion when lauched and too other flew into a ~ost arrl snapped
the stick. Then I r.ebuilt the gliders using the 1/8 11 stock. The
weights decreased to .44 and .45 ez., showing that .there is some dif-
ference in the weight even though the wood is as hard as oak. The · ~ew
tuselages stood tm lmocks better than any 1/4" stock I have seen. It
seems that the hard wood bends and absorbs the shock much more readily
while the softer but thicker stock shatters.
It takes me aQout 2 or 3 hours to finish a wi~, and I use all the
latest tricks to get the utmost out of the throw. I undercamber the
wing slightly for low ceiling flying an:i use a flat bottom for high
climb. I use three coats of polish until the wing has a smooth glass-
like surface, with intermediated 10 nought sarrlings. I make certain
that the wiqs a1'1 fuselage jum tion is stro~ by applyir:g several lay-
ers of cement until the joint has cement fillets. ·For a final finish
I use Cedar Wax Floor Polish. This is rubbed on the completed model
with a soft cloth. Reioomber that the cement will not hold to waxed
surfaces.
My wing is set at zero incidence but the right wing is p;iven u
.slight washin (wash in the left wing for a left hand throw). The cam-
ber on the rudder is set for a left turn, and th:! trailing edge of the
t,Jtebilizer is wa?'ped d0..Vi1 about 1/:32". This gives the el.e vator a
positive angle which will . .tend to make the model go over the hump at
the peak of the throw ~ithout dipping. The exact warping has to be
determined experimentally. Too nruch of it will dive the model"and too
little will make the model dip and stall. The best launch for this
setting is to launch the glider as straight up as possible without
hank!~ it at all. By launching the glider without much bank, all the
speed arrl momentum are saved for the climb. -It also lessens the strain
ordinarily applied to wings on vertical climbing turns. You cannot
imagine the difference that the positive elevator adjustments wtll
have on your glider untll you have actually tried it out.
138
Frem Expe:Pi·e aee
by Henry Stiglmeier

-
President of the . Centinela M. A. G.

Airfoils

I have t:r-ied all types of ~irfoi.ls ard '1 find that the undercam-
bered type, especially the Eiffel 431, is best for duration models.
I used that airf'oil on a 150 sq. ·in. cabin job which did not fly
less than 20 minutes for three Sundays in a row. H did 46, 32: and
~ minutes and 0VentUally flew out of sight. I find that the Clark
Y is not so good far weight rule models.

Power and Propellers

In general I use two less strands of 1/8 11 flat i•ubber than the
diameter of the propeller in inches. Large diarnete1•, low pitch props
aean to work ,best for me. A pitch-diameter ratio <>f. li: 1 is good.
(Example: 1611 diameter, 20" pitch.) My props rango in diameter from
42 to 45% of the wing span. I find that a. lt" x 2 11 block is. Vfry
,good for ;t6", 17", and 18" props. I cup the back s ~Lde of a two inch
blade from 1/16" to 3/32" . The prop layout that I use is as shown:.

NTF.f!H/IYf ;.. -;qw Jl(«K ~.......~ F'~

p' · ..

Pusher v. Tractor

I have made lI&ny pushers and almost as many tractors. I find

that tractors are easier to adjust, and I am sure that they climb
as well e.s pushers. I dislike pushers far three reElSOns:-- first,
it is difficult to make them circle satisfacl;orily thrrughout the
entire flight; second, it is hard to determine the c~orrec t amount of
elevator dihedral to prevent the model from swinging; third, since
the leading airfoil in either a pusher or a tractor shruld be of
higher camber than tbe following airfoil, the main wing of a pus h er
cannot have as high a camber e.s is desirable withou1; overcamberirig
the elevator section. In all, I believe the tracto1• to be just as
stable as the pusher, and that it rides the thermals better.

Rudder and Stabilizer

For the average cabin or stick model, I found that rudders hav-
1.ng an area of about 14% of the wing area are very E1atisfactory. A
amall rudder will allow the model to spin wben side thrust is used.
The area of a lifting tail should be about 40% of the wing area, when
the model balances at the trailing edge of the wing .

Aspect Ratio

The aspect ratio of lifting tails may be as high as 7 with good

resul ta. · High aspect ratio rudders are not good. have tried sev-
eral high aspect ratio wings and I believe that 12-1 ls about as high
as one should use. It se ems to me that the model 1'111 not soar or
fly very 1fell when using wing·s of more than 12-1 aspect ratio. For
all-around performance, I prefer an aspect ratio of 10-1 or 11-1.
 1.39
Tapered Wings end Sweepback
I have built marty tapered wings and have not as yet been able to
see any aerodynamical advantage over straight wings of medium and
high aspect ratio. The sweepbeck design seems to make ttva models
bank and circle exoessively.
Incidence
I once had the idea that if I increased the angle of incidence
of the wing and tail, keeping the difference in angle the same, I
would need less down thrust. However, after nruch experimenting I
found the opposite to be true. It is best to use about 20 to 3 6
incidence on the main wing.
Nose Plug and Freewheeling
The use of dress-snaps for fastening noseplugs cannot be over-
emphasized. Besides having the nose readily removable, ttva props
will not break, nor will the shafts bend (as they tend to do if pins
are used), because the nose merely snaps off. Be sure to use a lit-
tle judgment in using the right strength sTl!lp.
The freewheeler shown has .been in use for a long time, and fail-
ures have been rare. The most important factor is to make it work
freely before the model has been flown. I wind all my models from
the front, hooking the winder on to t:re freewheeler.
Visibility
I believe that I have done about as much chasing of mo dels that
were almost in ttva clouds as anyone, nnd I find that the use of col-
ored tissue is very satisfactory. Red, yellow, and white combined
can be seen in any weather . The thing that makes models cove red .
with colored tissue so visible is that the sun shines right thr ough
the paper. Colored tissues are strong enough if the grain runs spa.n-
wise. The specific color combination that I use is a red wing ond
rudder, a yellow stabilizer, and a white :fuselage. Use two coats
of three to one dope. More dope makes the paper brittle and warps
the surfaces.
Balance
One thing· thnt is missing in tm majority of plans, is the exact
position of the wing an::'l t~ c. G. I contend that if any two simi-
lar models balance at the same point, tmy will have the same diff-
erence in aruz;le between the wing and tail surfaces when each model is
properly adjusted. Therefore, please give the balancing point wt¥:in-
ever you have occasion to draw plans. Then, regardless of whether or
not the surfaces are warped, when the ship is finally adjusted, it •
must have the same effective differences in angle between the surfaces.

Plying Scale ~odels

, Since I build flying scale models primarily for duratio~, I at-

tempt only those that .have flying possibilities, and I also modify
the model to su1 t this purpose . . Scale models with cowlings (radial
engines) and round or oval fusel·ages make good .flyers ( 45 s. to 1 m.
10 s. average without thermals). The best size far bi~lanes seems
to be from 20 11 to 24" wing span, and for monoplanes, 24 to 30 11 wing
span. The construction is strong to be on the safe side, so that I
can fly the model in any afternoon breeze. Quite often I come up to
the weight rule requirements.
14·0

The ma i n deviations f r om scale are the sizes of t be stabilizer,

the rudder, and the prop. The stabilizer are a i!J about 30% of the
wing area and t he rudder is about" 10% to 12$ of the wing area. rhe
_dihedral is also slightly increased; about !" for evory foot of span.
The wings are fixed normally and the model is balancod at 50% of the
chord. If weight is needed for balancing, most of it should be in
the form of heavy wheels and a little extra in the nose. The wing
sections used were mainly tm M-6 and Clark Y, but I recently tried
11
the Eiffel 431 on a Fa irchild 24" with good results.
The propellers are slightly larger than 1/3 of tl~ wing span,
and are made to fre ewheel .. I wind all of my models f rom tm front
by use of tm loop on tm freewheeler. In case of rubber breakage;
much less damage is done if the rubber goes through he front part
of too fuselage . I use enough rubber to fly the mod1:1l well. If a
scale model needs so much rubber in order to fly, th a t an excessive
amount of weight is required to balance the model, i t is wise to re-
duce the pitch of the propeller.
My best scale monoplane is a Fairchild 11 24" with an in-line en-
gine . The fuselage was lengthened slightly in all directions. ' The
rubber ircrease required enough balancing weight to bring the model
up to weight rule. The span was 30" and the prop 11" . I used 12
strands of 1/8" flat . brown rubber. The wing had li"' of dihedral,
and the weight of the wheels was 1/4 oz. each. The stabilizer was
30% and the rudder 10% of the wing area. A Clark Y. was used with
many full and false ribs. The model had a fast and steep climb and
picked up thermals best whe n gliding i~ fast right c 1rcle•. I be-
lieve that a fast circle is one way of getting the model up high.
14y best times with thi"s model are:. 17 m., 10 m. out of sight in a
naze, and 1 4 minutes. My best time with a 27 11 Udet Plamingo biplane
using an airf oil similar t o tm M-6 is 17 minutes out of sight.
Gas Models
My second and best ga s model has the following specificatioIE:

WING STABILIZER RUDDER

Area 530 sq. in. Area 160 (30:(\ AI•ea 53 ( 10~)
Span 60 in. ' Span 25 in.
Chord 9 in. Chord 7 in.
Dihedr~l 5 in.
FUSELAGE
Airfoil Cl·ark Length 43 in.
Airfoil Gott. 398
Ci"under camber) Tail M.A. 28 in.
ENGINE D.c. 17~ Fuselage
Brown Jr. behind the C. G.
Weight 3-l lbs. Neg. 2° - Right io Climb 650 ft/mi n
 .14.1
Performance: Almost perfect stability in the glide, and under power
the longitudinal stability is excellent. If tte engine stops with
the nose up, the galloping oscillations (Very appropriate--Ed.) are
reduced to nothing very quickly. Climbed to 5,000 feet in 9 minutes
(checked from a following plane), with the spark adjuster in the cen-
ter. Glides from bhree to five times the motor run. Can fly well
in 18 m. p. h. wind as well as take off . in a c_1ss wind. The only
weakness is that it won 1 t circle in circles of less than approximate-
ly 75 feet, without slowly spiral divirg. But in spite of this, it
has spiraled only once, when the rudder was warped, and that was the
rirst broken prop in 136 flights. · To date I have had 150 flights
with only three broken prop~. The most flights that I 1 v o had in any
one day is 27.

General Gas Model Hints

Airfoils: I have found the Gott. 398 with undercamber to be very

good. The Eiffel 431 gives a good glide.

Dihedral: In genera 1, one inch on each side for every foot of 3pan
is sUff icient.
Stabilizer and Rudder: A lift-section stabiliz.er is excellent in
my opinion. It is very effective and strong. An adjust able rudder
is good, but the tabs nrust not'be too big, or they will be super-
sensitive. Use small screws for settin g the tabs . A moment-arm
length of from 40 to 50:( of the wing span is good.

Covering: Bamboo paper is strong enough and takes pa.int ·11e ll.

Time Switch: Almost all models in Southern California ar e equi p ped

with them; For hookup, see the diagram. The flashlight cells are
connected when the switch is set, which should be d one before t he
boosters are disconnacted. Allow about 7 seconds for launching tim=i.

Tail Wheel or Skid: I p refer a small doughnut wheel. The tail sup-
ports should be soldered to a sheet of metal before wr appi ng and ce-
menting to the fuselage.

Exhaust for Brown: A piece of i" alwnim.un tubing mak.es an excellent

eihaust. Just bend a radius in the middle of tte tube, flatten, anl·
file to fit the cylinder. Cut two small slots for the flrst fin. •
ThB exhaust fits over the bottom fin.

Motor Mounts: I recommend wood for mounts. Dural or 24SO.will stand

up for a short while, if not in too many smashes which requir e some
straightening.

BA:t5T5/C 3,JTr~,ey
##1(-V/'

·---1--- t--I
'
~Ll.IPPCAJ. Tll'~
~~IC W'IMJ, STA~
llNI ltVDDM.
'

0
142
How to Operate a Brown Motor

I always leave the spark lever in the vertical position. Why ad-
vance it unless you have a 10 ft. job? I ad.ius t the needle valve and
forget about it. All I use for adjustment is the chok e nut. When
it is wide open the engine is running f'ull speed for that particular
spark set tire;, and closing the air intake slows the engine d own until
it just chugs over. It runs at any speed between max:lmum and mininrum
depending u pon the choke setting. With this arrangement I can get 23
~inutes on the grouno with a full tank of fuel and the choke nut open.

'l·est1ng and Adjusting

Be sure you hav~ FOUr plane completely finished, especially in

regard to paint or dope. Surfaces are apt to warp after painting,
putting your ship out of adjustment. The C. G. should be somewhere
betteen 30% an:l 50% o_f the mean chord of the wing. I f the tail sur-
fa ces a r e non-lifting or less than 25% of the wing area, the C. G.
should be at 30%. After a final check on fastening s and line-up y ou
are all set for testing.

The first step is to shove the model o n the ground to determine

if y ou h av e made a ny bad mistakes in adjustments. The shove should
be hard enough to j ust about lift the model. The mod e l should be
stabl e in t hat i t d oes not st all or l:nnk sharp l y . If it do es, make
the necessary corr e ctions befo re attemp ting the next s tep. The n ex t
ste p is to g lide the mod.el. If you cannot g lide it , get someone who
can. Run with th e s hip a nd then throw it straight at a point on the
ground about 50 f eet in front of you. It must not swoop or stall but
should glide slightly under -elev nted. The corrective adjustments are
mad e by changing the wing or st abiliz e r settings or by changing the
balance slightly. Do not g ive the wing less than 1 ° nor more than 3°
incidence. Sharp b a nking should be corrected before at temp ting power
fli g ht. • .

Start the e.ngine and get i t running perfectly before attemp tir:g
any flights. Set the time r for a 20 second motor run. With the en-
gine running slowly and the model adjusted for what you think will
give a straight flight; shove the ship moderately into the breeze.
In all probability, it won't fly straight. Immediately adjust the
ship for a circle and an even g lide. Make all test flights short
and run the engine slow. If the plane stalls under power it is be-
cause of the · thrust line settirg. By all means, don't allow you
ship to fly under power to the right. Adjust the rudder for a . left
turn and set the thrust line right or left until the ship flies to
the left. I have tested an:l flown five gas models ranging in size
from 4 ft. 8 in. to 8 ft., all with l / 5th H. P. motor s , by this meth-
od. All tests were successful.

Editor's Note: Renry has been buildirvs models since 192S. He,
has made over 192 models, of all types, to date. He has been a CCJ !! -
s is tent' contest winne r . His best duration s are as follow s:
Les s than Wt. Rules Wt. Rules
0abin Model 36 min. - 46 min.
11
11
Sti c k Model 27 19
H. L. Glider 15
Flying Scale 17 " 18
 SOME TECHBICAL BOTE~ ON THI: PRBSEl'l' IBDOOR AIRFOIL
143
Being the results of Aerodynamic experiments
with eight single surfaoe airfoils.
by J. Wallace McBride
The National Advisory Committe for Aeronautics (N.A.C.A.) ha.a ·
published numerous reports on the aerodynamic charactaristics of air-
foils, none of which are acceptable to the present indoor expert.
(~.E.F. 1) Endeavoring to remedy this situation the author began in
1931 to test the single surface airfoils of the NSeven Outstanding
Tractors of 1930.M (R.E.F. 2) Work was begun using free flight tests
but the method · was soon abandoned because of the larger number of va-
riables involved. In an attempt to eliminate some of theee a small
windtunnel was built and placed in operation.
Power for the tunnel was suppl ied by a one-sixteenth horsepower,
rheostat controlled, electric fan. Air was forced through a stiff
paper transition piece, goin g f ro m 13 inches in diameter at the fan
to a honeycomb 14 x 5 inches at t he entrance to the working chamber.
One and one- hal f inch lengt hs of soda straw piled and glued on top of
one another formed the honeycoDb , t he purpose of which was to bring
the air into the working chambe r in parallel streams. (See drawing.)
The aerodynamic bal ance mounted on the top of the working chamber
was of t l1e pin jointed paralle·lo gram type. Lift was measured by an old
druggist's balance whic h had the drag balance mounted on one upright
arm. The drag arm was s o mounted that its position could be varied
at will and then locke d in position. The angle of attack which was
controlled by this movement was read off a protractor attached to the
same upright. Thus one could control the angle of the test s eotion
without distru'bing it. (See drawing of t he balance.)
The test s ections were constructed according to current model
building practice. Weight being no objection the sections were built
very substantially . The tis s ue covering was supported _ by, one inoh
spaced, hard balsa ribs fairea into one-sixteenth diameter (being the
mean size of the average indoor tractor spar) pine spars. Sag at the
tips was prevented by airfoil braces similar to those now used in mul-
tiple covered microfilm wings. The venr low aspect ratio a .44 was
necessary in order to get a chord large enough to give a Reynold's
number approaching that of flight.
PAN

PO/NTER

IJ/A<f.fA-4<f OF
Ndili'IOE AERO/)YNAAllC
BALANCE
(}Rll!i/N4L.£Y ,ti ~HVtStSST 4~AlllC£
AOA7'T&O "',-e .VN077.W.f!EL
144 The test sections were mounted inverted on the drag balance clip
arm (1/8 x 1/4, oross section) by Pond type double grip clips. The
lift balance was then counterbalanced for the weight of the section
with the power off. The test section was then tested to see if it was
on the same plane as the top of the test chamber, by taking offset
measurements from . the spars, when the angle of attack indicator read
zero. The power was then turned on and the airspeed obtained. There
being no micro-manometer available the a i rspeed was obtained by moun-
ting a square flat plate normal to the airstream ana t hen recor~ing
the drag. Speed was obtained by solving the equati.on•-Drag•Cd t' S y2
(Use of this type ex:pla.ined later. l with the a rag coefficient <Cd l
taken as 1.040 for a plate 10 ems. square . (REF. 3 & 4) The test
seation was then replaced and its angle of attack again checked.
Readings were taken for lift with the drag arm locked. The procees
was repeated for every two degrees throughout the working range. The
power was then shut off and the incidence of t he hst section again
ohecked, If the test seotion was found to have sb:Lfted the process
was then repeated.

The tests were carried out either in the mid afternoon or about
4 A.M. in an effort to reduce the error resulting f rom variations in
airspeed due to changes in the power loads on the power line. Compa-
rison of the results wit h those of the N.A.C.A. have led the author to
believe that the airspeed of 7 f .p.s. is a little too great. Although
the error may be largely due to the low Reynold's Number. A free
flight test with another single surface airfoil gave a Cl of 1.4 at l~
so the error is probably not great. He, however, hesitates to guaran-
tee the aocuracy and suggest that the reader test his own airfoil in
flight by obtaining speed. It is then poss i ble to calculate the lift
coeffioient for the angle at whioh the wing was flying. With this
data it is only necessary to transpose the lift cur ve so it passes
through the point obtained by the flight test. The drag curve will
also be transposed but the L/D ratio will remain t he same. Should
anyone oarry out such a test the author will be glad to hear the re -
sults or if information is desired as to the method he· will be glad
to be of assistance.

The ~ections treated were those supplied by tile A.M.L.A. in

their booklet (Ref. 2). There are in addition two sections de-
veloped by the author and two others tested elsewhere that will
be of interest, and are included fo~ comparison. The sections are
called by the names given them in the booklet although correspon-
dence with some of the gentlelllen have shown that the section flown
by them were considerably different.• For exW!lple, the section
shown to be that of Carl Goldberg varied by more than 3/32. The
section had a thinner maximum ordinate and was soUl ~awnat more
bulbous at the ente r ing edge.

The centre section airfoil of Fay Stroud and ·th.at of Samuel

Balkan were practically identical and gave such a poor showing ln
the free flight tests· that they were left out of the test program.
The airfoil known as the B-6 was an airfoil used by the autbqr in
1931 and was the f orerunner of the B-7 which was developed a~ a
result of these tests. The aerodynW!lic char acteristics of these
alrtoils are presented in the standard form . It should be noted
though that the G8tt1ngen section and the Flat Plate are plotted
to one halt the other scale .

• The author wishes to thank Ray Tnompson and Carl Goldberg

tor their aid and cou~tesy.
 TABLE OF GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AIRFOILS
Name Ordinates and Positions in Percent of C in,.d
o. 5. 10. 20. 30. 40. 50. 60. 70. so. 90. 100.

Ray Thompson o.o 2.30 4.00 6.20 7.50 7.75 7.40 6.76 5.,75 4.10 3.60 o.o
Carl Goldberg o.o 2.70 4.60 6.80 s.oo 8.40 s.oo 7.00 6.90 4.30 2.30 o.o
Fay Stroud (tiP. O;O 3.00 4.60 7.00 a.10 s.20 7.90 7.00 6.'70 4.10 .2.30 o.o
L. Hankammer o.o 3.90 4.75 6.80 a.co 7.95 7.so 6.25 4.90 3.50 1.90 o.o
:Ja'ck Fisher o.o 4.25 5.00 7.80 9.00 9.20 e.eo 7.20 5.80 4.00 2.3'6 o.o-
Ernie McCoy o.o 2.70 4.50 6.80 7.90 8.10 8~00 7.20 6.00 4.60 2.75 o.o
McBride B-6 o.o 2.90 5.10 7.40 8.25 8.30 7.90 6.90 5.60 3.90 2.00 o.o
.McBride B-7 · o.o 2,35 4.40 6.70 7.80 8.30 7.90 6.90 5.60 3.90 2.00 o.o
06ttingen 417a 0.6 2.86 4.28 5.70 6.4.8 6.53 6.10 5.38 4.38 3.10 1.60 o.o
Flat Plate 0.5 0,50 o.50 o.5o 0.60 o.5o 0.50 0.50 o.5o o.so o.5o 0.5Q

AEHODYNAJ4IC CHAfiACTEftlSTlCS OF SINGLE SuRFACE AIRFOILS

Name of section: Ray Thompson Name of section: Carl Goldbarg
Wind velocity: 7 f .p.s. Wind velocity; 7 f.p.s.
A.R. test section: 3.44 A.R. test section: 3.44
Tested by; McBride, March 1932 Tested by: McBride, March 1932
Where tested: Winnipeg, Can. Where tested: Winnipeg, Can.
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Angle of Attack in Degrees Angle of Attack in Degrees
Coefficients are Absolute

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J46
Name of section: Fay ~ttoud Name of section: L. Hankamner
Wind velocity: 7 f .p.s. Wind velocity: 7 f .p.s.
A.R. test section: 3.44 A.R. test section: 3.44
Tested by: McBride, Marc h 1932 Tested by: McBride, March 1932
Where tested: Winnipe~. Can ~so a10 Where tested: Winnipeg, Can.
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Angle or Attack in Degrees
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Coefficients are Absolute

Name of section: Jaok Fisher Name of sec t ion: Ernie McCoy
Wind velocity: 7 f .p.s. Wind velocity: . 7 f .p.i.
A.R. test section; 3 .44 A.R. test section: 3.44
Tested by: McBride, March 1 932 Tested by: McBride, Ma.rah 1932
Wh ere tested: Winnipeg, Can Where tested: Winnipeg, Can.
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W"/IVOT~..V,YEL l..AYOVT
 147
Name of section: McBride B-6 Name of eeotion: McBride B-7
Wind veloci t y: 7 f .p.s. Wind velocity: 7 f .p.s.
A.R. test sec t ion: 3.44 A.R. test section: 3.44
Tested by: M.cBride, March 1 932 Tested by: McBride, March 1 9 3 2
Where te s ted: Winni peg, Can. Where tested : Winnipeg, Can.
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Angl e of At t a ck in Degrees Angle of Attack in De gree s
Coefficients are Abso l ut e
Name of s ection: G~ttingen 417a Name of se~tion: Flat Plate
Wind velocity: 98. 4 f . p .s. Wind velocity: ? .
A.R. test secti on : 5/1 A.B. te s t section: 5/1
Wher e t ested: GBt ti ngen , 1 926 Where tested: Langley Fie l d
N,A.C.A. Ref. 64 0 N.A.C.A. Ref. 201

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J4B
Some of the readers may not be familiar with this system of
coefficients. The system ls that used by the N.A.C.A. and ls known
as the Absolute system. The coefficient of lift la denoted as Cl
and the coefficient of drag Cd.
The lift equation for this system ls: Llft.::s Cl S v2 ·t
The drag equation for this system ls: Drag= Ccl ~ S v2
Where p s .002378. The density of the air.
S = the effective area of the wing, square feet.
V the speed of the air, feet per second . (f.p.s.)

It should be noted that this system of coefficients hold for

any consistent system of units, such as the English or the Metric .
Conversion factors are presented here in case one wishes to
compare the airfoils with those published using other systems.
Cl= 2 Le = 391 KL= .01 German system
Cd= 2 Ld = 391 Ko= .01 German system

For the benefit of those not acquainte~ with the use of Ab-
solute Coefficient Systems the following design is given.
EXAMPLE 1.
Type of aircraft: Indoor Tractor., weight complete .os oz.
Effective wing area: 100 square inches.
Wing section ie. airfoil: Gattingen 417a.
Angle of attack: e degrees 40 mine.
Note the angle of attack is the angle of incidenee between the
wing and the airflow. The angle of incidence is the angle ot inclina-
tion between the wing and a fixed line in the aircraft usually the
line of thrust.
Lift Coefficient by chart: l.OO=Cl
Air density 0,002378 at 69 degrees F. and 29.92 inches of
mercury.
As the conditions mentioned above are the average of the condi-
tions in the temparate zone one will not be greatly i11 error it den-
sity corrections for change in temperature and preeeure are not made.
Lift=[i.oo x .0012 x 1-W- x v2] = ( L= c1 ~ s v2)
It is assumed that there is no down or up load 011 stabilizer at
this angle of attack.
Therefore- .OS :x .0626=1.00 x .0012 :x .l.QQ x v2
144
( .os os.•weight of the model) (.0626llbe.=-Cd at a0 40')
Solving for V one gets:- v~Root of 6.26 or 2~5
Therefore speed in level flight at 6 degrees 40 mns. is 2.6 f.p.s.
Many model builders will question the -:use of dateL of this kind
in the design of indoor models, and in an endeavor to answer them,
theee last paragraphs are written.
One of the major uses of scientific information of this kind is
that one may oompare wing sections and find the effeot of making small
ehanges. Thus he will know that flattening out a section between O
and 3~ of the chord will, if oarried out within reasonable limits.
 1.49
increase lift and efficiency, thus producing a better endurance airfoil
(B-6 and B-7) while humping an airfoil at the 40~ station will in-
crease at the expense of efficiency. (Jack Fisher.) Thus by careful
comparison of the characteristics of section one may finally develop
a very superior airfoil.
Data of this kind is most useful in design work as it is possible
to make preliminary endurance calculations, calculate changes in pos-
sible duration due to changes in wing area, incidence etc. An
example of its use in this kind of work is given below.

EXAMfLE 2.
An indoor tractor of 100 square inchesf!~f area was being flown
at 6 degrees attack. A check of values of -ei1(0ne of the criteria
for an endurance airfoil. Should be a minimum. (REF.5) of the airfoil
has shown that 9 degree is a better angle for the airfoil Would this
setting improve duration?
Area: 100 sq. in. .Cd of stick etc.: 0.0824
Airfoil: G~tt. 417a. (this includes area.)
Flying weight: 0.10 oz. Available energy: 35.0 ft.oz.
6 degrees attack 9 degrees attack
v2- (y.10 x 0.0625 x lOO x 2) v2- (0.10 x 0.0625 x 100 x 2 )
- (o.8 x 144 x 0.0024) - (1.02 x 144 x 0.0024)
V= 2.12 f.p.s. v = 1. 88 f. p. s.
Cl at 6 degrees being 0.08 Cl at 9 Qegrees being 1,02
L/D at 6 degrees is 15.2 L/D at 9 degrees is 14.l
Motor Rud stick drag
2
(u.0824 x 0.0024 x (l.88) 2
(0.0625 x 2)
:0~00578 oz.
Wi ng d rag i s 0.10
14 •1 = .00707 -oz
Wing 0

Total drag 0.01373 ox Total drag 0.01283 · oz

Power used for flight Power used for flight
0.01373 x 2.12= 0.02911 pho~ec. o .012s3 x 1.88 = 0.02412 ~~r g~
6
Possible duration Possible duration
35.o -- 1 2 o~c. • 4 6 e 0 s • 35 0
0-.0_1_3_7_3_x_2-.-l-2 o.01283 x• 1.88-- 1452 • 3 secs.
This is an improvement of 20.7% resulting from using the proper
wing adjustment. This is · an interesting calculation in view of the
present trend to reduce the angle of attack in order to reduce resis-
tance coefficient forgetting that the power required depends greatly
on the aircraft's ~peed.
In oonoluaion the author wishes to state that he believes· that
flights of an hour or more will be possible in a few years if the
model designer pays careful attention to the science of low speed
aerodynamics. to which he hopes this article will be a contribution.
REFERENCES
1. N.A.C.A. Technical Reports Nos. 93, 124, 182, 244, 286, 315, 460.
2. "The Seven Outstanding Tractors of 1930." Airplane Model League
of America data published by Geo, D. Wanner, Dayton, Ohio. Page 7.
3. Eiffel, "Resistance de l'air at Aviation", Hunsakar translation.
Page 38.
4. Engineering Aerodynamics, Diehl'. Page 65.
5. Simple Aerodynamics, Carter. Chapter on airfoil selection.
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i:;6 RUB.D EB
The turn tables given were first calculated from the par and
coefficient forrrrula and then checked with actual wind i ~. The num-
ber of turns given will prove to be a bit on the safe side and can
be achieved on a day of normal temperature providing that the rub-
ber is stretched as much as possible. An excessively hot or co:rd
temperatur e will materially decrease the possible number of turns.
The number of turns can be brought close to t~ norma1 if the rub-
ber is kept under shade, wrapped in moist paper on hot days, or in
a pocket or near a radiator on cold days.
straight green soap slightly thinned with glycerine will ~erve
as a good lubricant. Be sm'e to spread arrl rub it in evenly. Af-
ter every wind up check for cracks and grit: and relube the motor.
Since lube messes up the handkerchief considerably, i is much bet-
ter to wear white athletic cotton socks for cleaning your hands
whenever t hey ge t dirty.
The actual number of turns that can be obtained from a motor
depe nd s upon your strength and will po~er. After a pre wind of 75%
and 90% of the maximum, the wind-up should be ma.de by stretching
the rubber at least five times its length (17 feet for a 40 11 motor).
Wind about one half of the maximum at this length arrl then slowly
con:i in so that there i~ at least 2 11 .or :3'1 of elasticity left. The
best way of knowing just when the motor has enough is to pract"ise
so that you will get the feel of the rubber just befo e it is about
to break.
Turns per inch on Two Strands--Weight per inch of Single Strarrl
Size 1/32 3/64 1/16 5/64 ~/32 7/64 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4

Turn 225 189 163 145 130 124 115 108 94 80

Wt. ,0005644 .0011288 .0016932 .0021576 .0033864

oz. .0008466 .0011411 .0019756 .0028220 .0043152

Turns per inch on Multiple Strendn

No.Str. 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

1/8 80 64 55 50 44 40 36 34 32

5/32 68 59 50 46 41 38 34 29 24

3/16 60 54 46 42 38 35 32 27 24

1/4 56 44 37 33 29 27 25· 23 21

The tables are for 1/30 Gage Special Brown Rubber (MRL, T56).
A complete tabl e of all numbers of strands and lengths of motors
would require _too 111UCh space. Make your own chart for the motors
which you usually use most, and paste it in your model box. The
1/4 motors of over 14 strands are hard to handle. It is advisable
to wind the motors before begining a design using thls size.
(Extracted from J.P.Glass artiole in 1935-36 Year Book wi~addi-
tions by Edi tor.) "3 : ~""'"~ K/N.DE-e N()lllf'
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RUBBER TENSIONER is a British inven-fiion. Its purpose is to prevent
a long motor from unwinding completely and so prevent shifting.
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 INDOORS (No weight restriction) OUTDOORS (Min. Wine; Load. 50 sg. in./ l oz.
STlCK CLA::lS A ( 30 sq. in. or under) STICK CLASS C (100-150 sq. in.
Rise off Ground Hand Launched
Junior: William Wert Philadelphia, Pa. lOm 26,4s
Philadelphia, Pa. 15m 47.4s Junior: Junior Dague Tuls a, Oklahoma 2lm 04 .0s
S enior: Ervin Leshn er
Open : Joseph Matulis Chi cago, Illinois 9m 59.0s S enior : Harry Co rnish Denver, Colorado 6lm 09.0s
Open : Joseph Frady Tulsa, Okl ahorna 27m 07 .Os
Rise off Wat er Rise off Water
Junior: William Wert Philadelphia, Pa. 7m l9.4s Senior: Larry Low New York, N. Y. 2m 00.0i!
Senior: Colman Z ola Brooklyn, N. Y. 7m 41.ls
Open : Beorgevin Becksted Chi::ago,, Illinois 5m 38.2s Hand Launched CLASS D ( 150-300 sq , in~
J u n i or: Fred Skafec Akron, Ohi o 8111 21 .6s
CLASS B (30-100 sq. in.) Senior: Daniel Clini Springfield, Ma~~ . 38:-7: 50.05
He.rd Launc hed
Junior: Johns. Stokes Jr. Huntington Valley, Pa. 18m 12. 2s Open : Chester Lanzo Cleve :).and, Ohio 18m 10.0s
Senior: Wilbur F. Tyler Boston, Mass. 20m 50.ls Rise off Water
Open : Ernest A. Walen Springfield, mas s , lBm 45 .5s Senior: Larry Low llew York, ri. Y . lm 12. 0 s
cD New York, N. Y. (tie) lm 1 2.0s
Senior: Malcom A bzug
~E
0
Rise off Ground
Junior: Johns. Stokes, Jr. Huntington Valley, Pa 17m 19.3s CABIN FUSEIAGE CLASS C
Rise ·off Ground
~i Senior: Hyman Os lick Philadelphia, Pa. 17m 03.8s
17m 42.8s Juni o r: Fred Smith Denver, Colorado 27m 40 . Os
Open : Ernest A. Wale n Springfield, Mass,
Seni or: Robert Cahill Indianapolis, Incl. 3:s10 oo . o s

§~ Rise off water

Junior: William Wert Philadelphia, P a. 9m 2 7 .6s
Open : Beorgevin Becks ted
Rise 01'1' Water
Chicago , Illinois 39m 30 . Gs

~O) Senior: Mayhew Webster Philadelphia, Pa. llm 55 .0s Seni o r: Alan Orthoff New York, N. Y. lm 07 .Os
< • Open : William Latour Philadelphia, Po.. 13m 15.0s CU.SS D
< Rise off Ground
...< •
""<
~
o:z:
. Hanl Launched
CLASS C (100 -150 sq. in.)

Junior: John S. Stokes, Jr. Huntington Valley, Pa. 20m 53.0s

Junior: Arthur Kos low
Senior: William Ying
Open : Chester Lanzo
Philadelphia, Pa .
Ros e bank, S. I., N. Y.
9m 47.0s
4lm 19 . Os
:II
4>
Cleveland , Ohio 48m 45.0s
-Senior: Robert Jacobs en Philo.delphia, Pa. 25m 29 .0s
la
E-<
fl Open : Carl Goldberg Chicago, Illinois 23m 29._3 s Rise off Water
Senior: Louis Milowitz New York, N. Y. lm 14.3s
<"-' CLASS E (300 sq . in, and over)
~o
.., CABIN FUSELAGE
~ise off Ground
CLASS B Gasoline Engine
Senior: Joseph Koval Brooklyn, N. Y. 64m 40.0s
~~ Junior: John S. Stokes, Jr. Huntington Valley, Pa. 1'4sr 15.3s Open : Don Spaulding Denver, Color ad o 63m 07 .4s
E-< 0
H~
:z;
Senior: Charles Heintz Philadelphia, Pa. 13m 12.2s
Open : Beorge vin Becksted Chicago, Illinois llm 26.0 s GLIDERS CLASS B
::>~ Hand Launched
Ris e off Water
~~ Junior: Walterw·eitner New Yo rk, N. Y. 46. 5s
s:: Junior: John s. Stokes, Ji:. Huntin.<l t on Valley, Pa. 3m 23.0s Senior: Harry D. S op er, Jr. Rockford, Illinois 2m 52.0s
E-<O Senior: Sidney Axelrod Chic.ago, Illinois 6m 32.2s Open : Willis C. Brown Ar linl'(ton, Mns s. 33 . l s
~o
Open : Willi0.II\ Lo.tour Philadelphia, Pa . 5m 42.0s
...<~ Hand Launched CLASS C
CLASS C
~'g
OI>
Rise off Ground
Junior: Johns . Stokes., Jr. Hunt i ngton Valley, Pa. 15m 05.6s
Junior: Horace Smith
Senior: Co lin Edvrard s
Jacksonville, Fla.
Oswego, New York
3ti . Os
6m 30 .4s
HO
Senior: John Haw Philadel phia, Pa . 17m 14.8s Open : James McPhea t, Jr . New York , N. Y. 3l.5 s
l>.1-<
... p Open : William Latour Philad elphia, Pa. 12lo 31. 8 s
0 P. Tow Launched
< CLASS A
Junior: Ralph Brown Arlington, Mass . 9m 32.0s
GLIDERS Senior: Bob F ile Co lumbus, Ohio . 23m 13.0s
Hand Launched Open : Everet t Tasker Boston, Mass . 4m 25 . 0 s
Junior: M. Hugelot Chicago, Illinois 34.6s
Senior: Wallace Simmers New Lenox, Illinois 43.6s CLASS D
Open : Joseph Matulis Chicago, Illinois 38.8s Hand Launched
Senior: Edward L. Smith Jacksonville , Fla. 38 . 0 s
CLASS B Tow Launched
Hand Launched Junior: Paul Durup Boston, Mass. 57 . 8 s
Junior: Robert Gelbard Chicago, Illinois 49. 2s
58.4s Senior: Dick Everett El m Grove, W. Va. 2m 38.0s
.Senior: Wallace Simmers New Lenox, Illinois Open : Roland Buh.rig Cana• tot a, New York lm 18.0s
Open : Carl Goldberg Chicago; Illinois 47 .Ss
CLASS E
AUTOGIRO Tow Launched
·Junior: Raymond Steinbacher Ridgefield, N. J. 57 .2s Senior: Jack Smith Dayt on, Ohio lm 23.4s
Senior: J\l ton J-l. DuFlon, .Tr. Ridp:efield_. JI, J, 2m 01. 2s
AVTOGIRO
(Min. Fuselage Section (Le~th)
2
Sen1o!": Ralph l(umrner Saint Louis, Mo . 2m 06 . Os
 GAS MODEL PLANS
Maxwell Basset ........ 104 Vernon Boehle ... 111 "The Quaker" . . ..... 118
Koe Kovel ..... 105 Don Donahue .... 112 Andrew Borysko . ... 119
Leo Weiss . ... 106 Joe Culver .... 113 Frank Ebling .............. .120
Francis Tlush .107 M. Lartigue .................... 114 Frank Zaic .... 121
Frank Ebling .. .... 108 Lester M. Adams .. 115 Rod Doyle . .. ...... 122
Ben Shershaw .. 109 Wm. Effinger .... 116 Lester M. Adams ... ... 123
Ben Shershaw . ..... llO "Miss America" .. ll 7
OUTDOOR FUSELAGES PLANS
Albert A. Judge 34 Fred Rogerson .. 41 Leonard Zeldow . 48
Robert Copland 35 Paul Verdier 42 Bob Jeffery 49
Chester Lanzo .. 36 Frank Zaic . 43 Bob Jeffery 50
William Ying 37 B. Becksted ·· · ······ ·· ··· · ·· ··· 44 Ervin Leshner SJ
Edward Lidgard 38 Robert Cahill . 45 Frank Zaic . 52
C. S. Rushbrooke 39 Roy Wriston 46 Jim Cahill 53
C. S. Rushbrooke . 40 R. Schumacher .. 47 G. Paris . 54
OUTDOOR STICK PLANS
Dick Korda 55 Larry Low 61 Carl Schmaedig 66
Dick Korda 56 Ira Fralick .. 62 William L. Butler . 67
Daniel Clini . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . 57 Frank Zaic . 63 Richard Obarski . 68
Roy Marquardt 58 Torrey Capo 64 Edw. Manulkin . .127
G . Ritzenthaler 59 Wall ace Simmers . 65 Jim Haffey . ... .132
Bruoe Luckett 60
INDOOR STICK PLANS
Jim Throckmorton 77 Joe Kovel . . ... 152
82 Frank Zaic .. 153
R.O.G .
Carl Goldberg
Robert Jacobsen . 83 Marvin Setzke 96
Mayhew Webster . 84 R.O.W. Carl Goldberg 97
Ralph Kummer 85 Hyman Oslick ... 98
John Stokes .. 86 William Latour 93 Ervin Leshner . 99
Carl Goldberg 94 Colman Zola . 95 Herbert W . Owen .. 152
INDOOR FUSELAGE PLANS
John Stokes 87 John Stokes ................... 90 Lynn Radcliffe . ... 150
John Haw . 88 Bob Cahill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 91 John Zaic ..... ... 152
Alvie Dague .. 89 Richard Obarski 92 Allan B. Penn 153

HAND LAUNCHED GLIDERS c. Belsky .. ... 154 HELICOPTER

Milton Huguelet .. 155 Robert Gelbard ......... 155 Blair Bennet .... 152
CONTRIBUTIONS
Indoor Pusher By Jim Throckmorton 76
Microfilm Prop . . ...... By Axelrod-Goldberg 78
Microfilm Prop . . . .. By L. Smithline 74
Petrol Model Hints .......... .... . By C. E. Bowden 100
Low Speed Airfoils . . . .. . . . .By Fred Rogerson ... 125
Twin Pusher . . .. By Ed Manulkin ... 126
" X" Ribbed Wing . By John Whitehouse .129
Papier-Mache Models ... By Fred Mayfield ... 130
All Balsa Wing . . By "Teen " Becksted 131
Co-Axial Prop By Jim Haffey ...... . .......... ..... .132
Feathering Prop By Setzke-Goldberg 133
Finishes and Flying . . . ... By Roger Hammer .... ..... 134
Thermals ... By Dick Everett . . 136
H. ·L. Gliders ... By Tex Rickard 137
From Experience . ..... By Henry Stiglmeier .138
Indoor Airfoil Tests .... By J. Wallace McBride . . 143
Rubber Turns and Care . 156
HINTS : Outdoor . .................. 32, 128, 129. 131 , 150. 151. 156, 157
HINTS: Indoor . . .. 72, 73, 75 , 81. 151
 MODEL GLIDER DESIGN
A model on the g ro und a nd the sume 111o<le l
in the u ir are two different crea tures as y ou
may have alread y found o ut. This is true be-
cause the model on th e ground is the result of
your handiwork. Wh ile the mode l !n the air is
the resu lt of your brain p ow e r. Check your-
se lf on th is score. Doe s the model in the air
d0 you cred it?

Frankly, if you are interested in improving

you r flying , "MODEL GLIDER DESIGN" will be
of enormo us help. Afte r all, every model be-
comes a glider at . the 'end of the power run.
Afte r you start reading "MGD" y ou will wonder
ho w so much precise, true, clear-cut and use ful ·!
makrial on mode l aerod ynamics managed to
be crowded into 19 2 pages. Second printing
mu d e p ossible price reduction.

Partial listing: 60 plans , model and full size.

75 Photos. 20 Airfoil Chorts. O ve r 450 Ex-
p lunatory Sketches. Comp le te coverag e o! a ero -
dynamics, co nstruc tion and theory. An e xce l-
len t article on The rmals. Hints and instructions
never pub li shed before. Yo u need this book
more than you know.

NEW PRICE! Only $1.00

MODEL AERONAUTICS ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME TWO - Edited hy }"'RANK ZAIC
This volume is a complete reprint of the 1938 MODEL AERONAUTICS
YEAR BOOK with the exception of glider plans which are included in
the MODEL GLIDER DESIGN. The original 1938 edition of 10,000 copies
was distributed within a year all over the world. So many requests
have been received that it was decided to reprint it under the new name.
The great value of this book is its collection of 70 plans of the-world's
best pre-war models. · (22 gas models, 16 Wakefield a nd 32 other rub-
ber model designs.) It is one of the finest source of design "inspiration"
you can find. It is a sort of a book that is seldom "idle."
Its technical model aerodynamics and contributions section is one
of the best data collection published to date. You may not be able
to understand all of it at the first reading but as you re-read and re-
read and try to find answers to your problems you will be surprised
how many perplexing quesions will be cleared up. If you like solid
information without fancy frills, this is the book for you.
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