MOTIVIC

 Motivic
– taking the intervals and rhythm of notes into account

o Create a Motif
o Repeat the Motif
o Use sequences (transposition)
o Motivic development (change the pitch (transposition) or rhythm, use
inversion (upside down), retrograde (backwards), augmentation
(slower), diminution (faster), and fragmentation (play fragment))
o Motivic embellishment
o Rhythmic density – this is the number of notes per bar. Different
genres have different rhythmic densities. Swing has a low density,
while Bebop has a high density.
 Scalar – looking at notes and their relationship to a scale
o Create a melody based on a specific scale
o Modal interchange – play a Major melody in a minor key, or a minor
melody in a Major key, or an Ionian melody in a Lydian mode, or an
Aeolian melody in a Dorian mode, etc.
 Harmonic – looking at notes and their relationship to a chord
o Arpeggios (traces out the chord or a substitute chord)
o Guide Tone Lines – a melody that targets the 3rd or 7th or each
chord
 Guide Tone Lines generally resolve downwards
 Embellish a Guide Tone Line by adding passing notes,
anticipations and delays, ornamentals, etc.
 Multiple Guide Tone Lines that move through a set of chord
changes simultaneously.
1 Writing a simple Classical theme

The final example on this page shows a very common use of vii. The
chord, in first inversion, passes between two tonic chords, with contrary
motion in the outer voices. Classical themes are based on common
structures and patterns that are fairly straightforward – that is partly
how Mozart and Haydn were able to write so much music*.
Following the stages below, you will find it relatively easy to get the
basics of a theme sorted – the real challenge to to write a
really good and memorable theme. The secret to that is to have
lots of attempts until you come up with something you are happy
with – getting a good melodic idea at Stage 1 will make the rest of
the process easy, so it is worth getting right.

STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3
Compose a Basic Idea Writing Cadences Choosing a phrase structure
Being familiar with the basic conventions of the Western Classical

Tradition as outlined on the Composing Help and Reference pages
is really important, so if you are unsure follow the link and have a
read through.
* Although the music is BASED on straightforward principles, you will

find that many Classical phrases have more twists and turns than
the relatively simple examples and models suggested here. Once
you know what you are doing you can look at some of the ways in
which Haydn and Mozart spice up their melodic and harmonic writing
and incorporate them (and indeed your own wrinkles) into your work.
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HOME » 8 – COMPOSITION (HOME) » WESTERN CLASSICAL TRADITION: STYLE

COMPOSITION HUB
Western Classical Tradition: Style Composition Hub
If you get these elements of composing right you will be on your way
to writing convincing and musical melodies in the style of Haydn and
other WCT composers.
n
Get started
Harmony with a good
Voice-leadi
basic idea
Add typical
Textu
Classical
Phrase structures features by
using
some WCT Straight to simple String Qua
Fingerprints
Stage 1: Compose a Basic Idea
[back to Composing Hub]

[Back to Writing a Theme Home Page / Onto Stage 2]
You need a two-bar melody based on simple harmonies for all the
structures suggested later in this method. In Stage 1 you choose a
tempo, time signature etc. and then you are ready to mess around
with melodies over simple two-bar chord sequence until you
come up with something you like.
You can work on an instrument or computer but remember the following:
 keep rhythms simple but include something memorable (e.g. a dotted rhythm or a quaver-two-semiq
 only use standard dissonances
 for the moment use a piano score with just an indication of the chord in the bass stave and the melo
complicated accompaniment at this stage will distract you from writing a good melody
Choose Tempo, Metre, Key etc.

Don’t just go for the defaults of 4/4, mm = 100, C major and no
articulation or dynamics or your melody will end up being really
boring!
Use the table below to help you choose some more interesting
options. You can pick a combination or time signature, tempo and
key signature. The last column offers some common patterns of
rhythm or articulation that you might incorporate alongside simpler
rhythms.
TIME SIGNATURES TEMPI KEY GESTUR
Presto
6/8 D major A dotted r
(mm. 176)
Adagio
2/2 G minor Three staccato
(mm. 66)
3/4 Allegretto Bb major A legato t

(mm. 120)
Andante
2/4 F major Two slurred notes followe
(mm. 84)
Allegro vivace
4/4 B minor Staccato quaver followed by
(mm. 144)
Choose a Chord Sequence

Choose from the following list (a basic idea with simple harmony will
be much easier to work with later). Those highlighted in green are
the most suitable for writing a sentence (the simplest structure in
Stage 3) whilst those in blue are more suitable for periods and need
a bit more care to turn into a sentence.
 I
 I–V
 I- IV Look at and listen to some examples of ideas based on
 I – V – I
 I – IV – I More ideas for harmonic progressions HERE
 I – ii
 I-vii(6)-I
Basic idea examples

[back to Stage 1]
Idea based on tonic chord
Audio Player (from Mozart Sonata KV309, fir
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Use Up/Down Arrow keys to increase or decrease volume.
Idea based on chords I and V

(from Haydn String Quartet Op
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Idea based on chords I and IV
(from Haydn String Quartet Op
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Idea based on chords I and vii
from Mozart Ein
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1 Melody
and dissona
nce
In the Western Classical Tradition melodies are usually made up
of arpeggios (i.e. skips between notes of the chord) or any of the
following dissonances. If you are writing in a broadly Classical or
early Romantic style you should avoid using dissonances other than
those listed below.
In particular, the following dissonances are very rare and should be
avoided (see dissonance rogues):
 dissonant notes followed by a leap (other than escape notes)

 unaccented dissonant notes approached by leap
There is one dissonance that is very commonly treated as a
consonance and that is the seventh in a dominant seventh chord. In
this example, the melody leaps freely both to and from the C
(seventh of D) in the second bar:
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When you are writing a melody you should (at least to start off with)
label your chords and if necessary write out the component notes so
that you are clear exactly what is dissonant and what is consonant.
The example below shows some correct melodic dissonances:
Stage 2:
Writing Cad
ences
[Back to Writing a Theme Home Page / Back to Stage
1 / Onto Stage 3]
Cadences in the Classical style are fairly generic (i.e.
they use standard patterns that fit nearly all situations).
Write a few simple cadences in the same key, tempo
etc as your Basic Idea. You can always come back to
this stage if you need more cadences later in the
process, but getting the basics done first is worthwhile.
Perfect cadence
First you should write a perfect cadence in the tonic
for the very end of your theme. This needs to be strong
and emphatic and therefore should be as follows:
 V – I in root position
 final note on the first beat of the bar
 melody ending on the tonic note of the key (1)
 melody moves by step onto this last note (notes of the
scale: 2-1 or 7-8)
(Americans call this sort of strong perfect cadence

a perfect authentic cadence)
Most cadences are an elaboration of one of these two
patterns:
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The way the actual cadence is approached tends to

follow a small number of standard patterns – the most
common three are shown below. Choose one of these
patterns and decorate a little without spoiling the
finality of the cadence. As in these examples, the
whole cadence should be around a bar onto the final
note of your phrase.
I-V-I Haydn Piano Sonata, Hob IX No. 20/8, first movement
This simple cadence has a few decorations of the basic 3-2-1

pattern.
Basic melody options: 3-2-1 or 8-78
Audio Player
Use Up/Down Ar
volume.
Haydn String Quartet op. 33/1, second movement.
Audio Player
ii6 – V –
I
Use Up/Down Ar
volume.
Approaching the perfect cadence from chord ii6 is very common –

here the chord before is VI but it could just as well be i or i6.
Basic melody options: 2-2-1, 8-78 or 2-7-8
V-I (with Haydn String Quartet op. 33/3, second movement.

a
cadential Audio Player
6/4)
Use Up/Down Ar
volume.
Haydn decorates chord V with a cadential six-four. It is very
common also to use ii as an approach to this cadence pattern
Basic melody options: 3-2-1 or 8-7-8
Other cadences
You may need some other types of cadence elsewhere
in your phrase. You will probably want to come back
to this page when you have decided what structure you
are using and therefore what cadences you need.
The two most common imperfect cadences are I-
V and ii-V. In this example from the last movement of
Haydn’s String Quartet Op. 33 No. 5 the dominant
chord (V) is preceded by ii in first inversion and
decorated with a cadential 6/4.
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Perfect cadences that are NOT at the end of phrases
can we weaker, with different inversions and melody
notes. In this example from Mozart’s Piano sonata
K545 the cadence at the end of the fourth bar is on a
weaker beat and ends on the third note of the scale:
Audio Player
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Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
[OR Back to Writing a Theme Home Page / Back to Stage 2 / onto
Stage 4]
You can now use your Basic Idea from Stage 1 and your cadence
ideas from Stage 2 as the starting point for writing a complete
theme. Here are two straightforward choices of structure and two
more complex ones. Click on the link for detailed instructions and an
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES
This 8-bar structure reuses the Basic Idea you will have alread
Sentence
cadencing in the last two bars.
This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

Period
cadenced on V repeats the first four bars but modified to finis
Modulating Period Like the period, but the second four bars modulate to finish o
This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

Small Ternary
middle before ending with a return of the first phrase, modifie
Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES
Sentence This 8-bar structure reuses the Basic Idea you will have alread

Period

Small Ternary
Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES
Sentence

Period

Small Ternary
Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES
Sentence

Period

Small Ternary
Stage 3: Choosing a phrase structure

Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES
Sentence

Period

Small Ternary
Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES

Period

Small Ternary
Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES
Sentence

Period

Small Ternary
Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES
Sentence

Period

Small Ternary
Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES

Period

Small Ternary
Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES
Sentence

Period

Small Ternary
Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES
Sentence

Period

Small Ternary
Stage 3:
Choosing a
phrase struc
ture
Stage 4]
example:
STRUCTURE NOTES

Period

Small Ternary
Sentence
[Back to Choosing a Phrase Structure]
Writing a sentence is simple:
 Basic idea (4 bars) take your 2-bar Basic Idea from Stage One
and adapt it to fit a new chord (see below for a list of chord
progressions that work well for the first four bars)
 Fragmentation (2 bars) now choose a fragment from your
basic idea and create a 1+1 bar sequence
 Cadence (2 bars) finish off by linking into an imperfect or
perfect cadence idea from Stage Two
Look at how Mozart uses this very simple and repetitive phrase
structure to good effect in this extract from the first movement of his
Sonata KV309 in C major. The final Cadence 2-bar segment starts
with the same semiquaver idea as the Fragmentation, continuing the
sequence, but there is no need for it to be related in this way.
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Chord progressions that work well for the first four bars:
BARS 1-2 BARS 3-4
I V
I IV
I–V V–I
I – ii V–I
I – IV V–I
I (V – I) vi (iii – vi)
I (V – I) ii (vi – ii)
When you are writing the sequence, try writing the first bar initially
and then sequence it and see what chords fit.
Chord progressions that work well in bars 5-6 (fragmentation):
BAR 5 BA
I vii6 [leads nice
I IV [leads nicely
vi ii6 [leads nicely
Period
A period consists of a pair of 4-bar phrases (and antecedent and
consequent) each of which starts with a basic idea and ends with a
cadence. It should not take too much adaptation to stitch together
the material written in Stages One and Two.
 ANTECEDENT
 Basic idea (2 bars) – this is the melody you wrote in

Stage One
 Contrasting idea (2 bars) – must end on V
 CONSEQUENT
 Repetition of Basic Idea (2 bars) – exact repetition of
first two bars
 Contrasting idea (2 bars) – as before but ending on a
perfect cadence
In this Haydn example the opening idea is extremely simple with a

more flowing quaver melody taking us into the cadence. Notice how
Haydn links from the arrival on the V of the imperfect cadence at the
end of the first phrase to the beginning of the next but continuing the
quavers but at the end he stops on the first beat of the bar:
Haydn Piano Sonata, Hob IX No. 20/8, first movement
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This example from the second movement of Mozart’s Eine kleine
Nachtmusik has slightly more complex material and the contrasting
idea is changed quite a bit for the consequent phrase:
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The contrasting idea of a period is not, however, always strongly
contrasted to the basic idea. In this example from the last movement
Haydn’s String Quartet Op. 64 No. 5, the entire phrase is mostly
semiquavers:
Audio Player
Modulating
Period
The modulating period starts the same as the ordinary period (which
you should try first) but the consequent phrase finishes with a perfect
cadence in a new key, usually the relative major or dominant.
 ANTECEDENT

Stage One
 CONSEQUENT
first two bars
perfect cadence in a new key (modulate using a pivot chord
as explained below the example)
Haydn Op. 64 No. 4, third movement

In the consequent phrase, Haydn moves from C major to its
dominant (G) via a pivot chord. The A minor chord (shown in the
box) is chord vi in C major and also chord ii in G major – this chord
provides a pivot (or a common chord) between the two keys.
The two most common pivot chords between the tonic and dominant
keys are as follows:
Tonic | Dominant
I | IV
vi | ii

Modulating
Period
The modulating period starts the same as the ordinary period (which
you should try first) but the consequent phrase finishes with a perfect
cadence in a new key, usually the relative major or dominant.
 ANTECEDENT

Stage One
 CONSEQUENT
first two bars
perfect cadence in a new key (modulate using a pivot chord
as explained below the example)
Haydn Op. 64 No. 4, third movement

In the consequent phrase, Haydn moves from C major to its
dominant (G) via a pivot chord. The A minor chord (shown in the
box) is chord vi in C major and also chord ii in G major – this chord
provides a pivot (or a common chord) between the two keys.
The two most common pivot chords between the tonic and dominant
keys are as follows:
Tonic | Dominant
I | IV
vi | ii

Small
Ternary
A small ternary phrase is an expansion of a period, which you should
write first.
 Exposition – a period as above but can optionally modulate to

perf. cadence in
dominant at end of consequent [8 bars]
 Contrasting middle – looser construction, often based on a
sequence and/or some dominant preparation (see WCT
Fingerprints page for help on these) [4 bars]
 Recapitulation – typically the consequent phrase from
the Exposition, but it must end with a perfect cadence in the
tonic if it did not the first time [4 bars]

This Mozart Andante from Eine kleine Nachtmusik was the second
example on the 8-bar period page and here is extended into small
ternary. The recapitulation is simply the consquent phrase from
the exposition. The contrasting middle is very simple and basically
just hangs around on the dominant (sometimes called standing on
the dominant – see WCT Fingerprints).
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This second example from Mendelssohn’s Fourth Symphony is

similar but with slightly more complex harmony in the contrasting
middle – a part-circle of fifths from vi to I in the relative major (F),
which is than sequenced up a third to be a circle of fifths in the
dominant (A).
NOTE: writing a bass that moves continuously in quavers like this is
not easy and you should not attempt it unless you are confident you
know what you are doing
Mendelssohn, Symphony No. 4, second movement
WARNING: Mendelssohn repeats the Antecedent+Consequent
before continuing to the contrasting middle and then also the next
two sections with slightly different orchestration.
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Stage 4:
Texture
[Back to Writing a Theme Home Page / Back to Stage 3]
This page is not a comprehensive guide to texture, but offers instead
some nice simple models that you can steal and adapt to your own
purposes. This sort of copying is how composers have learnt about
texture and instrumentation over the centuries – the more you steal
ideas and take inspiration from other composers, the better you will
get (don’t steal actual melodies, but harmonic progressions, textures
etc. are all legitimate!).
 String Quartet Textures

 Orchestral Textures
 Piano Accompaniment (PDF)

Stage 4:
Texture
[Back to Writing a Theme Home Page / Back to Stage 3]
This page is not a comprehensive guide to texture, but offers instead
some nice simple models that you can steal and adapt to your own
purposes. This sort of copying is how composers have learnt about
texture and instrumentation over the centuries – the more you steal
ideas and take inspiration from other composers, the better you will
get (don’t steal actual melodies, but harmonic progressions, textures
etc. are all legitimate!).
 String Quartet Textures

 Orchestral Textures
 Piano Accompaniment (PDF)
String

Quartet Textures (Page 1)

Look at and listen to a wide variety of WCT string quartet textures
that you can steal ideas from. Many of these textures are different
ways of presenting what might otherwise be just held block chords, a
texture that is very rare …
[Back to textures / Go to Page 2]
Mozart, String Quartet KV 156, I: Presto, bb. 1-19
 Melody dominated homophony with melody in first violin

 Oom-cha-cha accompaniment with second violin and viola
filling in the harmonies. You could rhythmically adapt this to any
time signature
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Mozart String Quartet KV 157 I: bb. 1-8
 Top two parts mostly in thirds

 Simple bass line adds energy with repeated quavers
 Note how viola fills in the gaps at the end of the second and
fourth bars.
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Haydn, Quartet op. 2 no. 5, Menuetto, bb. 1-10
 Melody-dominated homophony at opening

 Texture is lightened and rhythm given a lift by lack of
accompaniment on first beat
 parallel thirds between second violin and viola in bar 5 and 7
acts as a filler in between the fragments of melody in the first
violin
 violins are in octave unison for the cadence – very common in
early Haydn
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Haydn, Quartet op. 77 no. 1 I: Allegro moderato, bb. 1-20
 Simple homophonic texture energised by staccato crotchets

 Note echo of main melody in second violin in bar 4
 Note how the idea and texture is developed from the upbeat to
bar 9 for the second half of the phrase.
 Note how the viola can play in thirds where necessary to fill out
the texture (and the second violin could too)
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Haydn, Quartet op. 3 no. 5, Andante Cantabile
 Gentle pizzicato accompaniment in which the

 the violin II and viola move in quavers and this rhythmic idea is
grounded by a slower bass part
 Notice that all the notes of the chord are covered all of the time
Au
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Haydn, Quartet op. 76 no. 5 IV: Presto, bb. 1-20

Alternation of two contrasting ideas:
1. Homophonic repeated cadential idea (bb. 1-6)
2. Double pedal with melody first over the top in the violin and
then underneath in the cello
Audio Player
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Orchestral
Textures
(Page 1)
[onto page 2]
Simple Melody-dominated Homophony

Don’t make your orchestrations too complicated!
Many classical textures just take simple quartet (and even trio)
textures and add a mixture of doublings (e.g. the flute plays the
same as the first violin) and harmonic filler (e.g. horns play
reinforcing chords). Keep it simple at first then you can start being
more adventurous by, for example, creating a string texture plus a
melody in the woodwind etc.
Stamitz, Trio Symphony in E, Trio from the Minuet
This is the simplest possible string orchestra texture from the late
Baroque and early Classical period. The two violins play in thirds or
sixths (depending what fits best), the cellos play a bass line and the
texture is filled in by a continuo keyboard. The keyboard part would
have been improvised from the bass line, but here it has been
written out by an editor.
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Filtz, Symphonie Periodique No. 2, Minuet

The basic string texture is similar here, although the violin parts are
even simpler, playing in unison (as they do in fact in much of the rest
of the Stamitz). Note that:
 the bass part is doubled by the viola

 the melody is doubled by the flute (Flauto)
 the horns (2 Corni in A) fill in the harmony, mostly with simple
chords
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Haydn, Symphony 104, ‘London’, Minuet
 Flutes, oboes and violins play the melody doubled in thirds

 Cellos and bassoons play the (pedal) bass line (reinforced by
timp.)
 Clarinets, horns and trumpets fill in the harmony
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Stamitz, Symphony Op. 3 No. 2, Andantino

At the beginning of the second movement there is a simple string
texture with the melody in the first violin.
 The bass part plays quavers, alternating between the root and
third of the chord from bar 3
 The second violin mostly plays in tenths with the bass, except
for the second bar, where it doubles the root
 The viola either doubles the bass part or fills in the harmonies
 The recording also features a continuo keyboard part that is
not shown
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A little later, the same music returns decorated and reorchestrated.
 The melody (a little more elaborate this time) appears in the

two oboes (third line down) in thirds (and sixths where
necessary)
 The second horn doubles the bass part and the first horn plays
very simple filler (a D all the way through!)
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Dvorak, New World Symphony, Adagio
This much later example is a more colourful sonority but the basic
texture is very simple
 The melody is on the distinctive larger cousin of the Oboe – the

Cor Anglais (doubled at the end of this phrase on the Bb
Clarinet in thirds)
 The strings are low in their registers and violas and cellos are
both divided to create a richer sound
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The Reference Guide and the ToolKIT are designed to be

used together to help cement your knowledge of how tonal
music works.
Much of the reference guide is organised into different types

of chord progressions, but it presumes some understanding
of voice-leading. It is important that you look at the
substantial introduction to this subject before browsing
around the rest of site:
Understanding Voice-leading
As well as reading the more general Introduction to

Tonality, you will probably need to look at the way in which
chords and voice-leading are labelled in TonalityGUIDE - a
mixture of Roman numerals and figured bass.
Chord Identification
Why Scales?
Historically, Western music has been discussed
largely in terms of interacting melodic lines. While
the progressions of chords that are the result of
these interactions have always been extremely
important (particularly the concept of consonant
and dissonant combinations), the first treatises on
harmony as it is commonly taught today did not
appear until the eighteenth century.
A variety of different scales were employed by
Western musicians up to around 1600, when major
and minor started to predominate. These two scales
are part of a group of so-called church modes that
began to be codified some time in the ninth century.
The church modes each have a note (sometimes
called the final) on which pieces written using them
tend to end. The idea of having a chord towards
which the music gravitates became increasingly
important in music after 1600.
When we say a piece is 'in a key', we mean that a
particular note and chord lies at the centre of gravity
of the music. As discussed in the Introduction to
Tonality, this sense comes from
the hierarchical relationships established between
notes and chords constructed from major or minor
scales. These relationships are only meaningful in
the context of the tonal music that has created them,
but this section of the reference guide explains the
organisation of the pitches of the scale on which
they are ultimately based.
information and
orientation as you browse
around TonalityGUIDE.com
chord
identification
understanding
voice-leading
style awareness
See my new site ChoraleGUIDE.com for
advice on Bach chorales.
embellish
general interval resoluti
Introduc ing
characteris successi on of
tion progressi
tics on tension
ons
Voice-leading describes the way in which

individual parts or 'voices' interact, creating and
embellishing the progression from one chord to
another. Although being able to identify chords
allows you to describe chord progressions, it
does not help the description of how the music
moves from one chord to the next. Voice-
leading characteristics are at least as important
as harmonic language in distinguishing the
tonal styles of different composers.
The importance of voice-leading even in music
that is essentially chordal (as with the Bach
chorales that dominate the examples of
harmonic progressions) can be demonstrated
by trying to reconstruct a piece of tonal music
from a written description. If you knew about
chords but had no knowledge of voice-leading
and were asked to write the chord
progression II6/5 - V - I, your attempt might
look something like the following:

Voice-leading is sometimes presented as a set
of rules, but it is better to think of it as a set of
characteristics specific to a certain style. You
would never find the above example in a piece
of music by Bach because the voice-leading is
uncharacteristic of his writing. A style is partly
defined by its typical voice-leading
characteristics, and conversely a discussion of
voice-leading rules is almost meaningless
without reference to style (see the section
on style in the Toolkit).
The characteristics of a particular voice-leading
style can informally be broken down into four
overlapping categories:
 general characteristics (voice-leading
traits that are typical of the style)
 interval succession (successions of
intervals that are avoided or preferred
within the style)
 resolution of tension (characteristic ways
of introducing resolving tensions,
particularly those created
by dissonances)
 embellishing
progressions (characteristic ways of
embellishing or decorating the progression
from one chord to the next)
These categories are best introduced by

rewriting the above sequence of chords in
order to make it more like a Bach chorale. A
few points relevant to this short progression
are discussed here and more on each of the
four categories can be found by following the
relevant links.
Two general characteristics of the Bach's
voice-leading style are not followed in the
example at the tope of the page:
 it is usual for at least one part to move in a
different direction but in this extract all the
parts move in the same direction
 it is characteristic for the individual voices
in a Bach chorale to move predominantly
by step (i.e. in tones and semitones) but
here all the voices move in large leaps
The example can be rewritten, taking these two
characteristics into consideration:

Although the voice-leading in this example
superficially looks more like Bach's chorale
style, it is still highly uncharacteristic of his
writing.
It includes a succession of intervals between
two voices that is generally avoided in this
style:
 the Bach chorale style very rarely
contains parallel fifths (two voices moving
in parallel a fifth apart) such as those
between the bass and tenor voices in the
first two beats of the example
The way in which
the dissonance is resolved is also
uncharacteristic of Bach chorale writing:
 there is a general prescription in the style
of Bach's time that sevenths should
resolve downwards by step, but in this
example the c1 in the tenor part of the first
chord (the seventh of the D minor chord)
moves upwards
The next example changes the progression
again so that the parallel fifths are avoided and
the seventh resolves downwards:

Notice that the convention is to name the
voices in chords as if the music was for
choir:
top voice soprano
second from top alto
second from bottom tenor
bottom voice bass
The final example adds two embellishing

progressions to the soprano voice.
Embellishing progressions are decorations of
the basic harmonic progression that may go
against the guidelines on resolving
dissonances in various ways
 in the original example the seventh
of II (the d2) is part of the chord. Here the
top line is rewritten so that the seventh
appears as a passing note. Even as an
embellishment the seventh must still
resolve downwards in Bach's chorale style
 the soprano line also now includes
an anticipation of its final note in the
previous quaver (c2)
An understanding of voice-leading allows

us to describe tonal music more
accurately. Parallel fifths and unresolving
sevenths are obviously no bad thing, but
their presence or absence might help us
understand more precisely the differences
between the styles of various composers.
Voice-leading and Rules

The most famous set of rules for voice-leading
appear in the book on species counterpoint written
at the beginning of the eighteenth century by
Johann Josef Fux (Gradus ad Parnassum, 1725). It
essentially codifies the style of the sixteenth
century Italian composer Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina. The book is particularly notable
because, among the many composers it influenced
are Haydn and Beethoven.
Fux's voice-leading rules aimed at creating a fluid

and elegant contrapuntal style that represented an
aesthetic ideal for many composers and writers. By
the end of the nineteenth century, as tonal music
continued to change, teachers and theorists found
themselves in the slightly odd position of
recommending a set of rules for counterpoint and
then showing how composers in fact broke most of
them in one way or another.
This 'breaking-the-rules' approach is still prevalent

today (you might have been taught about sonata
form in this way), and can be a very useful way of
thinking about how music works. It is worth
bearing in mind, however, that there are no rules
that describe exactly how any musical style
operates. The history of tonality is not a seamless
progression from the strict rules that Fux suggests
in Palestrina's style to the apparent lack of rules in
pre-serial Schoenberg.
Table of Contents
There are many different routes through the reference
material on TonalityGUIDE, go to the about section to
read more about these. If you are looking for
something in particular, you can either browse through
this table of contents (linked to by the book icon at the
top the dark blue bar on the right hand side of every
page) or look in the DefinitionBANK in the center of
the red bar across the top. The Module Web
Pages (associated with Liverpool Hope Musical
Techniques classes) draw together a limited number of
these pages into topics, starting with some basics and
moving on to style composition.
Not every page on this site is linked to from this table
of contents, but you should be able to get close enough
to see where you want to go ...
See my new site ChoraleGUIDE.com for advice on Bach
chorales.
Part I - Part II -
Preliminaries Reference Guide
Introduction to Chords and Scales
Tonality Scales - an introduction
Introduction
 Major
Triadic Harmony
Tonality and Tonic  Minor
Diatonic Chords - and
Tonal Analysis Tool
introduction
Kit
 Major
Basic Literacy
Relative and Absolute  Minor
Note Names Embellished Chords
Interval Names (sevenths, ninths,
elevenths etc.)
Introduction Short Progressions
Triads Introduction
Roman Numerals
Figured Bass Diatonic
Progression by fifth
Voice-leading
 Perfect Cadences
Introduction
General Characteristics  Imperfect Cadences
 Interval Succession  Plagal Cadences
Progression by second
 Parallel Fifths
 Chords vii to I
 Parallel Octaves
(dominant substitute)
 Similar Motion
 Interrupted Cadence
Resolution of tension
Embellishing  Imperfect Cadences
Progressions Progression by third
 Unaccented Passing  Falling
Notes  Rising
 Accented Passing
Notes
Chromatic
 Appoggiaturas
Secondary Dominant
 Anticipation Diminished Seventh
 Neighbour Notes Augmented Sixth
Neapolitan Sixth
Style Awareness Half-diminished
Introduction Seventh
Case Study One - An Augmented Fifth
Example of Stylistic
Change: The Added Key and Modulation
Minor Seventh. Introduction
Case Study Two - Relative Minor
Melodic Dissonance in  Parallel Minor
Handel, Haydn and the Circle of Fifths
Beatles
 Series and Circles
Some Quick
 Minor
Reminders (from
Abrupt Modulation
tutorials)
Pivot Modulation
Chord labelling
Working out the key of Chromatic Pivot
a passage Spotting Modulations -
Reminder of figured Some Examples
bass and chord types Longer Progressions
Working out the root of Introduction
a chord
Harmonising cadences Diatonic
(common formulae) Progression by Fifth
 Chains of Fifths
Harmonising cadences
(voice-leading  Modulation by Fifth
guidelines) Progression by Second
Writing Phrases  Chains of Seconds
Starting with a Bass
Line  Sequences with
Seconds
 Modulation by Second
Part III - Style Progression by Third
Composition
Chromatic
Realising Figured
 Modulation by
Bass
Diminished Seventh
Realising continuo
parts for sonatas in the  Modulation by
style of Handel. Augmented Sixth
Figured bass Method
 Longer Neapolitan
Figured bass Method
Progressions
Stage I
Embellishing a Simple
Figured Bass (Stage III)
Reverse Engineering
Handel(!)
Checking your work
Guidelines on doubling
Writing a Haydn
Menuetto
Four-stage method -
how to write a
menuetto using the
structure of one Haydn
example and motifs
from another!
Writing for string
instruments - Ranges
and some examples of
articulation
Introduction to Tonality
tonality
triadic
introduction and
harmony
tonic
(main theory page)
What is Tonality?
Tonality dominated western music for around four
centuries, and tonal music still lies at the core of
the mainstream classical and popular concert
repertoires. Like any language, tonality is made
meaningful through usage, and theory can only
limp along behind in its attempt to explain it as a
system. Tonal music creates tonality, not the
other way round.
A theoretical study of tonality is concerned with
how western culture has systematically organised
sound in order to make music. Tonality is
specifically an organisation of pitch, as opposed
to the equally important parameters of rhythm,
texture or timbre. In the past, music theorists
were keen to demonstrate that this organisation
has an internal logic derived from nature. The
truth or otherwise of these claims does not affect
the fact that pitch in general and tonality in
particular has occupied a central place in western
musical thought.
TonalityGUIDE.com focuses on what is
sometimes called common practice tonality - the
characteristic tonal language employed in
western music written some time after 1600 and
mostly before 1910. Although tonal language
changed across this time span and varied
enormously within each period, the same basic
principles underlie the organisation of pitch in
most of the music of this
era. TonalityGUIDE.com explores these
principles and the different styles of music that
they underpin.
Tonal Space
Almost all musical cultures divide up the
spectrum of audible pitch into discrete notes or
tones. Tonal music relies on the division of this
spectrum into octaveseach of which is divided
into the twelve semitones of the chromatic scale.
Today we tend to take the twelve exactly equal
semitones (equal temperament) of the modern
keyboard for granted, but it is a compromise that
did not achieve complete acceptance until the
mid nineteenth century. Despite this, and the fact
that non-keyboard musicians rarely play in
exactly equal temperament, the music explored
on this site can readily be explained in these
terms.
What really defines tonality is is the way in which
these twelve semitones are related to each other
in tonal pieces. These relationships
are hierarchical, which basically means that
some notes are made more important than
others. A simple tonal hierarchy is at work in the
humble scale. A melody written using the scale of
C major, for example, makes seven of the
possibe twelve semitones more important than
the remaining five.
At this basic level, we can see two types of
organisation of tonal space at work: first the
division of the octave into 12 equally spaced
notes and second, the decision to make some of
these more important than others:
A melody written using the diatonic notes of a C

major scale is commonly said to be 'in C major'.
There is, however, far more to being 'in' a key
than a simple hierarchy in which the notes that
are part of the diatonic scale are more important
than those which are not. A piece of tonal music
sets up hierarchical relationships within the
scale itself. It is these relationships that create
two important pillars of the tonal system: triadic
harmony and the idea of a tonic. These are
explored in the rest of this introduction - for more
on the major scale look at the diatonic
scales section of the reference guide.
tonality
triadic
introduction and
harmony
tonic
(main theory page)
Consonance and Dissonance
One of the founding principles of tonality is the
idea of consonance and dissonance. There is
disagreement on the theoretical basis for this
concept, but what is certain is that it has become
so firmly ingrained in our culture that it is central
to the way we understand tonal music.
The reasons why are less important than the fact
that within the Western musical tradition
dissonant intervals are felt to be somehow
unstable, in need of resolution to a less unstable
interval. A consonant interval could therefore be
described as stable - it does not feel like it needs
to resolve. Consonances are sometimes
described as being inherently more pleasant to
the ear and dissonances as less pleasant.
In general terms, major and minor seconds (and
sevenths - their inversions) are understood as
dissonant, as are augmented fourths. Major and
minor thirds and sixths and perfect fourths and
fifths are understood as consonant. However, as
discussed in the main style section of this site,
the extent to which any interval is considered
dissonant changes in different styles.
An exception to this classification is
when there is the interval of a fourth
above a note in the
bass. Suspensions are a good
example of a fourth being treated as a
dissonance.
At its simplest, the importance of consonance and

dissonance to the sense of 'being in a key' can be
seen the harmonisation of a melody. If you play
a melody accompanied by a held C major triad,
some notes will be dissonant with the notes of the
triad and some will be consonant. A new
hierarchy is created: the consonant notes are
understood to be more stable than the dissonant
ones.
Because a triad consists of two stacked thirds,
only the actual notes of the triad in a melody can
avoid forming a major or minor second with one
or other or its notes. In this way, a triad imposes a
hierarchy on melody by highlighting which notes
are part of the harmony (consonant) and which
are not (dissonant).
There are seven possible diatonic triads in C

major (see triads definition), so it is possible to
harmonise any note of the C major scale with a
triad that will make it consonant. The final section
of this introduction explores how a hierarchy is
created between these seven triads, creating a
true sense of 'being in a key'.
tonality
triadic
introduction and
harmony
tonic
(main theory page)
The previous sections explain

how diatonic scales and triads organise pitch in
tonal music. Another hierarchy responsible for the
sense of 'being in a key' is the relationships
created between the different diatonic triads.
These relationships are based on conventions
established by generations of composers, subtly
varying and changing across the centuries. As
such they cannot be described in terms of logical
'rules' - music theorists can only describe
characteristic features of tonal music and suggest
how they contribute to the sense of tonality. The
relationships between chords (and their functional
labels) are explored thoroughly in the main part of
the site, this just provides an introductory
overview.
The simple melody in the example below is
harmonised by each of the seven diatonic triads
(they are arranged in what is known as a cycle of
fifths ). When people say that a piece is 'in C
major', what they mean is the triad of C major
(chord I or the tonic) somehow feels more stable
and more final than any of the other triads.
People have used various metaphors to describe
the attraction of the tonic, including magnetism,
gravity and stretching a piece of elastic.
Look at and listen to the example. In what sense
is this extract 'in C major'?
There is no one answer to this question - it is a
combination of the chords the piece uses and the
relationships and progressions between them.
Choice of triads
 all the triads are based on the diatonic scale
of C major .
 vii is the only diminished triad, which makes it
an unlikely point of rest because it contains
the less stable diminished fifth. In addition the
bass progression to vii is a diminished fifth
(marked X).
 in some styles minor chords are considered
less stable than major ones.
 as discussed elsewhere on the site, voice-
leading between chords involving a rising
semitone to the tonic this is often considered
as creating stronger closure. As shown by the
brackets marked Y, only the progressions I-
IV and V-I contain this voice-leading feature.
Organisation of triads
 the extract begins and ends on a C major
triad.
 the addition of the passing seventh to the
penultimate chord marks the arrival on I at
the end.
 the melody rises and falls starting and
beginning on the root of I
The sense that C major is the tonic comes from a
combination of the above reasons plus many not
mentioned. The rest of this site explores how the
hierarchies created by tonal writing are intensified
and embellished through the modification of
chords, creation of different chord progressions
and various other means.
Basic Music Literacy
note
introduction intervals clefs transposition
names
There are two basic ways of labelling notes,

depending on what information you want to
convey. There are absolute note names such as
F#1 that will always refer to the same pitch but
there are also relative note names that tell you
the function of a particular note within a scale or
key.
Relative note names
These are useful when you want to convey the
function of a note. In the example below, the
simplest system is shown above the stave. Each
note or degree of the diatonic scale is
numbered, so in C major C is 1, D is 2 etc. - each
note has a caret ^ above the number to show that
it is a scale degree as opposed to, for example, a
bar number.
Below the stave is the most commonly taught
system, in which each degree of the scale is
given a functional name (these can be used
for triads as well). These names reveal the way
in which different notes in the tonal system are
considered more and less important.
You will notice that most of the names give the
position of the note relative to either the first or
fifth scale degree (mediant, for example, refers to
the fact that this note is half-way between the first
and fifth scale degrees). This is because the tonic
and dominant have a special function in tonal
music (see the introduction to tonality for more on
how tonality works)
Absolute note names
There are several competing systems and you
should use whatever convention your institution
prefers. The following is used on this web site (as
an example, an E on the first line of the treble clef
is called e1):

note
names
Introduction
Interval labels indicate the number of lines and
spaces a written interval spans. Because they all
span the three notes c1, d1 and e1 on the stave,
all the intervals in example below would be
described as a third, even though many of them
are not sounding thirds.
There are obviously many different ways of

writing the twelve sounding intervals within
the octave. It is hard to imagine why one might
write the last third in the example above, but
there are usually practical reasons for writing the
same sounding interval differently in different
circumstances.
How an interval is written depends firstly on
the key signature and secondly on voice-
leading. The example below shows the
same sounding interval (highlighted in red)
written in two different ways.
Example eb2 is is on the way from the

e2 to the d2 and in doing so it
turns a C major triad into a C
a) minor triad. It makes sense,
then, that the interval marked
in red is called a minor third.
the d#2 is on the way from d2

Example to e2. As a result the second
b) between c2 and d2 is
stretched or augmented.
Interval Names
There are common names for three different
types of each written interval, and these are
shown below. They are arranged to show which
intervals are inversions of each other. In other
words, if you move the top note of a major
seventh down an octave, you get a minor
second, as in the first example below:
Compound Intervals
If an interval consists of an octave plus one of the
above intervals it is called a compound interval. A
third plus an octave, for example, is a tenth but
still has the distinctive third sound so is called a
compound third as in the example
below.
Chord Identification and Labelling
Roman figured
overview triads
numerals bass
The ability to identify chords and their function is

crucial for understanding tonal music. This page
explains how chords are labelled
on TonalityGUIDE.com. You can remind yourself
of the various types of triad and their most
common modifications by clicking on
the triads link in the above submenu.
TonalityGUIDE.com uses a fairly standard
combination of Roman numerals and figured
bass. If you are not completely familiar with these
two systems, it would be a good idea to browse
the more detailed pages on Roman
numerals and figured bass.
labelling music with chord names and figures is
relatively easy if you are systematic in your
approach - try this four-stage method
The TonalityGUIDE.com chord labelling
system
In a nutshell:
 Roman numerals are used to show which of
the seven degrees of the diatonic scale the
chord in question is based on (if any!)
 the key of the section being analysed is
shown by a letter followed by a semicolon.
Upper case letters are used for major keys
and lower case for minor keys (e.g. 'C:' = C
major and 'g:' = G minor)
 if the root of the chord
is chromatically altered, the
appropriate accidental is added before the
Roman numeral
 all other information on chords, including
their inversion, is shown by placing figured
bass after the Roman numeral
 if the use of Roman numerals is inappropriate
or unhelpful, figured bass is used on its own
An example:
Notice how figured bass is used to show where

chords are not in root position. It is also used to
highlight the appoggiatura in the last bar.
Being able to identify and label chords in this way
is one of the basic skills taught on this web site. It
is worthwhile because it forms a good foundation
for understanding how the tonal style works,
useful not just for analytical work but also for
practical skills such as arranging and composing.
overview triads Roman figured
numerals bass
Introduction
Triads
The triad, along with the scale, is one of the basic
units of tonal music. It usually refers to a
particular kind of three note chord that consists of
two intervals of a third stacked one on top of the
other.
The triad constructed from thirds is special
because it is the only possible type of three-note
chord that is completely consonant. Any other
combination of intervals would include a
dissonant interval of a second or seventh
(or compound versions of these intervals).
The only other consonant three-note chords (i.e.
triads containing a third or a fourth) are in
fact inversions of triads constructed from thirds.
[many theorists have suggested that the triad is
based on the harmonic series]
With two different types of third (major and minor)

there are four possible permutations, as shown in
the example below. How these function in the
tonal system is the main subject of this web site,
but it is generally true that major and minor triads
are considered more stable in most tonal styles.
Augmented and diminished triads
usually resolve to a major or minor triad and in
some earlier styles only the major triad was
considered stable enough to end a whole piece.
lower third upper third name
1 major minor major triad
2 minor major minor triad
3 major major augmented triad
4 minor minor diminished triad
Inversions of intervals
An interval is inverted by moving the bottom note
of the interval up an octave so that it is above
what was previously the top note. It is called an
inversion because by putting the bottom note at
the top, you are turning the interval upsidedown.
The example below shows the
common diatonic intervals and their inversions
(click here to see the inversions of all the other
various intervals):
Inversions of triads
Triads can be also be inverted by moving the
bottom note up an octave. Because triads consist
of three notes, they can be inverted twice as in
the example below. The bottom note of a triad in
its original position, arranged as a stack of two
thirds, is called the root and so is said to to be
in root position. The names for the two
inversions speak for themselves:
The inversions of the C major triad can be

rearranged without necessarily changing the
inversion. For example, the first C major triad
below is arranged so that the three notes are as
close together as possible. A triad arranged
arranged like this is said to be in 'close
position'). In the second example below, the C
major triad is is spread out but the root is still at
the bottom. While it is still in root position it is now
said to be in 'open position'.
In all these examples the notes of a C major triad

have been re-arranged in various ways and while
this considerably changes their sound, they are
all recognisably C major triads. This is clear if you
compare the sound of them as as group with, for
example, a C augmented or E flat minor triad.
TIP: if you want to know if a three-note chord is
based on a triad constructed from thirds, and
which triad it is, you can try re-arranging it as a
stack of thirds
Sevenths
The addition of a seventh above the root to
a triad is so common that there is some
justification for discussing these as chords in their
own right.
Five different types of seventh chord can be
constructed based on the diatonic triads of the
major and minor scales with the addition of the
seventh. These are shown in the example below,
but the various types are discussed in more detail
in the diatonic short progressions section.
The five types are:
 dominant
 major
 minor
 half-diminished
 diminished
You can find out the closest position (and

therefore the root) of any chord by rearranging it
as a stack of thirds. The following example shows
a seventh chord in inversion and then rearranged
in root and close position:
Roman figured
overview triads
numerals bass
Roman numerals are traditionally the main way of

identifying and labelling chords and are used in
TonalityGUIDE in conjunction with figured bass.
Numerals I to VII are assigned to
the triads formed on each of the seven notes of
the diatonic major (or minor) scale. Upper case
(e.g. I or V) Roman numerals are reserved for
major triads, and all others are labelled in lower
case (e.g. i or v).
The seven diatonic triads based on the scale of C
major would therefore be labelled as follows:
As in the example, the key of the extract being
analysed is shown with an arabic letter followed
by a colon. Major keys are labelled with an upper
case letter (i.e. C major is written 'C:') and minor
keys in lower case (i.e. G minor is written 'g:').
TonalityGUIDE avoids the use of any other extra
letters or symbols, preferring to
show inversions and chromatic alterations by
using figured bass. The only exception is where
the root of the chord is chromatically altered, in
which case an accidental is placed just before the
Roman numeral. In the following example the
second chord is a major triad with the
flattened II of C major as its root. As an ordinary
major triad it is signified by an upper case Roman
numeral with a flat preceding it - no other labelling
is necessary:
It is sometimes useful to to indicate the wider

harmonic context of chords as in the following
example. The perfect cadence (V to I) at the end
of the extract is in G major but the overall key is C
major (as shown by 'C:' on the example). This
relationship is is shown by using a horizontal line.
The numeral under the line shows that the music
is temporarily in the dominant of the main key (G
is V of C), while the numbers above the line show
how each chord relates to that temporary key:
Roman figured
overview triads
numerals bass
Figured bass was developed in the baroque

period as a practical short hand for keyboard
players, and music analysts often use it in
addition to Roman numerals to help identify
chords. Composers added figures below the bass
line to help keyboard players harmonise it at
sight. Working it out is pretty much mechanical: if
you can count you can manage figured bass!
Each number simply represents a note
that interval above the bass note.
Together these intervals constitute the chords
that the baroque keyboardist would have played
over the written bass line. The only complication
is that, because it is a short hand system, not
every note of every chord needed is given a
figure. Instead a convention developed of writing
the minimum number of figures needed to work
out the harmony for each bass note, so a figured
bass from the baroque era would look something
like the example below, with some notes not
figured at all.
The general principle is that the keyboardist (or

analyst) presumes the following:
the bass note forms part of a root
position triad (5, 3) unless the figures say
otherwise
In the first example below, the chord is in root
position - with a 3rd (B) and a 5th (D) above the
bass. It would be figured 5, 3 but because this is
the presumed chord there is no need to include
any figuring.
In the second example there is a sixth (C) and a
third (G) above the bass note. The full figuring
would be 6, 3 but the 3 is presumed anyway so
only the 6 is necessary
Two things about figured bass tend to

confuse students:
 the figures represent intervals

above the bass NOT the root, so in
the first inversion C major chord in
the second example above, C is the
root of the chord but it is figured 6
because it is a sixth above the bass
in this inversion
 the intervals do not necessarily
appear above the bass in the order
in which they are figured, a 3, for
example can refer to any third
above the bass even if there is one
or more octaves in between.
The example below shows the most common

figures that you might come across. Figures that
are usually omitted are shown in brackets:

Accidentals
The diminished seventh at the end of the above
example can also be shown as o7. There are a
number of competing systems but TonalityGUIDE
prefers accidentals placed after the figure as this
is much clearer. Accidentals are only needed if
they would appear in front of the note that is
being figured. In other words if there is a sharp or
flat in the key signature it is unnecessary in the
figuring. As the example below shows, if there is
an accidental on its own it applies to the note a
third above the bass (in this case the B flat).
Suspensions
Another use for figures is to show suspensions.
The figures in the example below clarify the two
suspensions:
 a suspended fourth above the bass (C)
resolves to the third (B)
 a suspended second (D) resolves to the
octave above the bass (C).
As with other figures it is only necessary to
include figures that would not be presumed in any
case, so it is not necessary to figure the 5 in the
first suspension and the 3 in the second.
See my new site ChoraleGUIDE.com for advice on Bach
chorales.
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Voice-leading describes the way in which individual

parts or 'voices' interact, creating and embellishing the
progression from one chord to another. Although
being able to identify chords allows you to
describe chord progressions, it does not help the
description of how the music moves from one chord to
the next. Voice-leading characteristics are at least as
important as harmonic language in distinguishing the
tonal styles of different composers.
The importance of voice-leading even in music that is
essentially chordal (as with the Bach chorales that
dominate the examples of harmonic progressions) can
be demonstrated by trying to reconstruct a piece of
tonal music from a written description. If you knew
about chords but had no knowledge of voice-leading
and were asked to write the chord
progression II6/5 - V - I, your attempt might look
something like the following:

Voice-leading is sometimes presented as a set of rules,
but it is better to think of it as a set of characteristics
specific to a certain style. You would never find the
above example in a piece of music by Bach because
the voice-leading is uncharacteristic of his writing. A
style is partly defined by its typical voice-leading
characteristics, and conversely a discussion of voice-
leading rules is almost meaningless without reference
to style (see the section on style in the Toolkit).
The characteristics of a particular voice-leading style
can informally be broken down into four overlapping
categories:
 general characteristics (voice-leading traits that are
typical of the style)
 interval succession (successions of intervals that are
avoided or preferred within the style)
 resolution of tension (characteristic ways of
introducing resolving tensions, particularly those
created by dissonances)
 embellishing progressions (characteristic ways of
embellishing or decorating the progression from one
chord to the next)
These categories are best introduced by rewriting the

above sequence of chords in order to make it more like
a Bach chorale. A few points relevant to this short
progression are discussed here and more on each of the
four categories can be found by following the relevant
links.
Two general characteristics of the Bach's voice-
leading style are not followed in the example at the
tope of the page:
 it is usual for at least one part to move in a different
direction but in this extract all the parts move in the
same direction
 it is characteristic for the individual voices in a Bach
chorale to move predominantly by step (i.e. in tones
and semitones) but here all the voices move in large
leaps
The example can be rewritten, taking these two

characteristics into consideration:

Although the voice-leading in this example
superficially looks more like Bach's chorale style, it is
still highly uncharacteristic of his writing.
It includes a succession of intervals between two
voices that is generally avoided in this style:
 the Bach chorale style very rarely contains parallel
fifths (two voices moving in parallel a fifth apart) such
as those between the bass and tenor voices in the first
two beats of the example
The way in which the dissonance is resolved is also

uncharacteristic of Bach chorale writing:
 there is a general prescription in the style of Bach's
time that sevenths should resolve downwards by step,
but in this example the c1 in the tenor part of the first
chord (the seventh of the D minor chord) moves
upwards
The next example changes the progression again so

that the parallel fifths are avoided and the seventh
resolves downwards:

voices in chords as if the music was for choir:
top voice soprano
bottom voice bass

The final example adds two embellishing
progressions to the soprano voice. Embellishing
progressions are decorations of the basic harmonic
progression that may go against the guidelines on
resolving dissonances in various ways
 in the original example the seventh of II (the d2) is part
of the chord. Here the top line is rewritten so that the
seventh appears as a passing note. Even as an
embellishment the seventh must still resolve
downwards in Bach's chorale style
 the soprano line also now includes
an anticipation of its final note in the
previous quaver (c2)
An understanding of voice-leading allows us

to describe tonal music more accurately.
Parallel fifths and unresolving sevenths are
obviously no bad thing, but their presence or
absence might help us understand more
precisely the differences between the styles
of various composers.
Voice-leading and Rules
The most famous set of rules for voice-leading appear
in the book on species counterpoint written at the
beginning of the eighteenth century by Johann Josef
Fux (Gradus ad Parnassum, 1725). It essentially
codifies the style of the sixteenth century Italian
composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. The book
is particularly notable because, among the many
composers it influenced are Haydn and Beethoven.
Fux's voice-leading rules aimed at creating a fluid

and elegant contrapuntal style that represented an
aesthetic ideal for many composers and writers. By
the end of the nineteenth century, as tonal music
continued to change, teachers and theorists found
themselves in the slightly odd position of
recommending a set of rules for counterpoint and
then showing how composers in fact broke most of
them in one way or another.
This 'breaking-the-rules' approach is still prevalent

today (you might have been taught about sonata form
in this way), and can be a very useful way of thinking
about how music works. It is worth bearing in mind,
however, that there are no rules that describe exactly
how any musical style operates. The history of
tonality is not a seamless progression from the strict
rules that Fux suggests in Palestrina's style to the
apparent lack of rules in pre-serial Schoenberg.
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The various resolutions of tension and

successions of intervals discussed on the
following pages concern specific progressions in
particular situations. Those outlined here, on the
other hand, are of a more general nature. This
page lists some general voice-leading
characteristics of a Bach chorale, the sort of
considerations that you should keep in the back
of your mind when looking at music. In this way,
you can begin to build up a picture of the general
patterns underlying different styles.
Some general voice-leading characteristics can

be inferred from this short extract:
 all the notes of the triad are present in each
chord
 the voices avoid moving all in the same
direction (even in bar 1 beats 3-4, the alto
voice stays on the same note while the other
voices descend)
 leaps larger than a fourth in the upper three
voices are rare
 the direction of motion within each voice is
varied (e.g. the downwards motion from bar 1
beat two is balanced by upward motion in the
next bar)
 it is generally the root that is doubled
 the chords at the cadence are in root position
Note that the convention is to name the
voices in chords as if the music was for
choir:
top voice soprano
bottom voice bass
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introduction | | |
fifths octaves motion
There are four main types of motion that are

possible between two voices as summarised in
the table below. In most tonal styles, any
succession of intervals can appear in oblique or
contrary motion but there is only rarely parallel or
similar motion to a perfect intervals - i.e. perfect
fifths, fourths and octaves.
Much tonal music seems to follow - at least in
outline - the rules and guidelines set out
in species counterpoint, a method which
dominated the teaching of composition for several
centuries. Particularly important is the treatment
of dissonant intervals, discussed on
the resolution of tension page.
Parallel - the two voices move in the same
direction by the same interval
Similar - the two voices move in the same

direction but by different intervals
Oblique - one voice stays stationary while
the other moves
Contrary - the two voices move in opposite

directions
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introduction | | |
Anyone who has had to write pastiche Bach

chorales will have been nagged by their harmony
teacher about parallel fifths. Students of
counterpoint over the last couple of centuries,
including many of the great composers, have
undergone a similar schooling, often under the
influence of J. J. Fux's famous book on
counterpoint. Perhaps partly as a result of
this, common practice tonal music largely
avoids consecutive parallel fifths.
Theorists have offered various explanations for
this, but what is clear is that consecutive parallel
fifths stand out in chord progressions in a way
that other parallel intervals do not. You can hear
the difference they make in the two examples
below. The first contains parallel fifths between
the tenor and bass parts (highlighted in red) while
the second uses the same harmony but avoids
the parallels. There is nothing inherently
unpleasant about the sonority created by parallel
fifths, it is simply it was considered inelegant or
clumsy:

top voice soprano
bottom voice bass
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introduction | | |
Parallel Octaves and Doubling

Parallel octaves are also avoided in both
Palestrina and Bach's choral writing. A common
feature of many instrumental styles, however, for
voices to be doubled at the octave. The following
two examples demonstrates the difference
between doubling and parallel octaves.
The first example is from Mozart's famous G
minor symphony. The top part is doubled at the
octave in the flute and oboe from the second bar
onwards, with the upper octave adding colour to
the texture.
In the second example, the Mozart is rewritten so
that the top part, instead of being doubled, is in
parallel octaves with the bass (highlighted in red).
This is not a feature usually found in Mozart's
style. Whereas the doubling in the first example is
decorating underlying voice-leading that does not
involve octaves, the octaves in the re-written
version are between the soprano and bass parts.
As in a chorale, they stand out from the texture,
and this is an effect that later composer's exploit
(for example Prokoviev or Stravinsky). More on
voice-leading in relation to style can be found in
the style section of tool kit and in the main body
of the site.
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introduction | | |
Composers avoided parallel fifths and octaves

because these intervals stand out in such chord
progressions. The same effect is created by
progressions that move towards fifths or octaves
in similar motion. As with parallel progressions,
this is simply a matter of taste. There is nothing
wrong with similar motion of this sort other than
that the aesthetic of their times lead composers
such as Palestrina, Bach, Mozart and Beethoven
to avoid the sonority created most of the time.
A similar effect to the parallel fifths in the tenor
and bass voices in the first example is created by
the voice-leading in the second, in which the two
voices move towards a fifth in similar motion. The
third example follows the same basic chord
progression with neither parallel fifths nor similar
motion towards a fifth. The difference between
these should be clearly audible - the fifth
sonorities do not stand out in the final example.
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The notion of consonance and dissonance is

vital for understanding the suggestion that there
are tensions within tonal music that need to be
resolved. According to the style of the music,
tensions introduced by a dissonant note will tend
to be introduced and resolved in certain ways.
In chord progressions without any embellishment
(as in the simplified chorale examples on this
page), many earlier tonal composers avoided
excessively prominent dissonances by following
two general guidelines:
1.any dissonance is
both introduced and resolved by
descending stepwise motion (stepwise
motion is when a voice moves by major or
minor seconds)
2. the dissonance appears on
an unaccented part of the bar

Different tonal styles conform to these guidelines
to different extents - as dissonances became
more acceptable composers tended to treat them
more freely. Nevertheless there are characteristic
restrictions on the way in which dissonances are
introduced and resolved that are common to
many styles.
Two brief examples of voice-leading prescriptions
follow. The embellishing progressions described
in the final section of the voice-leading part of the
tool kit show various way of decorating chord
progression with dissonant notes. You will find
many other examples in the main body of the
site.
Sevenths
A seventh is considered dissonant in most tonal
styles and therefore introduces a tension that
needs to be resolved. Most tonal styles resolve
the seventh by descending stepwise motion,
but, as discussed in the style section of the
ToolKIT, the extent to which composers followed
the the voice-leading restrictions on sevenths
gradually decreased over time.
The example below shows a dominant

seventh chord in various inversions with the
seventh being introduced and resolved by
descending steps (the sevenths and their
resolutions are shown in red). In each case the
seventh resolves onto a a note consonant with
the following chord, this is important because
otherwise it would not resolve the tension of the
dissonance:
Not sure about the chord labels? Refresh you memory

with the chord identification part of the tool kit.
You might notice that in all the above examples, the seventh
chords resolve to a chord a fifth below or a fourth above (the
inversion of a fifth) - e.g. V-I I-IV. This is a harmonic rather
than a voice-leading consideration and is discussed on the
pages on sevenths.
Suspensions
The suspension is a way introducing a dissonant note on

an accented part of the bar. The 4-3 suspension is one of
the most commonly used. In this type of suspension, the third
above the bass in a root position triad is delayed until the next
beat by the introduction of the dissonant fourth above the
bass.
In the example below, the third of the G major triad (b1) is

preceded by the fourth above the bass (c2) which
is dissonant with the fifth of the triad (if you are unfamiliar
with giving notes a name and number - e.g. c2 - click on the
basics button in the toolkit).
Suspensions follow the general guideline for resolution of
tension that the dissonance should resolve downwards by
step. It also introduces the dissonant note on an accented
part of the bar so the suspensions must be introduced -
or 'prepared' - by the suspended note appearing in the same
voice in the previous chord.
In the example below, the c2 in the alto voice is prepared in

the first chord, suspended in the second and resolved to b1
(downwards by step). The movement from the dissonant c2 to
the consonant b1 is results in a pattern of tension-resolution.
The second half of this example helps show how the

suspension derives from a chord progression with no
dissonance. The tension of the suspended c2 is the result of
delaying the alto voice in a chord progession from I to V.
You will come across various other types of suspension in this
website, particularly in examples taken from music by
Arcangelo Corelli.

top voice soprano

bottom voice bass
Other Resolutions of tension

You will find many examples of tensions being resolvved in
the rest of TonalityGUIDE.com that do not involve
dissonance. Leading notes have a tendency to resolve
upwards by step and in some styles there are quite strict rules
governing, for example, diminished seventh chords. What
they have in common with suspensions and sevenths is that
they are still basically concerned with the resolution of tension
of one kind or another.
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Tonal music would be rather dull if it consisted

simply of chord progressions that followed the
various rules and guidelines set out in the first
four sections of 'Understanding Voice-leading'.
Fortunately, there are a many ways of
embellishing these progressions, and it is these
embellishments that help make melodic writing
distinctive. Although you find different patterns of
embellishment characteristic of particular
composers or eras, there are a fairly small
number of basic types that are common to most
styles.
There are two main types of
embellishment: consonant and dissonant.
The arpeggios below are a good example of
a consonant embellishment of a chord
progression.
This section, however, concentrates

on dissonant embellishments. Most tonal
composers up until the beginning of the twentieth
century prefered to avoided an excess of
prominent dissonances. As is discussed
in resolution of tension, the general rules for
avoiding prominent dissonances are that they
appear on an unaccented part of the bar and are
introduced and resolved by descending stepwise
motion. The less these guidelines are followed
the more dissonant the music becomes.
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The unaccented passing note literally passes

between two notes a third apart (in other words, it
fills in the gap) . An important characteristic of the
passing note in the example below is that it
is dissonant. While the b1 and g1 in the soprano
voice are both consonant withe chord I (G), the
dissonant a1 'passes' in between.
As explained in prescribed progressions,
dissonant notes are usually subject to various
voice-leading 'rules' depending on the style. An
unaccented passing note occurs by definition on
an unaccented part of the bar, so the dissonance
is not very prominent.
Because it fills in a third, the passing note below
can only be approached and left by step. But the
'rule' that dissonances must be resolved in
descending motion is relaxed - can be found
ascending or descending. The stepwise motion
and lack of accent allow this rule to be broken
without the dissonance becoming obtrusive. The
unaccented passing note is therefore the most
common embellishment in styles where too much
dissonance is undesirable.
The first two examples below show the same
chord progression with and without a passing
note while the third shows the progression
reversed so that the passing note ascends.
The two notes that passing note passes between
need not be part of the same chord as in the
above example (V and V6). Intervals larger than a
third may also be filled with a number of passing
notes. You will find many examples in the main
body of the site.
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The unaccented passing note literally passes

between two notes a third apart (in other words, it
fills in the gap) . An important characteristic of the
passing note in the example below is that it
is dissonant. While the b1 and g1 in the soprano
voice are both consonant withe chord I (G), the
dissonant a1 'passes' in between.
As explained in prescribed progressions,
dissonant notes are usually subject to various
voice-leading 'rules' depending on the style. An
unaccented passing note occurs by definition on
an unaccented part of the bar, so the dissonance
is not very prominent.
Because it fills in a third, the passing note below
can only be approached and left by step. But the
'rule' that dissonances must be resolved in
descending motion is relaxed - can be found
ascending or descending. The stepwise motion
and lack of accent allow this rule to be broken
without the dissonance becoming obtrusive. The
unaccented passing note is therefore the most
common embellishment in styles where too much
dissonance is undesirable.
The first two examples below show the same
chord progression with and without a passing
note while the third shows the progression
reversed so that the passing note ascends.
The two notes that passing note passes between
need not be part of the same chord as in the
above example (V and V6). Intervals larger than a
third may also be filled with a number of passing
notes. You will find many examples in the main
body of the site.
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Strictly speaking the appoggiatura as an

analytical term refers to an accented dissonance
that is approached by leap and left by step.
However, as discussed below, the importance of
this embellishment in the Classical style means
that, in practice, many accented dissonances that
resolve by step are referred as appoggiaturas
even if they are not approached by leap.
The appoggiatura is the most
marked dissonant embellishment in tonal music
because it is approached by leap, unlike
the accented and unaccented passing notes,
which are approached by leap and the
suspension, which is prepared.
The third of the above examples below shows a
double appoggiatura - two notes are initially
dissonant with the chord being embellished and
then both resolve by step. The very common type
of double appoggiatura is the cadential six-four,
which is sometimes analyzed as Ic.
The term appoggiatura is often used to refer to an

ornament that is particularly common in the
Classical era, in whicha note on a strong beat is
decorated by a 'leaning' note that resolves onto it
by step. When written as an ornament the
appoggiatura is shown as a small note slurred to
the note it decorates as in the example below
(note that the acciaccatura has an oblique line
through the stem and flag and is performed by
being 'crushed in' just before the note it
decorates):
When this sort of 'leaning' dissonance is written

out in music from the classical era, it is often
referred to as an appoggiatura whether or not it is
approached by leap. In the example below, three
appoggiaturas resolve by step onto a C major
chord:
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Strictly speaking the appoggiatura as an

analytical term refers to an accented dissonance
that is approached by leap and left by step.
However, as discussed below, the importance of
this embellishment in the Classical style means
that, in practice, many accented dissonances that
resolve by step are referred as appoggiaturas
even if they are not approached by leap.
The appoggiatura is the most
marked dissonant embellishment in tonal music
because it is approached by leap, unlike
the accented and unaccented passing notes,
which are approached by leap and the
suspension, which is prepared.
The third of the above examples below shows a
double appoggiatura - two notes are initially
dissonant with the chord being embellished and
then both resolve by step. The very common type
of double appoggiatura is the cadential six-four,
which is sometimes analyzed as Ic.
The term appoggiatura is often used to refer to an

ornament that is particularly common in the
Classical era, in whicha note on a strong beat is
decorated by a 'leaning' note that resolves onto it
by step. When written as an ornament the
appoggiatura is shown as a small note slurred to
the note it decorates as in the example below
(note that the acciaccatura has an oblique line
through the stem and flag and is performed by
being 'crushed in' just before the note it
decorates):
When this sort of 'leaning' dissonance is written

out in music from the classical era, it is often
referred to as an appoggiatura whether or not it is
approached by leap. In the example below, three
appoggiaturas resolve by step onto a C major
chord:
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The anticipation literally anticipates a note that

belongs to the next chord. Generally on
an unaccented part of the bar and approached
by step, it introduces a dissonance in a fairly
unobtrusive manner and is found in many
different tonal styles.
In the example below, the f#1 at the end of the
first bar is dissonant with chord I but consonant
with the following chord V. This consonance with
the following chord is the defining feature of
this embellishment. Occasionally one voice will
anticipate a note that appears in another voice in
the next chord.
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The neighbour note (or auxiliary note) moves

away from a consonant note and then returns to
it. It is like the unaccented passing note in that
it is usually on an unaccented part of the bar and
this thus a relative unobtrusive dissonance.
Neighbour notes can appear on any note of a
triad but must be no more than a major second
away, hence the name. As with all
the embellishments discussed on this site, the
neighbour note can decorate any voice in a
texture as in the example below.
Style Awareness
Introduction Case Study One Case Study Two
Style manifests itself in characteristic usages of form, texture,

harmony, melody, rhythm and ethos; and it is presented by creative
personalities, conditioned by historical, social and geographical
factors, performing resources and conventions - 'Style' in Sadie, S. (Ed.).
(2001). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition London: Macmillan
A proper discussion of style is beyond the scope

of a web site on the basics of tonality, as the
breadth of the definition above indicates. Stylistic
awareness is the most ambitious skill in
the TonalityGUIDE.com tool kit, and the
emphasis is on developing a good sense of the
necessity of some stylistic context for the
exploration of tonal language. The mere presence
of tonal or non-tonal chords or scales can tell us
much about the style of a given piece of music.
An extract written in one of the church modes,
for example, might have been written some time
before 1600, or alternatively it might be more
recent and deliberately hark back to an archaic
language. In the same way, the use of a tonal
idiom has a different meaning for Arvo Part than
for J. S. Bach.
TonalityGUIDE.com does not much concern
itself with these 'big picture' issues, concentrating
on how an awareness of style can improve your
understanding of (and ability to reproduce) tonal
writing characteristic of various composers. Style
is not just about an era or even a composer, there
might be harmony or voice-leading that the same
composer would use in an instrumental piece but
avoid in choral writing, for example.
Just as you need to bring your chord identification
and voice-leading skills to the material in the main
part of the site, an awareness of style must inform
(and be informed by) your understanding of
tonality. The next page looks in detail at a
particular aspect of voice-leading with regards to
style, and wherever a harmonic or voice-leading
feature is introduced, some mention is made of
the stylistic context.
More about style can be found in the second
semester musical techniques tutorials for my
Liverpool Hope students.
Style Awareness
Introduction
Bach Haydn Debussy
& Palestrina
An Example of Stylistic Change: The Added

Minor Seventh
The history of musical style is no longer taught as
a continuously improving development from
'primitive' monody to the complexity of some
twentieth century scores; it is dangerously easy to
find logical progression from one style to another
if that is what you are looking for. Nevertheless, it
is interesting to chart how the usage of the same
basic building blocks slowly changes over the
centuries, and this page offers four snapshots
of minor seventh chords. The Palestrina and the
Debussy extracts lie right on the edges of the
common practice tonality explored on this web
site.
Stylistic awareness is crucial to understanding
and replicating tonal styles. Because voice-
leading and harmony is not governed by 'rules'
but by characteristic ways of doing things, they do
not make sense without reference to the style of
writing of a particular era, genre or composer.
Palestrina (sixteenth century polyphony)
It is a general feature of this style
that dissonances are never emphasised. They
tend to appear either on a weak beat, or as
a suspension. In this extract the two seventh
chords (major or minor triad in blue with the
added seventh marked in red) are both treated in
this way:
 The first appears on a weak beat of the bar,
and even in this situation Palestrina is careful
not to emphasise it too much. It is
approached and left by stepwise descent, a
characteristic way of handling dissonance
that achieves the status of a rule in this style.
 The second seventh chord is part of a
suspension. Again it is part of a stepwise
descent but, because it appears on a strong
beat of the bar, the seventh itself is prepared
by being included in the previous chord in the
same voice.
The emphasis in Palestrina's style is on line: the
voice-leading is more important than harmonic
progression. Neither the sevenths or other
dissonances are really chords in the functional
sense, they are the result of the interaction of the
lines.
Style Awareness
Introduction &
Haydn Beatles
Handel
Melodic Dissonance in Handel, Haydn and the

Beatles
Handel Flute Sonata Extracts
Compared with the strict rules of Palestrina's style
(as codified in species counterpoint), Haydn and
Handel seem to use dissonances quite freely.
However, the dissonances in the following
examples are basically decorations of underlying
voice-leading that still follows most of the
guidelines laid out in the resolution of
tension page in the Toolkit.
Understanding these sort of dissonances as an

extra layer of decoration on top of a simpler
basic line is one of the basic tenets
of Schenkerian analysis).
In the first example the starred D is

a suspension. The D to the final C# in the bass
line of the extract is the basic suspension which is
decorated by the semiquavers in between.
The dissonances starred in this next example

decorate the basic 6-5 over the bass (D to C#).
The dissonances form neighbour notes (or
auxilliary notes) in relation to these two pitches.
Here the basic voice leading is a seventh (D)
above the bass resolving to C# on the following
beat. The fourth semiquaver (D) decorates the
suspension by adding a neighbour note.
Quick Reminder: Chord Identification and

Labelling
Identifying and labelling things can sometimes
seem a bit pointless! However, learning how to
identify chords is like gaining a better
understanding of any language: it helps you
understand and communicate more effectively.
The following offers a slightly laborious method to
help you get started. The point of the roman
numerals is to identify the triads involved, while
the figured bass(arabic numbers) helps identify
some of the voice-leading (particularly chord
inversions) and embellishments.
1.write out the figured bass below each chord
in full (i.e. the interval of every note above
the bass)
2. work out the abbreviated version of the
figured bass and retain the figuring for any

suspensions or other embellishments (see
pages on figured bass and melodic
embellishments)
3. identify the type of chord and its root
(see reminder of figured bass and chord

types, working out the root of a chord,
and triads)
4. work out the key of the passage and the
Roman numerals for each chord (see working

out the key, Roman numerals). Combine the
Roman numerals with the abbreviated figured
bass
This method is followed in the example below:
If this all seems a bit laborious, take a look at the
following example. The second half of the bar
includes a suspension which other systems (e.g.
IB etc) have no way of notating this efficiently.
Using the above method helps build in this sort of
observation right at the beginning of your
analysis.
Select w ord to be defined

Startcentre | Refer
ence Guide
Quick Reminder: How to work out the key of a

passage
Stage One (what scale?)
At its simplest a passage is in the key of the
seven-note scale on which it is based (e.g. G
minor, E major etc). This page helps you work out
which scale is which.
To say that an extract is definitely in a

particular key, you should usually be able to
find at least one perfect cadence in that key.
The notions of tonality and being in a key are
more fully discussed in the introduction to
tonality.
You can find out what scale a passage is based on
by writing out the seven note names (A B C D E
F G). Then use the key signature and
any accidentals to sharpen or flatten each note of
this scale. Remember that some notes might
be chromatic (not part of the key), so you should
ask whether D, for example, is usually natural,
flat or sharp in the passage.
Stage Two (the circle of fifths)
Now you need to write all the flattened and
sharpened notes of the chromatic scale arranged
in a series of perfect fifths. The easiest way to do
this is to start with the scale of C major organised
in this way starting on F (you might know a
reversible mnemonic for remembering this series
- Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle):
Then, write the same series out twice more. The

first series should be flats, the second the natural
notes of C major and the third series should all be
sharps as below. The result is a long series of
perfect fifths starting at Fb and finishing on B#:
Circle the seven notes of the scale as worked out

in stage one. Any group of seven notes on this
series can be either of two scales:
 a major scale starting on the second note of the
group
 a minor scale starting on the fifth note (in which
case the third note of the series - the leading note -
will be sharpened)
So C#,D,E,F#,G#,A,B could be either A major -

as in the first example - or F# minor as in the
second.
Remember that music does not normally stay in

the same key all the way through a piece - this is
discussed in key and modulation
Quick Reminder: Figured bass and chord
types
The example below shows the most common
figures that you might come across. Figures that
are usually omitted are shown in brackets:

Quick Reminder: Working out the root of a

chord
To find out the root of a chord, you should keep
rewriting it with a different note at the bottom until
it turns out as a stack of thirds. The note at the
bottom of a chord in this arrangement is the root.
Two examples of this method are given below.
Quick Reminder: Harmonising Cadences
See my new site ChoraleGUIDE.com for
advice on Bach chorales.
voice-
harmon
| leadin
y
g
The table below lists common cadences found at

the end of Bach chorale phrases. They are
organised by the interval progression in the top
line. At the bottom of this page are some common
embellishments of these cadences.
When writing in the style of Bach, it is worth
bearing in mind that over 70% of Bach's chorale
cadences are perfect (V-I).
Could be scale- Could be
Interval
degrees ... cadence ...
V-I (less often, V-

Descending tone 2-1
vi)
3-2 (major only) V-I
6-5 IV-I
Descending
8-7 I-V
semitone
3-2 (minor only) i-V
Ascending tone 2-3 (major only) V-I
1-2 I-V
V-I (less often, V-

Ascending semitone 7-8
vi)
Descending major
7-5
third
5-3 (minor only) V-i
Descending minor
5-3 (major only) V-I (or ii -V)
third
Descending fifth 2-5 V6 - I
Repeated note 1-1 IV-I
5-5 V-I OR I-V
Some embellishments of the most common

perfect cadences:
Although the final chord of a cadence should

always be in root position, Bach employs a
number common cadential patterns in which the
penultimate chord is not in root position. Because
it is harder to write non root position cadences
effectively you should avoid doing so unless you
follow a particular formula used by Bach such as
the two below:
Quick Reminder: Harmonising Cadences

voice-
harmon
| leadin
y
g
There are a number of guidelines that you should

bear in mind when you are writing four-part
cadences in the style of a Bach chorale. Some of
these guidelines can be considered as rules, but
most concern part-writing that is characteristic
and the various considerations have to be
weighed against each other.
The last two chords of a cadence are almost
always in root position. You should only use
inversions if you are following a standard
cadential formula (e.g. ascending quavers in the
bass at an imperfect cadence)
Texture
 all three notes of the triad should be present
in each chord
 it is best to double the root
 it is fine to double the third in first inversion
chords
 it is good to double the fifth in a cadential six-
four
 never double the seventh
 the largest gap should between the tenor and
the bass
Motion between the voices
 never move to a fifth or octave
in parallel motion
 avoid motion to a fifth or octave in similar
motion
 it is best to have some contrary motion
between the voices although cadences are
the places where this guideline is least often
followed
 parts should rarely (if ever) cross over
Individual parts
 parts should usually move by as small an
interval as possible (except for the bass)
 it is therefore best to keep notes in common
between the two chords in the same voice
 a fifth is the absolute maximum leap
 the voices should mostly stay within the
following ranges:
soprano - c1 to g2; alto - g to d2; tenor - c to
f1; bass - E to c1 [this system of note-
labelling is explained in basics]
 Bass Lines
ascending descending
introduction
lines lines
 One of the simplest types of tonal phrase

begins on the tonic and ends with a perfect
cadence in the tonic. It is obvious that all
such phrases follow the same pattern:
I - (series of chords) - V - I
 We tend to think of music - particularly the
Bach chorales used in teaching - as a melody
accompanied by a series of chords. The aim
of this tutorial is to offer a complementary
way of looking at musical phrases in terms of
their bass line. This will be helpful both when
you are asked to analyse and write tonal
phrases.
 The short phrase below follows the pattern
referred to above - it starts on the tonic and
ends with a perfect cadence in the tonic.
From an analytical point of view, how does
the music fill in this basic framework in terms
of its bassline? From a practical one, what
can you learn from this phrase that you can
apply when writing your own?
Outline of Method for Realising Figured Bass

(don't forget to check your work at the end according to
the CHECKLIST)
Stage One
Start by realising the figured bass purely
mechanically. You should add the minimal number
of notes needed in the order in which they are
figured so that you are absolutely sure that you have
not made any mistakes - problems at this stage will
be magnified as you proceed!
More details and help can be found in Figured Bass
Method - Stage I.
Stage Two
Now rearrange the notes to produce a very simple
realisation with no voice-leading mistakes. This
level will be the foundation upon which you write
your final realisation. The freer writing of your final
stage will work better if it is based on strictly
'correct' voice-leading at this stage (the pages
on interval succession and resolution of tension may
help):
 each voice should move relatively smoothly from
one note to the next. There should not be too many
leaps at this stage, although your final realisation
can include quite large leaps.
 think about the relationship between the top voice
and the solo part - they might move in contrary
motion, parallel thirds or sixths. The top part of the
keyboard might occasionally be a simplified version
of the solo part. Variation is good! Make sure the
relationship changes from phrase to phrase as
appropriate
 make sure that suspensions and sevenths are
prepared and resolved appropriately, you also need
to check that leading notes resolve properly
Stage Three
You now need to make your keyboard part more
melodically and rhythmically interesting (i.e. turn it
into music!). The page of examples of figured bass
embellishment deals with this in more detail, but the
following shows the sort of rhythmic and melodic
embellishments that would be appropriate.
Return to previous page
Music 1 & 2 (home)

schedule
Mechanical Realisation of Figured Bass

(Stage I of Figured Bass Method)
The first step to producing convincing baroque
continuo keyboard parts is undestanding figured
bass. Figured bass is a shorthand: composers
wrote a bassline plus as few figures as can
convey the harmonic gist.
1. refer to the table below and fill in the missing
figures (you need to do this because figured bass
is a short hand). 6, for example, becomes 6 / 3
2. for each figure count the relevant number of
notes up from the written bass note (the bass
note is counted as 1) and write it on the stave
above
3. if a figure has a flat or sharp insert one before
the relevant note (remember that 4 does not
necessarily mean a perfect fourth - a fourth
above F in C major is augmented unless it is
followed by a sign)
Short hand Full

Type of chord Example
figuring figuring
Nothing o 5 Root position
r 3 or triad
6 First inversion
6
3 triad
6 6 Second inversion
4 4 triad
7
Root position
7 5
seventh
3
6
6 First inversion
5
5 seventh
3
6
4 Second inversion
4
3 seventh
3
6
4 Third inversion
4
2 seventh
2
5
4-3 Suspension
4-3
Music 1 & 2 (home)
schedule
Startcentre | Refe
rence Guide
Some Examples of
Figured Bass
Embellishment
(to help with Stage III
of Figured Bass
Method))
Continuo parts are not
usually highly
embellished, but there
should be rhythmic and
motivic variation across
each movement (which
will usually reflect such
changes in the solo part).
The following examples
show some possible
embellishments of the
upper line of a three-part
keyboard texture.
You first need to decide
on the underlying type of
motion (basically stepwise
or arpeggiated). You can
then decorate the basic
motion with a mixture
of passing
notes, neighbour notes,
and anticipations. There
are an unlimited number
of combinations and
rhythmic variations - these
examples are just to get
you thinking along the
right lines.
The basic motion in the
top line of the following
example is stepwise (a).
This might be decorated
with a leap followed by an
accented passing note as
in (b), or by neighbour
notes (c):
The basic motion in the

next example is an
arpeggio (a). The simplest
decoration of this is a
simple quaver passing
note (b), or alternatively it
might be decorated with a
more elaborate mixture of
neighbour and passing
notes (c):
In this final example, the
two upper voices are
turned into a semiquaver
broken-chord figuration
(b):
Learning from Handel - Reverse Engineering a

Keyboard Extract
exerci comme
|
se nts
The following extract is from a Handel Fantasia

for keyboard. It is a little more complex than most
continuo parts but gives a good idea of how to
write stylistically for keyboard. The other main
difference is that, for continuo writing, the left
hand contains the bass line ONLY with everything
else in the right hand.
First add figured bass to the example then take
your own figured bass and realise it in the
simplest way possible according to the first two
stages of the method we have been using.
Write down any lessons that you can learn - if you

were trying to produce a similar short keyboard
extracts what embellishing characteristics could
you copy?
When you have done this, have a look at the
comments on the following page.
Keyboard Extract
exerci comme
|
se nts

you copy?
Keyboard Extract
exerci comme
|
se nts


you copy?
Keyboard Extract
exerci comme
|
se nts


you copy?
Keyboard Extract
exerci comme
|
se nts


you copy?
Keyboard Extract
exerci comme
|
se nts

you copy?
Keyboard Extract
exerci comme
|
se nts

you copy?
Keyboard Extract
exerci comme
|
se nts


you copy?
Startcentre | Reference
Guide
Figured Bass - a Brief Checklist

(the final stage of the Method for
Realising Figured Bass)
Basics
 Check the figures are realised correctly (!)
 Check accidentals
 The left hand (on the bass stave) should
only play the bass line, with all other notes
in the right hand (on the treble stave)
 The treble stave should be playable with
one hand (!)
Voice-leading and Texture

 Check that suspensions and sevenths are
properly prepared and resolved
 Check that doublings are correct
 Check for parallel octaves and fifths
 Progression between parts should mostly
be as smooth as possible (leaps should be a
deliberate motivic effect)
Stylistic Considerations
 The writing should be appropriate for the
tempo marking
 Sequences should be realised sequentially!
 Texture can be varied from one phrase to
the next
 The rhythmic and the melodic relationship
of the treble stave to the solo line should be
varied and should always feel like an
independent part
 Check for �rhythmic holes�

Realising Figured Bass - Doubling Guidelines
You will sometimes want to write four-voiced
textures and, while seventh chords have four
different notes, for triads this will mean doubling
one of the three notes. If you want to write
authentic sounding baroque keyboard music,
there are conventions about which notes to
double.
The following guidelines are based on no lesser
authority than J. S. Bach�s 1738 Precepts and
Principles For Playing the Thorough-Bass or
Accompanying in Four Parts (translated by
Pamela Poulin for the Clarendon Press in 1994).
The large notes in the examples show the figured
notes while the small notes show the preferred
doubling.
Root position triads

Double the root, although you have to
watch out for parallel octaves.
First inversion triads
The third is the most characteristic
doubling and the next most preferable
is the octave.
Second inversion triads

Double the fifth, which becomes the
root in the following chord in the
characteristic cadential six-four.
Suspension (4-3)
As with the ordinary root position
triad, the root is the most characteristic
doubling
Suspension (9-8)
The resolution of the suspension
automatically doubles the root, so it is
best to add the fifth in the four part
texture for the suspended chord.
Writing a Haydn Menuetto

A good way to really get inside the style of a
composer is to try and recreate the experience of
composing one of their pieces. This is of course
impossible, but you can get a taste by trying the
pastiche exercise suggested here.
These pages take you through the composition of
a quartet extract that uses the structure of the first
eight bars of the Menuetto from one quartet with
motifs stolen from another. Below is a step-by-
step method for doing this sort of exercise which
you should then try yourself, perhaps with a
slightly longer extract. The model here is Haydn's
Op. 33 no. 4.
Step One
Choose a model for your Menuetto - Haydn's Op.
33 quartets offer some good examples that are
also not too long. Photocopy and annotate
thoroughly, marking the following on the score:
 harmony - one chord per bar and a few more
running up to cadences is probably enough
detail most of the time (label the harmony on
every beat and it will be almost impossible to
copy with different motifs)
 phrase structure (e.g. the first section of a
menuett might be 2+2+4 bars)
 motivic structure - break down the main
melodic material into short motifs of around a
bar in length and mark where they appear
with X, Y etc. You can also mark where
variants are used.
 accompanying figures - some figures may
be melodic and deserve a label (A, B etc)
others may be an arpeggio figuration, a held
chord etc. in which case describe them.
 texture - show who is playing with who (e.g.
violin I in thirds with violin II or lower three
parts in rhythmic unison)
 dynamics - make a note of the dynamics,
you may decide to do something different but
it is good to be aware.
An example of eight bars marked up in this
way: Menuetto from Op. 33/4.
Step Two
 write a out blank template for a string quartet
marked up with the details noted in the step
one
 write closed position triads according to the
harmonic structure in thecello line for
reference when you are composing (to make
life easier you might want to transpose the
whole harmonic structure into C major).
 find some motivic material in another Haydn
quartet to use as a basis for your Menuetto.
Do not choose anything too elaborate.
 work out and label the harmonic implications
of your motifs so you are ready to transpose
them to fit the harmonies of your template
where necessary.
Example of Step Two.
Step Three
This is the hard bit where you learn the most and
this web page can help you the least! Try and
follow as many details of your model as possible -
you will have to play around with your material to
make it work.
 put in main motifs (and appropriate) where
they are marked in the score, transposing
them to fit the harmonies. If two parts are
playing the motifs in thirds, unison or octaves,
do the same in your version
 write melodic accompanying figures where
marked - these will have to be written to fit
the motifs you have chosen
 fill in other accompanying parts such as
chords, held notes or arpeggiated figurations.
An example of Step Three
Step Four
Now step back from your Menuetto and check it.
This last step is just as important as the first
three. You need to check carefully for voice-
leading and any other mistakes and also for
anything that feels awkward or un-Haydnesque.
Don't be afraid to change it freely until you feel it
works.
The finished product!
Startcentre | Refer
ence Guide
Haydn: String Writing Basics
range articulation
The following gives the normal ranges for string

instruments in a Haydn Menuetto. All three
instruments can play much higher than this but
remember that the bottom notes of these ranges
are absolutes - players cannot play below them
without retuning their instruments!
The open strings are given to help you decide on

whether any double stopping you are asking for is
possible (see next page for examples).
Chords and Scales
diaton diaton chroma
introducti triad embellish
ic ic tic
on s ed chords
scales chords chords
The Reference Guide and the ToolKIT are designed to

be used together to help cement your knowledge of how
tonal music works.
Much of the reference guide is organised into different

types of chord progressions, but it presumes some
understanding of voice-leading. It is important that you
look at the substantial introduction to this subject before
browsing around the rest of site:
As well as reading the more general Introduction to

Tonality, you will probably need to look at the way in
which chords and voice-leading are labelled in
TonalityGUIDE - a mixture of Roman numerals and
figured bass.
Why Scales?
Historically, Western music has been discussed
largely in terms of interacting melodic lines. While
the progressions of chords that are the result of
these interactions have always been extremely
important (particularly the concept of consonant
and dissonant combinations), the first treatises
on harmony as it is commonly taught today did
not appear until the eighteenth century.
A variety of different scales were employed by
Western musicians up to around 1600, when
major and minor started to predominate. These
two scales are part of a group of so-
called church modes that began to be codified
some time in the ninth century. The church
modes each have a note (sometimes called the
final) on which pieces written using them tend to
end. The idea of having a chord towards which
the music gravitates became increasingly
important in music after 1600.
When we say a piece is 'in a key', we mean that a
particular note and chord lies at the centre of
gravity of the music. As discussed in
the Introduction to Tonality, this sense comes
from the hierarchical relationships established
between notes and chords constructed from
major or minor scales. These relationships are
only meaningful in the context of the tonal music
that has created them, but this section of the
reference guide explains the organisation of the
pitches of the scale on which they are ultimately
based.
Chords and Scales
diaton
diaton chroma
introducti triad ic embellish
ic tic
on s chord ed chords
scales chords
s
major | minor
page page page
| |
1 2 3
Notes of the scale on which a passage of tonal

music is based are called diatonic to distinguish
them from the other notes of
the chromatic scale. Diatonic is a relative term
because a Db, for example, would be diatonic in
a passage based on a Db major scale, but
chromatic in a passage based on a C major
scale.
The major scale is so familiar that it is easy to
take it for granted, and comparing it to other
scales is a good way of highlighting its properties.
The whole-tone scale, for example, is made up of
all the same intervals, while the major scale is a
mixture of tones and semitones.
The major scale audibly divides the octave into
two groups of Tone-Tone-Semitone as shown in
the example below. Because the two groups that
make up the whole-tone scale consist of three
major seconds a major second apart, they do not
make the division of the octave audible in the
same way. The consequences of this are
discussed on page 2 of this section.
[T = tone (major 2nd); ST = semitone (minor 2nd)]
Take 5 minutes away from your computer to
play or sing these scales and compare how
they sound and feel. The best thing to do is to
play each right through and then repeat the
scale stopping on a different note each time.
You will probably find that stopping on any
note of the whole tone scale feels much the
same but that the dynamics of the major
scale are more complex.
Chords and Scales

diaton
diaton chroma
ic tic
scales chords
s
major | minor
Unlike the major scale, the harmonic minor has

no exact equivalent in the older system of church
modes. Both the Aeolian and Dorian modes
contain the characteristic group of four notes that
begin the minor scale (labelled y). If tonal music
was logical rather than practical, the Dorian
mode, with its division of the octave into two
identical groups, would be the obvious minor
equivalent to the major scale.
The minor scale is a good example of how tonal
music creates tonality rather than the other way
round. What makes it confusing from a theoretical
point of view is that it changes according to
context. Theorists in the past have perhaps
worried too much about trying to present the tonal
system as logical; the minor scale is not a product
of theoretical logic but of practical usage.
The Aeolian mode is sometimes called the

'natural minor', but this is not in fact the group of
notes that most minor key music is based on.
Chords in minor key pieces tend to draw their
notes from the harmonic minor scale in the
example below. However, composers tend to
avoid writing melodic lines that contain
the augmented second of the harmonic minor.
The second example below shows how it is often
altered to produce a smoother flow. The
modifications are different for ascending and
descending melodies.
Although these modifications make some melodic

sense, you have to wonder why the harmonic
minor scale contains an augmented second in the
first place ...
To understand the reason why the seventh is

sharpened, you have to look beyond a theoretical
discussion of scales and triads to the sorts of
chord progressions on which the rest of this
reference guide concentrates. In particular you
have to understand a little about the history
of cadences.
The examples below show two types of cadence
based on the natural (Aeolian) and harmonic
minor scales, with the seventh degree highlighted
in red in each case. Those marked a) are typical
of vocal music before 1600, while those marked
b) can be found in a wide range of music since.
Listen carefully to the difference between two
versions. The Aeolian may sound a little strange
because cadences without the seventh scale
degree sharpened are so unusual.
Cadenc Cadences in which the upper voice

e a) finished with the ascent of a tone (like
the Aeolian version) were increasingly
considered less final than those in
which the interval in the upper voice
was a rising semitone. The Ionian
mode (the predecessor of the major
scale) naturally finished in this way but
it became more and more common for
the seventh to be sharpened in modes
where this was not the case.
As the common practice major-minor
system became more established in
the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, the preference for rising
Cadenc
semitones at cadences persisted. As
e b)
a result, chord V in perfect
cadences is invariably a major triad
so that the seventh degree rises by
semitone to the tonic.
Because the sharpened seventh degree of the scale

is said to 'lead' more finally to the tonic, it is often
called the leading note. As explained elsewhere on
TonalityGUIDE, the leading note is very important for
establishing the sense of 'being in a key' and
therefore also for modulations.
Startcentre | Refer
ence Guide
Chords and Scales
diato
diato chrom embellis
introduc tria nic
nic atic hed
tion ds chord
s
A thorough understanding of the different types

of triads and their inversions is so important that
this information is duplicated in the ToolKIT.
Even if you are confident you know all about
triads it is worth briefly scanning this page to
refresh your memory
Triads
The triad, along with the scale, is one of the
basic units of tonal music. It usually refers to a
particular kind of three note chord that consists
of two intervals of a third stacked one on top of
the other.
The triad constructed from thirds is special
because it is the only possible type of three-note
chord that is completely consonant. Any other
combination of intervals would include a
dissonant interval of a second or seventh
(or compound versions of these intervals).
The only other consonant three-note chords (i.e.
triads containing a third or a fourth) are in
fact inversions of triads constructed from thirds.
[many theorists have suggested that the triad is
based on the harmonic series]
With two different types of third (major and

minor) there are four possible permutations, as
shown in the example below. How these
function in the tonal system is the main subject
of this web site, but it is generally true that
major and minor triads are considered more
stable in most tonal styles. Augmented and
diminished triads usually resolve to a major or
minor triad and in some earlier styles only the
major triad was considered stable enough to end
a whole piece.
lower third upper third name
1 major minor major triad
2 minor major minor triad
3 major major augmented triad

4 minor minor diminished triad
Inversions of intervals
An interval is inverted by moving the bottom
note of the interval up an octave so that it is
above what was previously the top note. It is
called an inversion because by putting the
bottom note at the top, you are turning the
interval upsidedown. The example below shows
the common diatonic intervals and their
inversions (click here to see the inversions of all
the other various intervals):
Inversions of triads
Triads can be also be inverted by moving the
bottom note up an octave. Because triads consist
of three notes, they can be inverted twice as in
the example below. The bottom note of a triad in
its original position, arranged as a stack of two
thirds, is called the root and so is said to to be
in root position. The names for the two
inversions speak for themselves:
The inversions of the C major triad can be rearranged
without necessarily changing the inversion. For
example, the first C major triad below is arranged so
that the three notes are as close together as possible.
A triad arranged arranged like this is said to be
in 'close position'). In the second example below, the
C major triad is is spread out but the root is still at the
bottom. While it is still in root position it is now said
to be in 'open position'.
In all these examples the notes of a C major triad

have been re-arranged in various ways and while
this considerably changes their sound, they are
all recognisably C major triads. This is clear if
you compare the sound of them as as group with,
for example, a C augmented or E flat minor
triad.
TIP: if you want to know if a three-note chord is
based on a triad constructed from thirds, and
which triad it is, you can try re-arranging it as a
stack of thirds
Chords and Scales

ic ic tic
on s ed chords
Major | Minor
chords
short A simple piece of tonal music in
progs. the key of, for example, C major
longer will mostly
progs. use triads constructed from
the diatonic scale of that key.
The example below shows the seven

different root position triads that can be
constructed from a diatonic scale of C major.
These are the only consonant triads available
other than their various inversions. The below
are a mixture of major (I, IV and V), minor (ii, iii
and vi) and diminished (vii). As discussed on
the triadspage, in most tonal styles, diminished
triads are considered to be unstable and in some
styles, minor triads are thought of as less stable
than major ones.
[Not sure about the chord labels? Look in the chord

identification section of the ToolKIT linked to at bottom of this
page]
The major triads of I, IV and V are particularly

important for establishing the key and mode (i.e.
major/minor) of a passage of tonal music:
 most obviously, I, IV and V are major triads
and their use emphasises the major sound
(compare with the minor)
 a melody based on chord I (see the section
on harmonisation in the introduction) can
be transposed to either IV or V without much
change
 as discussed in the section on the major
scale , the interval of a fifth has special
significance in tonal music. Triads a fifth apart
such as I, IV and V are considered to be
particularly closely related
Tonal music is created by progressions rather
than single chords. The links in the blue triangle
below link to information about a wide range of
shorter and longer chord progressions.
Chords and Scales
ic ic tic
on s ed chords
Major | Minor
Because the diatonic minor scale has different

forms in different contexts, the chords based on it
are also more fluid. The example below shows
the chords based on the natural or Aeolian minor
scale with those based on the harmonic scale
(with its sharpened leading note) in square
brackets.
As in the major scale i, iv and v are still related by
fifth, but in the natural minor they are all minor
triads rather than major. It is the fact that tonic,
subdominant and dominant triads are minor that
defines the sound of minor key music. As
discussed in the section on the diatonic minor
scale, however, the leading note of the minor
scale is usually sharpened in order to enhance
the finality of the perfect cadences from V to I.
[If you need a reminder of the functional names of chords, go to the Toolkit and look in
Basics]
If the major and minor scale are opposite in terms

of the tonic, subdominant and dominant, III and
VI, which are minor triads in major keys are also
reversed to become major. The difference is even
more fundamental for these chords because the
roots are different: III is a minor third above the
tonic and VI a major third below rather than the
other way around. This reinforces the
fundamental difference in sound between major
and minor key music.
Chords ii and vii in the harmonic minor are the
same as in the major - they are minor triads
related to the tonic by a tone and semitone
respectively. In the natural minor the root of vii is
flattened, but this is less commonly in tonal music
vii based on a raised subtonic.
Chords and Scales
diaton
diaton chroma
ic tic
scales chords
s
Page Page
|
one two
Most dissonant notes are best

chords understood in terms of the melodic
embellishments introduced in the
short
Toolkit. However, the addition of a
progs.
sevenths, ninths elevenths and
longer thirteenths above the root of a triad
progs.
have traditionally been discussed
as chords in their own right
- harmonic rather than melodic
embellishments of triads. The next
page discusses how these chords
are usually the result of voice-
leading. These chords are briefly
introduced below - follow the
various links for more
comprehensive discussions of
these chords in context.
Sevenths
The addition of a seventh above the root to
a triad is so common that there is some
justification for discussing these as chords in
their own right.
Five different types of seventh chord can be
constructed based on the diatonic triads of the
major and minor scales with the addition of the
seventh. These are shown in the example below,
but the various types are discussed in more
detail in the diatonic short progressions section.
The five types are:
 dominant
 major
 minor
 half-diminished
 diminished
You can find out the closest position (and

therefore the root) of any chord by rearranging it
as a stack of thirds. The following example
shows a seventh chord in inversion and then
rearranged in root and close position:
Ninths, Elevenths and Thirteenths

The seventh is constructed by adding a third to
a root position triad and a whole group of
embellished triads can be formed by adding
further thirds. Ninths, elevenths and thirteenths
above the root do not, however, play such an
important functional role in most tonal styles.
The example below adds successive thirds to a
G major triad up until the interval of a 13th above
the root (a 15th would simply double the root by
adding another G!). As seen in later examples,
thirteenth chords often do not contain the whole
stack of thirds, typically omitting the ninth and/or
eleventh:
In most tonal styles ninth, eleventh and

thirteenth chords arise principally as a result of
melodic decoration. In other words they are
primarily a horizontalphenomenon rather than
a vertical one. Examples illustrating this point
can be found on page two of the section on
embellished chords.
Short Progressions
introduction diatonic chromatic
This section builds on the

concepts introduced in 'Chords
and Scales' and divides into two
main parts: progressions in
short
which all the notes are drawn
progs.
from the diatonic scale, and
longer progressions that
progs. involve chromatically altered
notes. If you are looking for a
particular chord or progression,
why not look in the definitions
bank at the top of this page.
Diatonic Progressions
A survey of two-chord progressions organised
according to the interval between the roots of the
two chords. Particularly important with such short
progressions are the various types
of cadence that punctuate tonal music.
Chromatic Progressions
There are many possible progressions involving
chromatically altered chords. Over the centuries a
relatively small number of chromatic progression
have been used particularly frequently and this
section looks some of the most common.
information and orientation

as you browse around
TonalityGUIDE.com
chord
identification
understanding
voice-leading
style awareness
Top
Back
© Copyright Thomas Pankhurst
Short Progressions

introduction | fifths | seconds | thirds
As discussed in the introduction to
tonality, tonal music is partly defined
by the sense of 'being in a key'. This
section on short diatonic
chords progressions of chords asks two
short main questions:
progs.
 how strongly does the progression
longer establish the key from which the
progs. chords are drawn?
 does the progression feel open (the
music is unfinished and requires
continuation), or closed (a sense of
finality)? put another way, does the
progression
create tension or resolution?
What do we mean when we say music

is open, closed or that it creates
tension or resolution? Even the
concepts of ascending and descending
musical motion, or motion towards and
away from the tonic are all metaphors.
The assumptions behind these
metaphors are discussed briefly on
the Music and Metaphor page.
The progressions in this section are organised

according to the interval between the roots of the
two chords (fifth, second or third). Only the first of
the examples below involves a fifth in the bass,
but the other two involve the
same harmonic progression by fifth.
 in the second example, the bass moves by
perfect fourth which is the inversion of a
perfect fifth
 in the third example, the harmonic
progression by fifth is disguised by the fact
that chord V is in first inversion triad are
harmonically equivalent
Short Progressions
perfect imperfect plagal seventh

introduction | | | |
cadence cadence cadence chords
The perfect fifth is one of the

most fundamental relationships
chords in tonal music. This section
short discusses the progressions
progs. between chords related by this
interval, but fifths play an
longer
important role at every level,
progs.
from the construction of the
major scale to understanding
the relationship between keys.
Most of the two-chord progressions discussed on
these pages are cadences at the end of phrases,
but, as discussed in the introduction to perfect
cadences, it is important to remember that chord
progressions by fifth also occur at the beginning
and middle of phrases.
One of the most interesting aspects of fifth
progressions is the way in which descending
fifths are generally understood to generate a
feeling of closure and release of tension while
ascending fifths have become associated with
opening and increase in tension.
The origins of the perfect cadence (a descending
fifth) as the most closed ending can be found in
earlier repertoires. In music of the sixteenth
century and earlier voice-leading was more
important that harmony in creating a sense of
closure. The example below shows the most
common closing gestures - the major sixth
moving in contrary motion to an octave and the
minor third (its inversion) moving in the opposite
direction onto a unison. Perhaps part of the
reason that a perfect cadence in the example
below (V - I) sounds more final that, for example,
V-ii or I-V (both rising fifths) is the fact that it
incorporates this voice-leading pattern.
Whatever the reason, the rising fifth chord
progression as opening and the falling one as
closing is so ingrained in our culture that it has to
be accepted as a fact of musical life to
understand much of the tonal repertoire.
Short Progressions

cadential
introduction | ii-V-I | | suspension
6/4
The perfect cadence with its falling fifth (or rising

fourth) in the bass is the most characteristic
succession of chords in the common
practice tonal system. This progression
from tonic to dominant ends the vast majority of
tonal pieces, and is considered to be the cadence
that produces the strongest feeling of closure,
resolution and stability. It is probably because of
this it is also felt to be the progression that most
strongly establishes the sense being in a key,
especially after a modulation.
At the end of a piece, section or phrase, both

chords of a perfect cadence are most often
in root position (as in the above example).
However, V - I progressions often play an equally
important role in defining a sense of key at any
point in a phrase.
As is discussed in page that introduces the minor
scale, the leading note is sharpened in the minor
in order to mimic the voice-leading and harmony
of the perfect cadence in the major, which is felt
to be more final. The second of the two examples
above has an added seventh and this intensifies
the sense of resolution. V7 is known as
the dominant seventh.
Both ordinary perfect cadences and those
involving dominant sevenths are commonly found
at the beginnning and middle of tonal phrases as
well as at the end. The can be used in a variety
of inversions, as in the examples below. The first
example is from the opening of a movement - the
key is established with a I - V - I progression in
root position. In the second, the progression from
a third inversion V7 to a first inversion I
harmonises the beginning of a phrase in the
middle of a piece.
Chords IV and V are the only two major triads separated

by a major second in the major system. It is perhaps
slightly surprising that the cadence considered most
important for establishing a sense of key does not
involve a similarly unique relationship: there are two
instances of major triads separated by a perfect fifth:
V/I and IV/I.
Partly because the succession I - IV is the same as
V - I it is quite easy to modulate to the
subdominant (one step flatwards on the circle of
fifths). In such cases the tonic becomes the
dominant of the new key.
In the following example from a Bach chorale, the
first two chords sound initially like a perfect
cadence in C major - this sort of ambiguity was
increasingly exploited towards the end of the
nineteenth century.
Short Progressions

An imperfect cadence is any cadential

progression that ends on V. Three are particularly
common and two of these involve the relationship
of a perfect fifth. The third in the example below
(C) is discussed along with other progressions
that involve the interval of a second.
The progression from I to V (A in the example
below) is the exact reverse of the perfect cadence
and is therefore has the opposite effect. If the
perfect cadence is considered as a closing
gesture - bringing a sense of resolution- the
progression from I to V is an open gesture. At the
beginning of a phrase an opening gesture might
be expected, but when a phrase ends I - V (an
imperfect cadence) it introduces a tension that
listeners have come to expect to be resolved by a
later perfect cadence.
The progression from ii to V (B in the example
above) also involves the relationship of a fifth.
This is involved in the most common cadential
progression - ii-V-I). When it apppears at the end
of a phrase it therefore V sets up and then denies
the expectation of a further progression to I.
Again, this could be interpreted as creating
tension. This progression often appears, as in the
example, with the ii in first inversion.
An example of an imperfect
cadence in A minor taken from a
Bach chorale. In passages in a
major key, I and V are both major
triads, but in the minor, the
imperfect cadence goes from a
minor to major triad:
Short Progressions

Like the imperfect cadence, the plagal cadence

(IV - I) is a progression by ascending perfect fifth.
Although it is quite common in liturgical music, it
is generally considered to be less emphatic than
a perfect cadence.
The two examples below show plagal cadences
as they are most often found at the end of piece,
with the bass moving by descending fourth.
The following example is of a plagal cadence at

the end of the first phrase of a Bach chorale.
Here the effect is even less final, and, out of
context, it would be easy to mistake the second
bar for an imperfect cadence in G major (would
be quite common to intensify by sharpening the
C).
Short Progressions
interrupted
introduction | VII-I | | IV-V
cadence
short
Chord progressions by major and
progs. minor second are a common
longer feature of all tonal styles. They can
progs. appear at any points in the phrase,
as the example below shows.
This example contains more progressions by a

second than you might usually expect to find in
one phrase. When trying to write in the style of
Bach (and most other tonal composers) you have
to be careful to avoid parallel fifths when using
this sort of of progression. The page on IV-
V progressions gives an example of this potential
problem.
Short Progressions

interrupted
cadence
Because vii is a diminished triad and therefore

considered unstable, the progression from this
chord to the much more stable tonic produces a
strong sense of tension resolution. As shown in
the example below, it functions as a sort of
substitute for the dominant - being the same
notes as a dominant seventh but without the
root.
This example from a Haydn String Quartet shows

the overlap in function between vii and V. The
effect at the end of the first bar and beginning of
the third is of dominant seventh to tonic, but
strictly speaking the chord in both cases is vii,
because there is no F in the chord.
Short Progressions
introduction | VII-I | interrupted | IV-V
A progression from V-vi at the end of a phrase is

known as an interrupted cadence. It is called
interrupted because the vi substitutes for I in what
would otherwise be a perfect cadence. The
submediant and tonic chords have two notes in
common, but because vi is a minor triad, and the
perfect cadence is such a strong resolution, the effect
is quite striking.
Interrupted cadences are a common feature

of the playful classical style, which constantly
plays with the listener's expectations. Here a
vi delays the expected arrival of I of a perfect
cadence after the progression ii to V7 (when
this phrase repeats, after the end of the
example, the music does finally arrive on I).
Short Progressions
interrupted
cadence
in minor keys
in major keys | (Phrygian
cadence)
The progression between subdominant and dominant

immediately defines the key of a piece, because these
are the only two major diatonic triads that are related
by a major second. It is partly for this reason that the
progression IV-V-I is considered by many to be one of
the fundamental progressions in tonal music. If you
include this progression in your own work, however,
you have to be careful to avoid the parallel fifths that
occur in the second example below.
The example below shows a simple cadential
progression with IV preceding a perfect cadence. Much
more common than this is the progression ii-V-I. ii and
IV share all but one note so they are closely related to
each other, and in fact some textbooks consider ii6/5 (a
first inversion supertonic seventh chord) to be a
subdominant chord with an added sixth.
Short Progressions
introduction | falling | rising
short
progs. Notes, chords and keys related by
perfect fifth are discussed in detail in
longer
various sections of TonalityGUIDE, but
major and minor thirds also play an
progs.
important role - particularly in harmonic
progressions.
One of the most common modulations is

between relative major and minor, and this relationship
is explained in the relevant section in terms of the
number of notes in common between the two scales.
Looking at the third relationship as a harmonic
progression, another relationship becomes clear. As
can be seen below, diatonic triads a third apart differ in
only one of their notes.
As discussed in the section on diatonic triads, the tonic,

subdominant and dominant (I, IV and V ) are
particularly important for establishing a sense of key
and mode. Because they is only one note different, the
two chords a third either side of I, IV and V can be
substituted for them in progressions more easily than
other chords.
Some theorists and analysts have suggested that I - IV
- V - I is the progression that establishes a sense of
key in the simplest way. The third relationship between
ii and IV would in this way account for the strength of
the progression I - ii - V - I, and the interrupted cadence
(V - vi) could also be explained in this way.
Short Progressions
The falling third from I to vi is often found at the

beginning of major key music, particularly Bach
chorales. The effect of the example below is of a
further descending third between the strong first and
third beats of the bar - vi to IV. The progression I - vi is
the opening of very common progression in tonal music
from Bach to the Beatles: I - vi - ii - V - I - a descending
third followed by three descending fifths.
The second example shows the same progression of
two descending third - this time without any
interpolated chords. The i - VI opening is not so
common in minor keys as it is in the major, at least as
far as Bach is concerned.
Short Progressions
Whilst the harmonic progression of a falling third is

often found in tonal music, that of the rising third is very
uncommon, at least in direct succession. This is
perhaps surprising, given that the rising minor third is
the harmonic succession from minor to relative major.
It is difficult to say why this might be, but in the context
of older tonal styles, direct progression by rising third
does sound somehow awkward and is rarely found:
When a harmonic progression by rising third occurs in

Bach's chorales, it is usually only in passing as in the
example below:
Although direct rising third harmonic progressions are

rare, progressions such as that in the example below
are very common. The harmony progresses from I - iii,
passing through ii in on the way.
2 Voice-
leading

Voice-leading is the way the different parts work together. These are the
main things you need to worry about in order to make your composition
stylistic:
Spacing and Doubling
S
 Chords are usually spaced with the largest gaps at the bottom (i.e. between the l
create a darker, murkier texture. In a basic MDH texture your bass instruments wil
murkiness.
 Parts avoid crossing unnecessarily (particularly above a melody at the top of the
 It is normal to include all the notes of a triad or seventh (although the fifth or the
latter)
 The most common note to double in a chord is the root

Leaps
L 

Avoid unnecessary leaps in melodies (a dramatic leap in a melody is fine – a rand
probably not)
Avoid two large leaps in the same direction
Augmented and diminished intervals

 In melodies, be aware of augmented and diminished intervals (particularly augm
overuse them your melody will sound odd.
P
Parallels (5ths / 8ves)
 Avoid consecutive parallel octaves and fifths, particularly between the melody an
 Octaves used to double a melodic line or the bass line as reinforcement are fine

4 Texture
and Sonority
New Resources (including tracks)
 Basic textures for String Quartet and Orchestra – some simple but
effective quartet and orchestral textures to use as inspiration for
composing (these are the basic ones suggested as part of a method
for composing a Classical theme)
 Minuet Textures
 Comprehensive guide to writing for string instruments, including
summary of main techniques (further orchestral Examples can be
found here)
 Writing for Piano
Older resources (without tracks)
 Basic string Quartet Textures (mostly duplicated in the new

resource above)
 List of Orchestral influences (this is a union list of examples, some
of which are explained more fully on Moodle)
 Links to notes on orchestral instruments (ranges etc.)
 Percussion basics
Minuet
Examples
Beethoven Op. 18 No. 2, Trio
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Mozart K464
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Haydn Op. 33 No. 2, Minuet
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Haydn Op. 33 No. 2, Trio
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Haydn Op. 33 No. 1
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Mozart K169
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1 String
Writing (Intr
oduction)
You can find some general introductory examples on this
page. Further and more specific examples are organised as
follows:
 Pizzicato and Double Stopping
 Open Strings and Vibrato
 Tremolo
 Bow Placement (sul pont. and sul tasto etc.)
 Other Bowing Techniques (off the string, col legno etc.)
 Harmonics
 Muted timbres and glissando
String instruments are played with a horsehair bow drawn

across the strings by the right hand to make them vibrate.
The left hand, meanwhile, ‘stops’ the strings in order to
create different notes. This handout documents some of the
effects that can be created on string instruments using a
variety of techniques
As with any instrument, simply using a mixture of slurs and
staccato can make a huge difference to the character of a
melodic idea as in this example by Mozart:
Mozart String Quartet KV 157 I: bb. 1-8
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In this example from a Schubert string quartet the choice of
articulation and dynamics creates the character of the music:
 the fz markings add energy and emphasize the phrases the
slurring in small groups of two and three in the second line
create a more legato effect but create a more energetic
delivery than longer slurs would
 the semiquavers in the inner parts have no articulation and
therefore are quite neutral

Schubert Op. 125/1 Allegro
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In music before the twentieth century, dynamics were most

often used either to determine the general character of
melodies or shape them. You will find lots of these type of
dynamic markings in the examples of string quartets
elsewhere on Moodle.
In this handout, the focus is mostly on special playing
techniques, but even dynamics and ordinary articulations
alone can create quite striking effects when used creatively.
In this Shostakovich quartet note the way in which the
composer overlaps the entries so that the next note has
already started underneath the accent.
Shostakovich Quartet op. 144 no. 15, second movement
opening
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In the same quartet Shostakovich also uses striking contrasts

of articulation, with pizzicato, held (tenuto) but separate
notes at the beginning of the extract, a fully legato line
accompanied by staccato stabs towards the end of the
extract:
Shostakovich Quartet op. 144 no. 15, second movement fig.
29
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Schenkerian Analysis -
NotationGUIDE
This page is from the

old version of
SchenkerGUIDE clic
k here to visit the
notation guide on the
new site
Schenkerian notation is far from

standardised but if you follow these basic
principles (along with the do's and
don'ts below) and strive to be as clear as
possible your analyses will at least be
intelligible.
In general:
 slurs should bracket groups of notes
into the diminutions (see basic
diminutions)
slurs can also be used to show the
connection between two separated
occurences of the same note - as with
the D flats in the lower of the two
layers below
 stems should pick out structural notes
from those diminutions (see Stage
Three of working method)
stems on the lower stave should
usually point down and those on the
upper stave should usually point up
 beams should connect middleground
diminutions that would be hard to see
otherwise - in the example below, the
third progression is marked in this
way and in this case this progression
is also the top line of the fundamental
structure
 quaver flags perform a similar
function - in this case one picks out
the D flat neighbour notebecause it is
the main diminution other than the
fundamental structure
 caretted numbers (for example ,
and ) should be used to show the
fundamental descent
 roman numerals should label
harmonic units
 labels such as 'N' (neighbour note),
'Arp.' (arpeggiation), 'P' (passing note)
and '5-prg' (fifth progression) may be
used to clarify diminutions that are not
immediately obvious, but do not
clutter your analysis unecessarily.
Do Don't
o Align the different o Leave notes

levels properly so they hanging in mid air with
line up with each other no slur, beam or stem to
o Clearly mark bar explain them
numbers o Include bar lines or
o Present your rests in your analysis
analysis as neatly as o Group notes
possible - the point of together in linear
analysis is progressions or
communication arpeggiations in more
o Make sure that than one direction
notes you mark as o Mark notes in the
important in one level middle of slurred
appear in the next level diminutions as
closer to the surface as structural - the first or
well last note will always be
o Return to the
same note you started more important
your descent with after
an interruption

note
names
transposing how to
|
instruments transpose
A written C in the score sounds the note that

appears in the name of the transposing instrument
.
Parts for transposing instruments are therefore written

to to compensate - otherwise the wrong notes would
come out. Here is an example:
Clarinet
Instrument
in Bb
If you wrote a C, the

instrument a Bb
would play ...
So, to compensate up a
the part is written ... tone
Err ... that's it
The only complication is that, generally speaking, while

instruments in Bb, F and A transpose up (because they
sound lower than the written pitch), those in D and Eb
generally transpose down (because they sound higher
than the written pitch).
The following example shows what you would have to
write to make a c2 come out on various transposing
instruments. Notice that key signatures are transposed
as well (key signatures are often not written in horn
parts):

note
names
transposing how to
|
instruments transpose
A written C in the score sounds the note that

appears in the name of the transposing instrument
.
Parts for transposing instruments are therefore written

to to compensate - otherwise the wrong notes would
come out. Here is an example:
Clarinet
Instrument
in Bb
If you wrote a C, the

instrument a Bb
would play ...
So, to compensate up a
the part is written ... tone
Err ... that's it
The only complication is that, generally speaking, while

instruments in Bb, F and A transpose up (because they
sound lower than the written pitch), those in D and Eb
generally transpose down (because they sound higher
than the written pitch).
The following example shows what you would have to
write to make a c2 come out on various transposing
instruments. Notice that key signatures are transposed
as well (key signatures are often not written in horn
parts):

note
names
Introduction
Interval labels indicate the number of lines and spaces
a written interval spans. Because they all span the
three notes c1, d1 and e1 on the stave, all the intervals
in example below would be described as a third, even
though many of them are not sounding thirds.
There are obviously many different ways of writing the

twelve sounding intervals within the octave. It is hard
to imagine why one might write the last third in the
example above, but there are usually practical reasons
for writing the same sounding interval differently in
different circumstances.
How an interval is written depends firstly on the key
signature and secondly on voice-leading. The
example below shows the same sounding interval
(highlighted in red) written in two different ways.
eb2 is is on the way from the e2

to the d2 and in doing so it turns a
Example C major triad into a C minor triad.
a) It makes sense, then, that the
interval marked in red is called a
minor third.
the d#2 is on the way from d2 to

Example e2. As a result the second
b) between c2 and d2 is stretched
or augmented.
Interval Names
There are common names for three different types of
each written interval, and these are shown below. They
are arranged to show which intervals are inversions of
each other. In other words, if you move the top note of
a major seventh down an octave, you get a minor
Compound Intervals
above intervals it is called a compound interval. A third
plus an octave, for example, is a tenth but still has the
distinctive third sound so is called a compound third as
in the example
below.
note
names
Introduction
Interval labels indicate the number of lines and spaces
a written interval spans. Because they all span the
three notes c1, d1 and e1 on the stave, all the intervals
in example below would be described as a third, even
though many of them are not sounding thirds.
There are obviously many different ways of writing the

twelve sounding intervals within the octave. It is hard
to imagine why one might write the last third in the
example above, but there are usually practical reasons
for writing the same sounding interval differently in
different circumstances.
How an interval is written depends firstly on the key
signature and secondly on voice-leading. The
example below shows the same sounding interval
(highlighted in red) written in two different ways.
eb2 is is on the way from the e2

to the d2 and in doing so it turns a
Example C major triad into a C minor triad.
a) It makes sense, then, that the
interval marked in red is called a
minor third.
the d#2 is on the way from d2 to
Example e2. As a result the second
b) between c2 and d2 is stretched
or augmented.
Interval Names
There are common names for three different types of
each written interval, and these are shown below. They
are arranged to show which intervals are inversions of
each other. In other words, if you move the top note of
a major seventh down an octave, you get a minor
Compound Intervals
above intervals it is called a compound interval. A third
plus an octave, for example, is a tenth but still has the
distinctive third sound so is called a compound third as
in the example
below.
Short Progressions
second
half-
introduc ary diminis augmen Neapoli augmen
| | | | | diminis |
tion domina hed 7th ted 6th tan ted 5th
hed 7th
nt
chords Chromatic progressions are

short modifications of diatonic progressions
progs. and involve notes that are not part of
longer the scale upon which the passage in
progs. question is based. Generally speaking,
they have two functions:
 intensified closure - the sense of closure or

resolution is heightened by the chromatic notes,
the effect is like stretching a rubber band a little bit
more before releasing it
 modulation - the chromatic note or notes results
in the passage moving from one key to another
This section concentrates on the first of these in which
the music does not modulate as a result of the
chromaticism. Modulation using such chords as
diminished sevenths is discussed in the section on key
and modulation.
Short Progressions
second
half-
| | | | | diminis |
hed 7th
nt
The main distinguishing feature of the perfect

cadence is the progression by falling fifth from the
dominant chord - a major triad. This progression from
dominant to tonic is generally considered to create a
strong pattern of tension-resolution. The only similar
progression by fifth from a major triad available from
the diatonic scale is the progression from I - IV.
One of the simplest chromatic alterations is to sharpen
the third of a minor triad from the diatonic scale so that
it can function as a dominant. Examples b and c show
how this alteration creates the effect of a V - I
progression - it is almost as if the chord becomes a
dominant onto a new and temporary tonic. This is why
they are called secondary dominants - they behave in
the same way as a dominant chord but are not the
actual (or primary) dominant of the key.
One of the most common secondary dominants formed

by sharpening the third of chord ii. It then acts, as in
the example below as an intensification of the cadential
progression ii-V-I.
Short Progressions
second
half-
| | | | | diminis |
hed 7th
nt

progression ii-V-I.
Short Progressions
second
half-
| | | | | diminis |
hed 7th
nt


progression ii-V-I.
Short Progressions
second
half-
| | | | | diminis |
hed 7th
nt
Most chromatic chords have

diatonic origins - in other words
they are diatonic chords that are
used out of their usual context.
short
The diminished seventh - with its
progs.
characteristic rich sound created by
longer a stack of three minor thirds - is the
progs. diatonic chord of vii7 in minor keys.
Examples a) and b) below show a
vii chord plus an
added seventh and Example c)
shows the same chord in the minor.
As shown in Example d), a minor vii7 - or diminished

seventh chord - has the same sounding interval
structure of three stacked minor thirds whatever
inversion you use (although one of the intervals is a
written augmented second).
if you are alarmed by all these interval names don't forget to look at the Basics section of
the Toolkit
Chord vii in both major and minor often resolves onto I.
This function is sometimes called dominant substitution
- the diminished seventh takes over the role usually
played by the dominant in a perfect cadence. Part of
the reason why it can function in this way can be seen
by looking again at Example a) above. Chord vii
consists of the same notes as a dominant
seventh (V7) but without the root of this chord.
Diminished sevenths usually resolve according to the
following general rule: the two diminished fifths marked
on the first example below pull inwards to a third as
shown. Whatever the inversion, the notes still generally
resolve according to this rule. So the F in the above
example usually resolves to E regardless of the
inversion. Different inversions of the diminished
sevenths therefore resolve to different inversion of I
when they are acting as dominant substitutes.
In the following examples, the diminished sevenths
have an intensifying effect - unlike the example
in longer progressions where the diminished seventh is
part of a modulation.
Short Progressions
second
half-
| | | | | diminis |
hed 7th
nt
The augmented sixth, like most

chromatic chords, usually leads to
short
V. While the diminished
progs.
seventhand secondary
longer dominant are diatonic chords
progs. taken out of context, the
augmented sixths does not have a
direct diatonic origin.
The outer voices of examples a) and b) both move

from a major sixth to an octave in contrary motion. The
first is a last inversion secondary dominant in C
major, while the second is a phrygian cadence in C
minor. The voice-leading of example c) includes both
the Ab from the phrygian and the F# from the
secondary dominant, resolving the interval of an
augmented sixth by semitone in contrary motion to an
octave. This is not to say that the augmented sixth
is based on these progressions, merely that it is a
similar, but intensified, progression to the dominant.
More important than possible harmonic origins is the
voice-leading of the augmented sixth rising expanding
to an octave. The three types of augmented sixth all
share this characteristic but each have slightly different
inner voices. The effect in all three cases is of a strong
tension (the dissonant augmented sixth) resolving onto
the dominant (chord V).
Italian augmented sixth

There is no good reason why the three different types
of augmented sixth chord are named after European
countries, but so many writers use them that there is
no alternative but to adopt them.
The Italian augmented sixth is the most basic form -
most similar to the phrygian cadence but with a raised
sixth. It consists of the augmented sixth itself along
with a major third above the root, and is the most
common variant, particularly in earlier music (listen out
for the Italian sixth near the beginning of Beethoven's
famous Fifth Symphony).
French augmented sixth
This slightly more colourful sounding chord is more
closely related to the secondary dominant than the
Phrygian cadence. It is similar to progression b) in the
first example but with the A lowered to Ab.
The German augmented sixth is enharmonically the

same as a dominant seventh chord (it sounds the
same but is 'spelt' differently). It has two possible which
are theoretically dependent on the way the chord is
spelt, but in practice composers do not bother with
such niceties. Resolving the German sixth onto
a cadential 6/4 makes it possible to avoid the parallel
fifths that are the result of directly resolving onto the
dominant (seen in the second example below).
Short Progressions
second
half-
| | | | | diminis |
hed 7th
nt
The Neapolitan sixth is a diatonic

chord that is chromatic because of its
short context: a major triad formed on the
progs. note a semitone below the supertonic -
longer i.e flat II. Because bII is a long way from
progs. the tonic on the circle of fifths, it
introduces an unexpected tension that,
like many chromatic chords, resolves
onto the dominant.
The 'sixth' refers to the the figured bass for a first
inversion - the most usual position for this chord. It is
unclear from where the Neapolitan part of the name
derives. The effect an intensification of the resolution of
the perfect cadence.
The most common forms are shown below. Neapolitan
chords lead onto the dominant (a) or a cadential six-
four (b). The flattened notes (the first and fifth scale
degrees) usually resolve downwards. A root position
chord creates a more dramatic effect than the more
usual first inversion configuration used in the
examples.
Short Progressions
second
half-
| | | | | diminis |
hed 7th
nt
The Neapolitan sixth is a diatonic
chord that is chromatic because of its
short context: a major triad formed on the
progs. note a semitone below the supertonic -
longer i.e flat II. Because bII is a long way from
progs. the tonic on the circle of fifths, it
introduces an unexpected tension that,
like many chromatic chords, resolves
onto the dominant.
The 'sixth' refers to the the figured bass for a first

inversion - the most usual position for this chord. It is
unclear from where the Neapolitan part of the name
derives. The effect an intensification of the resolution of
the perfect cadence.
The most common forms are shown below. Neapolitan
chords lead onto the dominant (a) or a cadential six-
four (b). The flattened notes (the first and fifth scale
degrees) usually resolve downwards. A root position
chord creates a more dramatic effect than the more
usual first inversion configuration used in the
examples.
Short Progressions
second
half-
| | | | | diminis |
hed 7th
nt
The half-diminished seventh is less common than

the diminished seventh as a chromatic chord,
although it has similar origins and function. The half-
diminished seventh as a diatonic chord is discussed
in embellished diatonic chords
It is frequently used in salon-type pieces to add a bit of
colour - in this extract from Elgar's 'Salut d'Amour' it
functions as a secondary dominant. The falling
chromatic line from C# to C to B is an important part of
the schmaltzy effect.
A diminished seventh at the beginning of Richard
Wagner's overture to the opera Tristan and Isolde has
become perhaps the most discussed chromatic chord
of all time. The tonally ambiguous opening half-
diminished seventh (or Tristan chord) initially resolves
onto an E7 chord , but the same sequence is then
repeated three times at different transpositions.
Short Progressions
introduc | second | diminis | augmen | Neapoli | half- | augmen

tion ary hed 7th ted 6th tan diminis ted 5th
domina
hed 7th
nt
In earlier tonal styles augmented fifths often appear as

passing notes or appoggiaturas, as in the first example
below. Their characteristic sound comes from the
stacking of two major triads and the resulting symmetry
means that all the inversions sound the same. This
ambiguity was exploited by composers later in the
ninenteenth century such as Franz Liszt. The
augmented fifth is treated with great freedom in
classical and popular genres of the twentieth century.
The augmented fifth overwhelmingly appears with

major triads, so it most often appears in chords I, V and
IV. With V, it can add extra colour to a dominant
seventh chord, although this is rare in earlier tonal
styles.
Short Progressions
second
half-
| | | | | diminis |
hed 7th
nt
In earlier tonal styles augmented fifths often appear as

passing notes or appoggiaturas, as in the first example
below. Their characteristic sound comes from the
stacking of two major triads and the resulting symmetry
means that all the inversions sound the same. This
ambiguity was exploited by composers later in the
ninenteenth century such as Franz Liszt. The
augmented fifth is treated with great freedom in
classical and popular genres of the twentieth century.
The augmented fifth overwhelmingly appears with
major triads, so it most often appears in chords I, V and
IV. With V, it can add extra colour to a dominant
seventh chord, although this is rare in earlier tonal
styles.
Key and Modulation
major and the circle ways of spotting

introduction
minor of fifths modulating modulations
Tonal music depends on a sense of 'being in a key',

and this relies on the notes and triads of the major and
minor scale being heard in relation to the tonic.
The hierarchical relationships that make this possible
are discussed in the Introduction to Tonality.
In all but the shortest and simplest pieces, the tonic is
not the same throughout. Passages within a work will
be based on different scales, and the movement from
one scale or key to another is called modulation. This
section of TonalityGUIDE looks at the relationships
between keys and how tonal music modulates from
one to another.
What is a modulation?
If there is a cadence in a different key from which the
music started it has - if only briefly - modulated. This
very broad definition ignores how strongly the new key
is established by the cadence (a perfect cadence in
root position, for example, would be very strong but an
interrupted cadence would be less so) and how long
the music remains in that key. For a modulation to be
discernible it should include two main features:
 a perfect cadence in the new key
 a series of three or more chords that are drawn
from the diatonic scale of the new key that you
are suggesting
If a piece moves quickly to a different key, a
modulation that fits these criteria can be described as
a passing modulation. If, however, there is then
another phrase in the new key and other perfect
cadences, the modulation has been confirmed or
established.
The section on modulation explores how tonal music
can either modulate between keys with many notes in
common (said to be closely related) or those with few
notes in common (said to be only distantly related).
There are pages on modulations between major and
minor, around the circle of fifths as well as information
onways of modulating and on spottomg modulations.
Generally speaking, the later a piece of tonal music
was written, the more widely and quickly it is likely to
modulate. In some music from the late-Romantic
period onwards, it can be hard to determine the key of
quite long passages. Many commentators see in this
the beginnings of early twentieth century non-tonal
styles.
Until the middle of the nineteenth century, most

tonal pieces begun and ended in the same key.
This opening and final tonic - the 'home key' - is
generally regarded as structurally more important
than the intervening keys through which the piece
may modulate. This is comparable to the way in
which the tonic of any key is regarded structurally
more important that the other triads.
Pieces that begin and end in the same key are
sometimes called monotonal. The long-term
relationship between keys in monotonal pieces is
one of the concerns of Schenkerian analysis, an
analytical model that picks up on many of the
ideas introduced in TonalityGUIDE.com.
Key and Modulation

introduction
Tonal music depends on a sense of 'being in a key',

and this relies on the notes and triads of the major and
minor scale being heard in relation to the tonic.
The hierarchical relationships that make this possible
are discussed in the Introduction to Tonality.
In all but the shortest and simplest pieces, the tonic is
not the same throughout. Passages within a work will
be based on different scales, and the movement from
one scale or key to another is called modulation. This
section of TonalityGUIDE looks at the relationships
between keys and how tonal music modulates from
one to another.
What is a modulation?
If there is a cadence in a different key from which the
music started it has - if only briefly - modulated. This
very broad definition ignores how strongly the new key
is established by the cadence (a perfect cadence in
root position, for example, would be very strong but an
interrupted cadence would be less so) and how long
the music remains in that key. For a modulation to be
discernible it should include two main features:
 a perfect cadence in the new key
 a series of three or more chords that are drawn
from the diatonic scale of the new key that you
are suggesting
If a piece moves quickly to a different key, a
modulation that fits these criteria can be described as
a passing modulation. If, however, there is then
another phrase in the new key and other perfect
cadences, the modulation has been confirmed or
established.
The section on modulation explores how tonal music
can either modulate between keys with many notes in
common (said to be closely related) or those with few
notes in common (said to be only distantly related).
There are pages on modulations between major and
minor, around the circle of fifths as well as information
onways of modulating and on spottomg modulations.
Generally speaking, the later a piece of tonal music
was written, the more widely and quickly it is likely to
modulate. In some music from the late-Romantic
period onwards, it can be hard to determine the key of
quite long passages. Many commentators see in this
the beginnings of early twentieth century non-tonal
styles.
Until the middle of the nineteenth century, most

tonal pieces begun and ended in the same key.
This opening and final tonic - the 'home key' - is
generally regarded as structurally more important
than the intervening keys through which the piece
may modulate. This is comparable to the way in
which the tonic of any key is regarded structurally
more important that the other triads.
Pieces that begin and end in the same key are
sometimes called monotonal. The long-term
relationship between keys in monotonal pieces is
one of the concerns of Schenkerian analysis, an
analytical model that picks up on many of the
ideas introduced in TonalityGUIDE.com.
Key and Modulation

introduction
relative | parallel
The following two examples contain a very simple

modulation: an imperfect cadence in one key followed
by a perfect cadence in another. If you listen to the
examples you will probably feel that the modulation
from C major to A minor in Passage A is quite smooth,
but the modulation from A major to Ab major in
Passage B is like a sudden jolt.
Not sure about the chord labels? Check out the chord identification section of the Toolkit by
following the link at the bottom of this page.
The reason why the modulation in Passage A is so
much smoother is that A minor and C major share all
the same notes except one (G#). By contrast, A major
and A flat major do not have any notes in common:
The harmonic scale of A minor shares all but one note

with the scale of C major, as can be seen in the above
example (the natural minor shares all the same notes,
see minor scales for more about different types of
minor scale). Because these two keys are so closely
related (and it is therefore easy to modulate from one
to the other) A minor is therefore said to be the relative
minor of C major. The relative minor of any major key
is a minor third below, as shown in the following table.
Relative major and minor
Major C C# D Eb E F F# G Ab A Bb B
Minor A A# B C C# D D# E F F# G G#
The close relationship between A minor and C major is

highlighted if you imagine changing the G#
(sharpened leading note of A minor) in the second bar
to a G natural. The third chord of the example would
then be an E minor rather than an E major chord, and
the second bar would sound like ii - vi in C major
instead of V-i in A minor.
If you are analysing a piece of music and it seems to

have changed key, the relative minor or major is one of
the first keys you should check for. As well as a perfect
cadence in the new key, you should look out for the
following:
 if the piece has modulated from relative major to

minor, the fifth degree of the major scale will have
been sharpened to become the leading note of the
relative minor
 if the piece has modulated from relative minor to
major, the leading note of the minor scale will
have been naturalised or flattened to become the
fifth degree of the relative major
Key and Modulation

introduction
relative | parallel
The following passage also modulates from a major to

a minor key. Unlike the major and relative minor,
whose relationship is defined by the number of notes
they have in common, the most important relationship
in this example is that the two keys share the
same tonic note (in this case C).
C minor is said to be the parallel minor of C major,

and this relationship is most often used in Classical
music to introduce a contrast. The above extract from a
Mozart String Quartet shows the join between the
Menuetto and Trio that form the second movement.
The Menuetto, which is repeated at the end, is in C
major and the Trio is in the C minor. The movement as
a whole therefore follows a common pattern in this sort
of movement of major-minor-major.
Key and Modulation

introduction
relative | parallel

Key and Modulation

introduction
relative | parallel

Key and Modulation

introduction
relative | parallel

Key and Modulation
introduction
fifth-
series
related minor
| and |
major keys
circles
keys
The perfect fifth - the first interval in

the harmonic series - is crucial in
key and tonal music. It is the interval
modulati between the roots of the chords in
on the progression V - I - the perfect
cadence (V - I) that is so important
longer
progs.
for defining a sense of key. The
theory is explained on these pages,
whilst some examples can be found
in the section on longer
progressions (follow the link in the
blue triangle).
As explained in chords and scales, the perfect fifth is

also the only interval by which you can cycle all the
way through the whole major scale. In the example
below, two scales a fifth apart are arranged as a series
of fifths: D major and A major. The notes of each scale
are circled in red and the tonic is marked in blue.
When you arrange a scale as a series of fifths, the tonic is second
note from the bottom. The interval between the leading note and
subdominant of a major scale is a diminished fifth, so these notes
have to be at the top and bottom respectively (C# and G in D major).
Remember to look in the basics section of the Toolkit if you are
uncertain of functional note names such as leading note and
subdominant
Arranging the notes of these scales as a series of fifths

makes clear the close relationship between them. D
and A major consist of the same notes except for G,
which is sharpened as the leading note of A major. In
order to modulate a up fifth (from D to A), you take the
bottom note of the scale arranged as a series of fifths,
raise it by a semitone and move it to the top of the
series. Conversely, in order to modulate down a fifth
(from A to D), you take the top notes of the scale
arranged as a series of fifth, lower it by semitone, and
move it to the bottom of the series.
Here is another way of thinking about it. All major

scales a perfect fifth apart are related in this way, and if
you imagine the notes above as part of a longer series
of fifths, D and A represent two of many overlapping
groups of seven notes. Modulating up a fifth means
moving up one overlapping group, modulating down a
fifth means moving down.
Just so that we don't forget that the whole point of all
this is to explain what happens in actual music, here is
a short extract that modulates from D to A. In the
second bar, there is a G# - the composer has started
using the the group of seven notes that make up A
major rather than D.
Key and Modulation

introduction
fifth-
series
related minor
| and |
major keys
circles
keys
The perfect fifth - the first interval in
key and tonal music. It is the interval
modulati between the roots of the chords in
on the progression V - I - the perfect
longer
progs.
blue triangle).


subdominant

Key and Modulation

introduction
fifth-
series
related minor
| and |
major keys
circles
keys
key and
modulati
on The perfect fifth - the first interval in
longer
progs.
tonal music. It is the interval
between the roots of the chords in
the progression V - I - the perfect
blue triangle).


subdominant


Key and Modulation

introduction
fifth-
series
related minor
| and |
major keys
circles
keys
There is a close relationship between any two keys

whose tonics are a perfect fifth apart (the page on fifth-
related major keys looks at the example of D and A
major).
Instead of writing out the notes from these scales on a
stave to show this relationship (as on the page on fifth-
related major keys) you can write out the note names
in a line in order to get an overview of a larger number
of fifth-related scales in their wider context.
The easiest way to write all the flattened and
sharpened notes of the chromatic scale in a series of
perfect fifths is to start with the scale of C major
organised as a series of perfect fifths .
Remember to start on F (the subdominant), otherwise you will include

the diminished fifth between B and F. You might know a reversible
mnemonic for remembering this series: Father Charles Goes Down
And Ends Battle
Then, write the same series out twice more. The first
series should be flats, the second the natural notes of
C major and the third series should all be sharps as
below. The result is a long series of perfect fifths
starting at Fb and finishing on B#:
Any group of seven notes on this series is a major

scale starting on the second note of that group. As you
can see below, D and A are very closely related with
six notes overlapping. It is therefore easy to modulate
from one to another - you have to change just one
note.

It is harder to modulate smoothly from A flat major to A

major which are a long way apart on this series of
perfect fifths, and have no notes in common.
Flatwards and Sharpwards

As you modulate from right to left on this series, you
accumulate more sharps, so this is known as a sharpwards
modulation. As you move from left to right, on the other hand,
you accumulate more flats, so this is known as a flatwards
modulation. As with diatonic progression by fifth, modulating
by descending fifth (i.e. flatwards) decreases tension while
modulating by ascending fifths (sharpwards) increases
tension. This is partly because the dominant in a flatwards
modulation is diatonic in the old key whereas it is not in a
sharpwards modulation.
Hang on a minute! Aren't C# and G# the same note

as Db and Ab??
This issue is too much of a minefield for a quick aside,
although the box at the bottom of the page gives a brief
explanation. The long and the short of it is that our
tuning system is a distortion that allows tonal music to
keep modulating up or down this series of fifths and
eventually arrive back in the same place.
Unlike the series in the second diagram, which can be
expanded infinitely using double and triple sharps and
flats, the modern tuning system is called equal
temperament and results in a closed circle of fifths as
below.
The circle of fifths is useful, because it let you see
quickly which keys are closely related to each other. Ab
and A major, for example, are a long way from each
other on the circle of fifths, so they will not have many
notes in common, whereas F# and Db have lots of
notes in common. One of the most common
modulations is by one step around the circle of fifths in
either direction - sharpwards or flatwards. You can find
some examples in the relevant section of longer
progressions.
Be careful not to confuse the modulatory circle

of fifths with the diatonic chains of fifths that
stay in the same key.
Closed circle of fifths
Infinite series of fifths
If you carry on flatwards around the circle of fifths from

Db major you arrive at Gb major (in brackets on the
diagram). In modern tuning, Gb is the same as F#
major and this is called enharmonic equivalence. The
two notes are 'spelt' differently, but they sound the
same.
Tuning and Temperament
 if you tuned a set of strings in ascending perfect fifths starting

in C you would never arrive back at C after 7 octaves like you
do on the piano - the resulting B# would in fact be
considerably sharper
 in the days when music did not modulate much or cover a
particularly wide range this was not a problem
 as music has ranged more widely over the last half millenium,
a standard system has gradually evolved in which fifths have
been made slightly smaller or tempered so that 12 fifths fit
within the 7 octaves (the same applies to all the other
intervals)
 this system is called equal temperament and it closes the
circle so that, in the example above, C# = Db and Gb = F#
 part of the controversy arises over which composers would
have been familiar with which tuning systems or
temperaments, because equal temperament is one of many
competing systems that have been used over the centuries
 there are many books and web sites that discuss this issue in
detail
Key and Modulation

introduction
fifth-
series
related minor
| and |
major keys
circles
keys
The circle of fifths is not quite so neat for the minor

scale, with its melodic and harmonic alterations (see
the relevant section of chords and scales). However,
natural minor scales can be mapped out on the circle
of fifths because they are exactly the same as their
equivalent relative major scales.
The natural minor scale starting on A, for example, is
the same collection of notes as C major. If you arrange
it in perfect fifths, the fifth of the series will be the tonic,
and the third will be the sharpened leading note.
As with the major scale, the circle of fifths shows

clearly how closely different minor scales and related
(i.e. how many notes they have in common). You can
see, for example, that F and C minor, for example are
closely related, whereas C and B minor are not.
By putting the minor circle of fifths inside the major

one, you can see the relationships between all the
major and minor keys. Each minor key is next to
its relative major, so C major and A minor, which are
the same collection of notes, are next to each other.
The diagram makes it clear the relationships between
all the major and minor keys. A piece of tonal music
that starts in a particular key can modulate more
smoothly and easily to those keys that are near to it on
this double circle of fifths.
Key and Modulation

introduction
abrupt pivot chroma

modulati | chor | tic
on ds pivots
When a piece of tonal music modulates, the transition

between the two keys can be handled in various ways.
The examples on these pages show three different
ways of modulating from C major to its relative minor
(A).
Abrupt modulation
The most obvious way to modulate is simply to follow a
progression in one key with a progression in the new
key. The reason the modulation sounds so abrupt is
because the E major triad (the third chord) suddenly
introduces a note that is not part of C major - G#.
This sort of modulation is more effective between keys
that are reasonably closely related- chord V in A only
has one note different from chord iii in C. The same
sort of abrupt modulation would sound much more
disjointed between keys a long way apart on the circle
of fifths.
Key and Modulation

introduction
abrupt pivot chroma

on ds pivots
Pivot chords
One common way of making the modulation from one
key to another smoother is to use a chord that is
common to both keys as a sort of pivot. In the example
below, the A minor triad (the second chord) is vi in C
major and i in A minor.
A pivot chord modulation is only possible if the two
keys are closely enough related on the circle of
fifths (or by relative or parallel minor) to share a
common triad.
Key and Modulation

introduction
abrupt pivot chroma

on ds pivots
Chromatic pivot chords
The example below is a different sort of pivot. Instead of
using a chord common to both keys to move from one to the
other, the diminished seventh on the third chord is not part
of the diatonic scales of either C major or A minor. Unlike
an ordinary pivot, a diminished seventh can also connect
keys that are far apart on the circle of fifths, and therefore
have few notes in common (more about diminished sevenths
can be found in the relevant section of both short
progressions and longer progressions).
Modulations by diminished seventh

The following steps explain how you work out which
diminished seventh to use when modulating from
one key to another. The most common way of
modulating through a diminished seventh is to treat
it as a preparation for the dominant of the new key.
1. take the dominant (chord V) of the key to which
you want to modulate (the chord of Ab in the
example below)
2. remember that diminished chords originate as
chord vii7 so this is the chord you
need. Remember: it is vii7 of the dominant of
the new key that is neeeded not of the new key
itself
3. in order to build this chord up you need to find
the root of vii7 of the dominant chord. This will
be a semitone below the root V in the new kwt
(in the example below this will be a G natural)
4. build up your diminished chord in minor thirds
above this root - the first two would be diatonic
in the dominant of the new key while the last
one would need flattening by a semitone
5. remember that the two tritones should resolve
inwards (see diminished sevenths)
In the above example, the perfect cadence is not in

root position so the modulation is not strongly
confirmed. The music might move to a different key
or confirm the present key at this point.
Key and Modulation

ways of spotting
introductio major and the circle
modulatin modulation
n minor of fifths
g s
abrupt pivot chroma

modula | chor | tic
tion ds pivots


example below)
itself
Key and Modulation
ways of spotting
introductio major and the circle
modulatin modulation
n minor of fifths
g s
abrupt pivot chroma

modula | chor | tic
tion ds pivots


example below)
itself

Key and Modulation

introduction
Introducti Exampl Exampl Exampl
| | |
on e One e Two e Three
If tonality is about the sense of 'being in a key',

modulations must clearly make the listener feel that
music is now in a different key. Remember the two
criteria for modulation outline on the first page:
1. there is a perfect cadence in the new key
2. there are three or more chords that are drawn from
the diatonic scale of the new key that you are
suggesting
It is easy to get the impression that the main way of
spotting modulations is to look for accidentals (sharps
and flats that change diatonic notes
into chromaticones). The problem with this is that
there are lots of reasons for using accidentals that are
nothing to do with changing key. The three examples
on the following pages all contain accidentals, but only
one of them is a modulation.
Longer Progressions
short
These pages discuss passages that are
either longer than those in the 'short
progs.
progressions' section, or
that modulate from one key to another.
longer
There are a number of tonal
progs.
progressions that are found in a wide
variety of styles, and this section
introduces a selection of these common
patterns.
Diatonic Progressions
A survey of some longer chains of progressions
involving the both the same and different intervals. As
in 'short progressions', these are arranged according to
the interval of the main harmonic progression involved.
Chromatic Progressions
The chromatic chords in the previous section were
introduced mostly as intensifications of diatonic
progressions. In this section, chromatic chords are both
extended and used to modulate between keys.
Longer Progressions

As in the section on shorter
progressions, the examples on the
following pages are organised by
chords
interval. However, the categories are
short necessarily looser: some of the
progs. progressions use only one interval, but
longer others include various harmonic
progs. relationships with the interval in
question playing a particularly
important role.
Longer Progressions
As in the section on shorter

chords
progressions, the examples on the
short following pages are organised by
progs. interval. However, the categories are
longer necessarily looser: some of the
progressions use only one interval, but
others include various harmonic
progs. relationships with the interval in
question playing a particularly
important role.
Longer Progressions
chains of modulation
introduction | |
5ths by 5th
chords Fifths are crucial to understanding how

short tonal music works. Relationships and
progs. progressions by fifth are not only
longer important in diatonic progressions
progs. (follow the links in the blue triangle), but
also in modulations.
The two pages in this section discuss slightly longer

extracts involving harmonic progression by fifth, first
diatonic progressions and then modulatory ones. The
difference between these can clearly be seen in the
example below.
The two extracts involve the same basic harmonic
progression by fifth. In the first, chain of fifths sticks to
the notes of the diatonic scale of C major. In the
second, however, there are series of apparent perfect
cadences which each move another step flatwards on
the circle of fifths.
Longer Progressions
introduction | |
5ths by 5th
chords Fifths are crucial to understanding how
short tonal music works. Relationships and
progs. progressions by fifth are not only
longer important in diatonic progressions
progs. (follow the links in the blue triangle), but
also in modulations.
The two pages in this section discuss slightly longer

extracts involving harmonic progression by fifth, first
diatonic progressions and then modulatory ones. The
difference between these can clearly be seen in the
example below.
The two extracts involve the same basic harmonic
progression by fifth. In the first, chain of fifths sticks to
the notes of the diatonic scale of C major. In the
second, however, there are series of apparent perfect
cadences which each move another step flatwards on
the circle of fifths.
Longer Progressions
introduction | |
5ths by 5th
in theory | examples
The chains of fifths is a very common

device in tonal music for creating a
sense of movement without actually
chords
going anywhere in terms of modulation.
short Such chains are always by the 'easier'
progs. and tension decreasing descending fifth,
longer progressing like series of perfect
progs. cadences but with a mixture of major,
minor and diminished triads.
In order to avoid moving out of the diatonic scale,

chains of descending fifths have to include a
dimininished fifth between IV and vii. In the example
below this comes between the second and third chords
- one of the few contexts in which vii resolves by fifth to
iii, rather than acting as a substitute dominant and
resolving on I.
It is very common for such chains of fifth in both major

and minor to be written as a series of non-dominant
sevenths. The example below shows how the third
chord, like all the others except for the first and last, is
simultaneously a preparation, suspension and
resolution.
The same sequence of non-dominant sevenths works

equally well in the minor.
Longer Progressions
modulation
introduction | chain of 5ths |
by 5th
Modulation by fifth is dealt with in

key and considerable detail in the key and
modulati
modulation section which can be
on
reached by clicking on the link in the
longer blue triangle to the left of this text. This
progs. page therefore gives two examples: the
first modulates flatwards on the circle
of fifths and the second modulates
sharpwards.
In the following example, the music modulates one

step flatwards on the circle of fifths. It is simple to
modulate flatwards using a pivot chord - I in G is also
V in the new key of C. This is part of the reason why
flatwards modulation feels so easy - the dominant
(chord V) of the new key is diatonic in the old key.
A modulation up a perfect fifth - sharpwards on the

circle of fifths - is more effort, it does not feel so
'natural' or 'easy'. This is partly because, unlike with
flatwards modulation, the dominant of the new key is
not diatonic in the old key. In the following example, as
is common, the modulation is abrupt and uses
a secondary dominant chord.
Longer Progressions
chains of sequences modulation

introduction | | |
2nds with 2nds by 2nds
short
progs. The examples on the following pages
longer demonstrate three different ways in
progs. which the harmonic relationship of a
second can be used. The first example
displays a chain of consecutive
seconds as they often appear in the
music of Corelli, while the second
shows a sequence that relies on the
relationship of a second but in which
there are no actual harmonic
progressions involving this interval. The
third example shows a modulation
between two keys a major second
apart.
Longer Progressions

introduction | | |
If you have been sufficiently indoctrinated by Bach

chorale pastiche exercises, you will have a horror of all
the parts moving in the same direction. The example
below, however, shows a typical passage from Corelli
in which a series of first inversion chords move in
parallel for almost a whole octave from VI down to vii
as preparation for a cadence.
Longer Progressions

introduction | | |
At first glance, you may wonder what this example is

doing in the section on seconds. There are no seconds
between consecutive chords but there is a major or
minor second between each repetition of the two bar
sequence on which this passage is based. The
descending fifth acrosss the first two bars (I - IV,
written as an ascending fourth) is repeated a tone
higher (ii - V). This happens twice more, and the last
repetition leads into a proper perfect cadence - the
same descending fifth that has just been sequentially
repeated.
You should compare the effect of this passage, which
contains one of the most common types of sequence,
with that the second example on the chain of
fifthspage.
Longer Progressions

introduction | | |

repeated.

fifthspage.
Longer Progressions
introduction | chains of | sequences | modulation


repeated.

fifthspage.
Longer Progressions

introduction | | |
Two notes a major second apart are also two fifths

apart as shown in the example below.
The obvious way to modulate between two keys a

major second apart is therefore to go two steps around
the circle of fifths as in the Handel example below.
The second bar is not strictly speaking a pivot chord
because it is chromatically altered as IV of D minor.
Longer Progressions
One of the most important larger-scale

harmonic relationships of a third - that
short between relative major and minor - is
progs. discussed in the key and modulation
longer section of TonalityGUIDE. During the
progs. course of the nineteenth century, third
relationships became an increasingly
independent part of the harmonic
language.
In the common practice period, modulations by third to

keys other than the relative major or minor tend to be a
brief 'stop-over' on the way to a key a fifth away. In
other words, if there is a modulation from I to iii, for
example, the music tends to continue on to V. These
sort of larger-scale patterns are beyond the scope of
TonalityGUIDE, but the analytical methods introduced
on its sister site - SchenkerGUIDE.com - offer a more
sophisticated way of discussing the wider structure of
tonal music.
Longer Progressions
One of the most important larger-scale

harmonic relationships of a third - that
short between relative major and minor - is
progs. discussed in the key and modulation
longer section of TonalityGUIDE. During the
progs. course of the nineteenth century, third
relationships became an increasingly
independent part of the harmonic
language.
In the common practice period, modulations by third to

keys other than the relative major or minor tend to be a
brief 'stop-over' on the way to a key a fifth away. In
other words, if there is a modulation from I to iii, for
example, the music tends to continue on to V. These
sort of larger-scale patterns are beyond the scope of
TonalityGUIDE, but the analytical methods introduced
on its sister site - SchenkerGUIDE.com - offer a more
sophisticated way of discussing the wider structure of
tonal music.
Longer Progressions
diminished augmented
introduction | | | Neapolitan
7th 6th
A selection of the commonest chromatic

chords are introduced in the section on
chords shorter progressions (linked to in the
short blue triangle). The extracts on these
progs. pages simply give a few examples of
how chromatic chords are used
longer
to modulate between keys and also
progs.
how they can be expanded across
several bars.
Composers in the nineteenth century massively

expanded the use of chromatic chords to heighten
tension and increase ambiguity, as in the examples
below. This level of chromaticism, which is quite mild
by the standard of later composers such as Liszt,
Wagner and Strauss, falls outside the scope of
TonalityGUIDE.
Longer Progressions
7th 6th
A selection of the commonest chromatic

chords are introduced in the section on
chords shorter progressions (linked to in the
short blue triangle). The extracts on these
progs. pages simply give a few examples of
how chromatic chords are used
longer
to modulate between keys and also
progs.
how they can be expanded across
several bars.
Composers in the nineteenth century massively

expanded the use of chromatic chords to heighten
tension and increase ambiguity, as in the examples
below. This level of chromaticism, which is quite mild
by the standard of later composers such as Liszt,
Wagner and Strauss, falls outside the scope of
TonalityGUIDE.
Longer Progressions
7th 6th
The diminished seventh is the chromatic

chord that is most often used
for modulating from one key to another -
short
progs. the practicals of this are introduced
below. Because it is so easy to
longer
modulate from one key to another
progs.
(see chromatic pivots), the diminished
seventh was increasingly used towards
the end of the nineteenth century to
create tonal ambiguity.

diminished seventh to use when modulating from one
key to another. The most common way of modulating
through a diminished seventh is to treat it as a
preparation for the dominant of the new key.
example below)
need. Remember: it is vii7 of the dominant of the
new key that is neeeded not of the new key itself
3. in order to build this chord up you need to find the
root of vii7 of the dominant chord. This will be a
semitone below the root V in the new kwt (in the
example below this will be a G natural)
above this root - the first two would be diatonic in
the dominant of the new key while the last one
would need flattening by a semitone

confirmed. The music might move to a different key or
confirm the present key at this point.
Longer Progressions
7th 6th
The example below is taken from a

passage in C major, it nevertheless
demonstrates the potential of the
short
progs. German augmented sixth
for modulation. The augmented sixth in
longer
the first bar sounds the same as
progs.
a dominant seventh of Db major (Ab7).
The passage could therefore be a
modulation from Db to C which are very
far apart on the circle of fifths.
Longer Progressions
7th 6th

short passage in C major, it nevertheless
progs. demonstrates the potential of the
longer
German augmented sixth
progs. for modulation. The augmented sixth in
Longer Progressions
7th 6th
short
progs.
passage in C major, it nevertheless
longer demonstrates the potential of the
progs. German augmented sixth
for modulation. The augmented sixth in
Longer Progressions
7th 6th
short
progs. A Neapolitan chords can form part of a
longer longer progression in two main ways: 1)
the Neapolitan itself is expanded; 2) it is
progs. used as a way of modulating to a key that
is quite distant on the circle of fifths
The example below shows a Neapolitan (bII) chord in

C major reinforced by a secondary dominant.
Sometimes a Neapolitan is almost expanded into a
properly established modulation.
In the next example a Neapolitan is used to modulate

from C to C#. The tonic of the old key itself becomes a
Neapolitan in the new key - in this case resolving onto
a cadential six-four.
In this final example, a Neapolitan chord is used in a

rather looser context to provide harmonic colour. In this
extract from a Beethoven piano sonata, the bII
precedes a first inversion tonic chord, but still
eventually leads to a perfect cadence - albeit a weak
one.
Longer Progressions
7th 6th
short A Neapolitan chords can form part of a

progs. longer progression in two main ways: 1)
longer the Neapolitan itself is expanded; 2) it is
progs. used as a way of modulating to a key that
The example below shows a Neapolitan (bII) chord

in C major reinforced by a secondary dominant.
Principio del formulario

Final del formulario
In the next example a Neapolitan is used to
modulate from C to C#. The tonic of the old key
itself becomes a Neapolitan in the new key - in this
case resolving onto a cadential six-four.

In this final example, a Neapolitan chord is used in
a rather looser context to provide harmonic colour.
In this extract from a Beethoven piano sonata, the
bII precedes a first inversion tonic chord, but still
eventually leads to a perfect cadence - albeit a
weak one.

Longer Progressions
7th 6th
short
progs. A Neapolitan chords can form part of a
longer longer progression in two main ways: 1)
progs. the Neapolitan itself is expanded; 2) it is
used as a way of modulating to a key that
The example below shows a Neapolitan (bII) chord

in C major reinforced by a secondary dominant.

In the next example a Neapolitan is used to
modulate from C to C#. The tonic of the old key
itself becomes a Neapolitan in the new key - in this
case resolving onto a cadential six-four.
In this final example, a Neapolitan chord is used in
a rather looser context to provide harmonic colour.
In this extract from a Beethoven piano sonata, the
bII precedes a first inversion tonic chord, but still
eventually leads to a perfect cadence - albeit a
weak one.

7 – Chorale
Worksheets (
ChoraleGUID
E)
[Note: as of Sept. 2017 I have been teaching a spec that does not include
this component so I am no longer updating or correcting these resources.
If you spot something annoying, however, drop me an email and I will
correct it]
Chorale Completion Cribsheet – a summary of all the fingerprints with tips
on the quirks of each
Fingerprint worksheets
Worksheet 05 (FP1)
Worksheet 06 (FP2)
Worksheet 07 (FP3)
Worksheet 14 (FP4 – A3)
Worksheet 16 (FP9)
Worksheet 23 (FP10)
Worksheet 24 Bells and Whistles
Phrase worksheets
Worksheet 01 (A3)
Worksheet 02 (A3)
Worksheet 03 (A3)
Worksheet 04 (A3)
Worksheet 08 (A3)
Worksheet 09a (A3)
Worksheet 10 (A3)
A3) Worksheet 11 (A3)
Worksheet 12 (A3)
Worksheet 13 (A3)
Worksheet 18
Using Chord vii
Worksheet 19 (A3)
Worksheet 20 (A3)
Worksheet Modulations (2)
Voice-leading in Bach Chorales

[Download Double SLAP and Harmonic DOs and
DON'Ts (PDF)]
Composers have always paid careful attention to way in

which their melodic lines work with each other, as well as to
the individual shapes of the lines themselves. The way in
which the voices lead from one note to the next is
called voice-leading.
The texture of chorales is very simple, with all four voices

are moving together, so anything awkward stands out very
obviously. Bach is therefore particularly careful with the
voice-leading in chorales, although the same basic
principles are followed in virtually all tonal music. Whatever
style of music you are composing or arranging in, you need
to pay at least as much attention to voice-leading as to
harmony, which is one reason why Bach chorales provide
such good training for musicians.
The list below provides a handy way of remembering things

that you need to check for in your chorales, which I have
arranged in the form of a mnemonic. The Double SLAPis
so called because your teacher might slap you on the wrist
for making these mistakes (if corporal punishment were not
considered bad practice these days). It is a doubleslap
because there are two voice-leading problems for each
letter. Click in the table below for a full explanation of each
of these common problems and how to avoid them.
Harmonic guidelines are discussed separately in the DOs
and DON'Ts section and the Bach chorale
method outlines a suggested way of working.
Double Doubling
S Spacing Suspensions
L Leaps Leading notes
Augmented and
A Accidentals diminshed
intervals
Passing
P Parallels
sevenths
Voice-leading in Bach Chorales

[Download Double SLAP and Harmonic DOs and
DON'Ts (PDF)]
Composers have always paid careful attention to way in

which their melodic lines work with each other, as well as to
the individual shapes of the lines themselves. The way in
which the voices lead from one note to the next is
called voice-leading.
The texture of chorales is very simple, with all four voices

are moving together, so anything awkward stands out very
obviously. Bach is therefore particularly careful with the
voice-leading in chorales, although the same basic
principles are followed in virtually all tonal music. Whatever
style of music you are composing or arranging in, you need
to pay at least as much attention to voice-leading as to
harmony, which is one reason why Bach chorales provide
such good training for musicians.
The list below provides a handy way of remembering things

that you need to check for in your chorales, which I have
arranged in the form of a mnemonic. The Double SLAPis
so called because your teacher might slap you on the wrist
for making these mistakes (if corporal punishment were not
considered bad practice these days). It is a doubleslap
because there are two voice-leading problems for each
letter. Click in the table below for a full explanation of each
of these common problems and how to avoid them.
Harmonic guidelines are discussed separately in the DOs
and DON'Ts section and the Bach chorale
method outlines a suggested way of working.
Double Doubling
S Spacing Suspensions
L Leaps Leading notes
A Accidentals Augmented and

diminshed
intervals
Passing
P Parallels
sevenths
Harmonic DOs and DON'Ts

A brief list of things to aim for and to avoid in terms of
chords and harmonic progressions.
Do Don't
 Keep most of the  Don't use second

harmony simple by inversions other
starting from stage than IC in IC - V - I
one and only  Avoid progressions
harmonic changes using II other than as
that are necessary in an approach chord
order to improve the to V
bassline  Don't use II in root
 Use characteristic position in minor keys
progressions from (it is a diminished
Bach's own chorales chord)
as often as you can  Don't use III other
 Ib and VI are the best than as an approach
approach chords to VI and avoid in
to IIb7 in the run up to minor keys altogether
a cadence  Avoid progressions
 All other things being between IV and V unl
equal, it is a good idea ess the melody is
to keep a root going in the opposite
position I on the first direction to the root
strong beat of a progression of the two
chorale or its upbeat chords (same goes
(in fact, this is not a for V and VI)
bad rule of thumb for  Only use VI in root
all phrases) position (but VI is
 Root progressions otherwise the most
using falling thirds flexible secondary
(e.g. VI to IV and Ito V chord - it can progress
I) are much better effectively to IV, V and
than those using rising  Don't use VII other
thirds than as VIIb resolving
 If you use the same either to I or Ibii7b)
chord twice in a row,  Don't repeat the bass
make sure that one is note (except from the
in root position and upbeat to the
one is in first inversion downbeat in an
anacrusic first phrase
and in IC-V or V4-3)
 Don�t use passing
notes in inner voices
(except for at
cadences) unless you
are sure you know
what you are doing
(rising sixths and
falling sevenths work
best)
Summary of Bach Chorale Harmonisation

Method
Step 1: Keys and Cadences

Work out the home
Explanation
key and the
1a - Keys and
five closely related
Example
keys.
For each pause, work Explanation

1b - Cadences out the most likely key and
and cadence. Example
Now play through the melody twice,

once on its own and then with the
final two notes of each phrase
harmonised with the bass notes
Check 1 (and if possible the chords) from
your chosen cadences. If a cadence
does not sound right, try alternative
harmonisations
Step 2: Simple harmonisation

2a - Now you know what Explanation
Modulations keys the cadences are and
in, you need to plan Example
where and how you
are going to modulate.
Complete the rest of

the chorale using
primary chords only
2b - Primary (I, IV and V) in root Explanation
chord position. There is no and
harmonisation need to worry about Example
voice-leading or
writing a good bass
line at this stage.
Step 3: Refining the bass line

Check whether you
can fit in cadence
Explanation
3a - patterns that are
and
Fingerprints characteristic
Example
fingerprints of Bach's
chorale style
Re-write your bass line

for the rest of each
Explanation
3b - Rewriting phrase to improve the
and
bass line voice-leading,
Example
including
eliminating parallels.
Now play through the bass line and

Check 2
soprano on the keyboard, checking
in particular for parallels from
the Double SLAP
Step 4: Adding inner parts

Complete the inner
Explanation
parts, being
4 - inner parts and
particularly careful
Example
with Spacing rules
Now check
obsessively for all of
the possible problems
outlined in the Double
Explanation
SLAP. If possible play
and
Check 3 all four parts but you
Example
should at least play
each part individually,
preferably with the
bass.
Bach fingerprints
Your harmonisations will sound much more
convincing if you incorporate progressions
that Bach often uses. These worksheets
introduce some of the most common
Bachian 'fingerprints', most of which are
associated with particular melodic patterns
in the soprano part (e.g. a descending 3-2-1
on the tonic). In each worksheet you first
analyse some examples from Bach's
chorales and then complete some short
exercises.
On each page you can download and print
the relevant worksheet as well as listen to
MIDI files of the examples. There are also
some extra (more complex) examples of
each fingerprint to explore.
Download a revision guide to the fingerprint
patterns below: Harmonic Fingerprints
Summary Sheet. You should refer to the
examples on worksheets and in the
examples below for detailed voice-leading
patterns.
Melodic pattern
Resource
or feature
Fingerprint 1
3-2-1
(Worksheet 5)
Fingerprint 2
2-2-1
(Worksheet 6)
Fingerprint 3 8-7-8
(Worksheet 7)
Fingerprint 4
6-7-8
(Worksheet 14)
Fingerprint 5
3-3-2
(Worksheet 15)
Fingerprint 6
4-3-2
(Worksheet 17)
Fingerprint 7
1-2-1
(Worksheet 21)
Fingerprint 8
4-3-2-1
(Worksheet 22)
Fingerprint 9
Mid-phrase
(Worksheet 16)
Adding extra
suspensions
Suspensions
(for advanced
students only)
Adding
chromatic
chords at
Chromaticisms
cadences (for
advanced
students only)
Bach cadence fingerprints 1: 3-2-1 (Worksheet
Five)
Worksheet Five (Fingerprint 1) helps you understand

various cadential progressions for the melodic pattern
3-2-1 before providing some exercises to complete.
The first three examples below are the most
straightforward - the remainder add some more
sophisticated or unusual features and are included for
advanced study beyond the worksheet.
Particularly interesting features are marked with a .
If you are curious it would be a good idea to work out
what Bach does (e.g. treat a dissonance
unconventionally or use a strange chord) and
speculate as to why (e.g. to avoid parallel fifths or to
improve the progression of harmonies). You should not
generally incorporate such rarely used features in your
own chorales.
Exampl
e1
(RM165
,
second
phrase)
Exampl
e2
(RM68,
final
phrase,
slightly
simplifie
d)
Exampl
e3
(RM110
, final
phrase,
slightly
simplifie
d)
Exampl
e4
(RM114
, final
phrase)
Exampl
e5
(RM251
, final
phrase,
slightly
simplifie
d)
Exampl
e6
(RM64,
third
phrase)
[note: a
variant
of the
melodic
pattern]
Exampl
e7
(RM44,
final
phrase)
Exampl
e8
(RM2,
second
phrase)
Exampl
e9
(RM308
,
second
phrase)
Bach cadence fingerprints 2: 2-2-1

(Worksheet 6)
Worksheet Six (Fingerprint 2) helps you understand
various cadential progressions for the melodic pattern
2-2-1 before providing some exercises to complete.
The first four examples below are the most
improve the progression of harmonies). You should
not generally incorporate such rarely used features in
your own chorales.
Exampl
e1
(RM86,
third
phrase
)
Exampl
e2
(RM9,
final
phrase
slightly
simplifi
ed)
Exampl
e3
(RM15
3, final
phrase
)
Exampl
e4
(RM24
0, first
phrase
)
Exampl
e5
(RM80,
second
phrase
)
Exampl
e6
(RM26,
final
phrase
)
Exampl
e7
(RM5,
second
phrase
)
Exampl
e8
(RM14,
fifth
phrase
slightly
simplifi
ed)
(Worksheet Seven)
Worksheet Seven (Fingerprint 3) helps you

understand various cadential progressions
for the melodic pattern 8-7-8 before
providing some exercises to complete. The
first four examples below are the most
straightforward - the remainder add some
more sophisticated or unusual features and
are included for advanced study beyond the
worksheet.
Particularly interesting features are marked
with a . If you are curious it would be a
good idea to work out what Bach does (e.g.
treat a dissonance unconventionally or use a
strange chord) and speculate as to why (e.g.
to avoid parallel fifths or to improve the
progression of harmonies). You should not
generally incorporate such rarely used
features in your own chorales.
Exampl
e1
(RM75,
second
phrase)
Exampl
e2
(RM136
, third
phrase,
slightly
simplifie
d)
Exampl
e3
(RM87,
final
phrase,
slightly
simplifie
d)
Exampl
e4
(RM3,
fourth
phrase,
slightly
simplifie
d)
Exampl
e5
(RM72,
final
phrase)
Exampl
e6
(RM11,
second
phrase)
Exampl
e7
(RM75,
final
phrase
slightly
simplifie
d)

14)
Worksheet Fourteen (Fingerprint 4) helps you
understand various cadential progressions for the
melodic pattern 6-7-8 before providing some exercises
to complete. The first two examples below are the most
own chorales.
Examp
le 1
(RM69
,
second
phrase
)
Examp
le 2
(RM18
,
second
phrase
)
Examp
le 3
(RM84
,
second
phrase
)
Examp
le 4
(RM24
8, final
phrase
)
Examp
le 5
(RM24
9, final
phrase
)

(Worksheet 15)
Worksheet Fifteen (Fingerprint 5) helps you
melodic pattern 3-3-2 before providing some
exercises to complete. The first two examples below
are the most straightforward - the third adds some
more sophisticated or unusual features and is
included for advanced study beyond the worksheet.
improve the progression of harmonies). You should
not generally incorporate such rarely used features in
your own chorales.
Exam
ple 1
(RM1
40,
first
phras
e)
Exam
ple 2
(RM1
75,
first
phras
e)
Exam
ple 3
(RM2
42,
fifth
phras
e)
17)
Worksheet Seventeen (Fingerprint 6) helps you

to complete. The first two examples below are the most
straightforward - the third adds some more
sophisticated or unusual features and is included for
own chorales.
Example 1
(RM233,
fourthphras
e)
Example 2
(RM26,
second
phrase)
Example 3
(RM29,
fourth
phrase)
21)
Worksheet Twenty-one (Fingerprint 7) helps you

to complete. The first example below is the most
straightforward - the others add some more
own chorales.
Example
1
(RM267,
fourth
phrase,
slightly
simplifie
d)
Example
2
(RM158,
final
phrase)
Example
3
(RM290,
second
phrase)
Example
4
(RM354,
second
phrase,
slightly
simplifie
d)
Bach cadence fingerprints 8: 4-3-2-1

(Worksheet 22)
Worksheet Twenty-two(Fingerprint 6) helps you

melodic pattern 4-3-2-1 before providing some
exercises to complete. The first two examples below
are the most straightforward - the third adds some
more sophisticated or unusual features and is included
for advanced study beyond the worksheet.
own chorales.
Examp
le 1
(RM15
8, first
phrase
)
Examp
le 2
(RM21
5, third
phrase
)
Examp
le 3
(RM18
2, third
phrase
)
Bach mid-phrase fingerprint 9 (Worksheet
Sixteen)
Worksheet Sixteen (Fingerprint 9) helps you to
understand a number of variants of a standard chord
progression that works very well in the middle of
phrases. The first five examples below are the most
straightforward - the others add some more
own chorales.
Exampl
e1
(RM3,
first
phrase
)
Exampl
e2
(RM40,
fourth
phrase
)
Exampl
e3
(RM18
3, first
phrase
)
Exampl
e4
(RM14
0,
second
phrase
)
Exampl
e5
(RM13
5, first
phrase,
slightly
simplifi
ed)
Exampl
e6
(RM32
5, third
phrase,
slightly
simplifi
ed)
Exampl
e7
(RM35
5, first
phrase
)
Exampl
e8
(RM16,
first
phrase
)
Bach extra suspensions examples (10)
Bach uses a range of extra suspensions (in addition
to the usual V4-3 and II7b) to enliven his harmony.
You should not use these unless you are confident
that you harmony is already of a high standard
and you only make very few errors. Check with
your teacher - it is better to write harmony that is
simple and correct than complicated and full of
mistakes. Most of the examples are at cadences, but
some are elsewhere.
Fill in the worksheet to help you analyse these
examples.
Once you have completed your examination of these
examples, you should also go back through previous
worksheets to see if you can improve them by adding
some extra suspensions.
Example Phrases [Download printable PDF of
these examples]
Examp
le 1
(RM12
6, first
phrase
)
Examp
le 2
(RM89
, fourth
phrase
)
Examp
le 3
(RM40
, third
phrase
)
Examp
le 4
(RM35
, first
phrase
)
Bach chromatic chord examples (11)

Bach uses a range of chromatic chords in
his chorale harmonisations, but the easiest
to emulate are the Tierce de picardie and
chord II with a sharpened third. Have a look
at the examples below and see if you can
incorporate these ideas into worksheets you
have already completed. You should only
use chromatic chords if you are already
producing work at a high level and with only
very few mistakes. An alternative approach
chord to IIb in this situation is Ib, but be
careful of this formula in minor keys (it
creates awkward intervals). These
alterations are best saved for FINAL
cadences.
Answer the questions on the worksheet to
help you analyse these examples.
Once you have completed your examination
of these examples, you should also go back
through previous worksheets to see if you
can improve them by adding these
chromatic chords at the final cadence.
Example Phrases [Download printable PDF
of these examples]
Exampl
e1
(RM204
, final
phrase)
Exampl
e2
(RM156
, final
phrase,
slightly
simplifie
d)
Exampl
e3
(RM107
, final
phrase,
slightly
simplifie
d)
Voice-leading in Bach chorales: Spacing
[back to the Double SLAP]
What's spacing?
Vocal music sounds different depending on how the parts are
spaced. If you write the middle parts very high when you are
harmonising a chorale melody, the texture will sound thinner
(and the voices more strained!) and if they are very low, the
texture will be much darker and thicker:

Composers try to avoid very low and thick textures in

choral writing, because the chords become very muddy
and unclear. If you keep within the natural ranges of
the four voices, it is unlikely that you will write a texture
that is too high.
What should the spacing be in a Bach chorale?
The basic rule when writing a chorale melody is that

the top three parts should generally be as close as
possible. If there is a large gap it should be between
the bass and the tenor parts.
You should follow these two basic guidelines:
 in each phrase the gap between tenor and soprano must
be no more than a 12th (an octave and a fifth) at any
point and less than an octave at some point *
 there should not be a gap of more than an octave
between Soprano and Alto or Alto and Tenor
*this is the definition of a 'good' texture in the Exexcel mark

scheme
Note how the tenor line is higher than you might think -
mostly up in the ledger lines.
If the soprano is very low, all four parts may be much

closer than would otherwise be advisable. The first of
the two examples below is fine, because the soprano
forces all the other parts to be low. In the second
example, in which the soprano is an octave higher - the
texture sounds unbalanced with the thick texture of the
lower parts a long way from the higher top part. You
can see that this breaks Edexcel's rule that the tenor
should not be more than a 12th and at some point an
octave in a given phrase.
What else should I avoid?
The voice parts in a Bach chorale should not generally

cross, as this can disrupt the balance and clarity of the
texture. Bach does occasionally cross the inner two
parts (alto and tenor) in order to avoid parallels, but
this is not a good idea in an exam. In this example, the
alto moves unnecessarily below the tenor - it is easy to
do by mistake when one or other of the inner parts is
on ledger lines.

Voice-leading in Bach chorales: Doubling

What�s doubling?
Chorales are written in four parts, but there are only

three notes in a triad. In order for every voice to have a
note to sing, you need to double up on one of the
notes.
Most of the time you should reinforce the harmony by
doubling the root of the chord, but it is sometimes
better to double other notes to get better voice-leading
as outlined below.
What are the rules?
The basic rules for triads are as follows (in seventh chords
you should include all four notes, so there are no doublings):
 Root position chords � double the root

 First inversion � double either the root or third
(for Vb always double the root*)
 Second inversion (Ic)� double the fifth
* You should not double the third in chord V because doubling

the leading note of a scale creates problems with voice-
leading.
Why do you not always double the root in first

inversion?
Doubling the third of a first inversion chord is often the

best way of avoiding parallels as in the following
example:

Why double the fifth in chord Ic?
Ic is really just a decoration of chord V as shown below

� it is often called a cadential six-four because it forms
a sixth and a fourth above the bass in the chord before
the V of the cadence. The fifth is doubled in Ic, then,
because it is really the root of the following V chord that
it decorates that is being doubled.

Why does Bach sometimes break these rules?
Sometimes it is difficult to harmonise a melody in a certain
way without creating either parallels or awkward intervals.
Because it is better to have a 'wrong' doubling than a parallels
or awkward intervals, Bach tends to be more flexible with his
doublings. In the example below, doubling the third avoids
an augmented second in the alto part.
You should probably stick to the basic rules in your

own work in case the examiner does not agree that
more unusual doublings are necessary.
Voice-leading in Bach chorales: Suspensions

What do I have to remember?
In Bach's chorale style dissonant notes (including

sevenths) are treated very carefully, so as not to
disrupt the balance and flow of the music. Dissonant
notes are almost always unaccented passing notes or
suspensions.
The suspended note is always treated in the same
way, so as to lessen the impact of the dissonance, as
shown in the example below:
 the note must be prepared by appearing in the same
voice in the previous beat
 the suspension must resolve by descending step
In this suspension, the G is dissonant against the A - it

is prepared and resolved downwards by step in the alto
voice.
What are the most common suspensions?
The following dissonances are always treated as

suspensions:
1. 4-3 suspensions (see above)
2. the seventh in II7b (Example A below)
3. 7-6 suspensions (Example B below)
What are the most common mistakes?
Here are some common errors that you might make:

 forgetting to check that the preparation fits with the
previous chord
 adding the third as well as the fourth in a 4-3 suspension
(see example 1 below)
 suspending a seventh above the bass rather than the
seventh of the chord in II7b (see example 2 below)
Voice-leading in Bach chorales: Leaps
What's wrong with leaping?

Although there are plenty of leaps in Bach's chorales, he
always is careful not to lose the sense of melodic line. The
bass part tends to leap a bit more than the alto and tenor,
which are as straightforward and stepwise as possible. The
inner parts anchor the texture and make the progression of
chords sound smooth and coherent. The bass line (like the
soprano) tends to have a slightly more interesting melody. If
your parts are awkward to sing, then you have probably got
too many leaps.
What do I have to remember?

The following guidelines will help you write parts that are
typical of Bach's chorale style. They are not really rules, but
they should steer you in the right direction. Learning how to
balance leaps and steps in a chorale in order to create an
effective texture will be excellent for your composing and
arranging skills as well as showing you how the apparently
effortless textures in Classical music take great skill and care
to achieve.
Bass line
 Bach's bass lines usually have more steps than leaps

 They often consist of several stepwise progressions
separated by leaps
 Cadences usually involve leaping
 A leap will often be balanced by stepwise motion in the
opposite direction
 Bass lines hardly ever repeat a note consecutively
 Don't leap more than a fifth (with the exception of an
octave)
 Avoid leaping twice in the same direction (unless you are
going up or down the notes of a triad)
 This last point also applies to non-fingerprint cadences -
if you are leaping twice into the cadence, try to ensure
that it is in opposite direction
Inner parts (alto and tenor)
 Inner parts anchor the texture and should therefore leap

much less than the bass - boring is good!
 Consecutively repeated notes are preferred - Where
there is a common tone between two chords, keep it in
the same voice
 The last four rules above also apply to the inner parts
The following has example has typical bass and inner
parts that follow the above guidelines:
Voice-leading in Bach chorales: Leading

notes
What's the problem with leading notes?

As its name implies, the leading note (the seventh note of the
scale) leads naturally up to the tonic, so other resolutions of
this note can sound rather odd. The leading note will most
likely crop up in chord V (as chords VII and III are rather more
rarely used) which is usually followed by the tonic, so in the
example below the leading note resolutions are shown as part
of a V to I progression. You can hear that while the resolution
up to the tonic (7-8) is the most natural, the leaping down to
the fifth (7-5) sounds fine too. The leap to the third (7-3),
however, sounds extremely awkward.
What are the rules?
The rule about leading note resolutions is very simple:

 You must not resolve the leading note (or the seventh) in a
given key to its third.
Where might I break the rules?
The problems most often occur at cadence points. The

most common cadence is where the supertonic falls to
the tonic (2-1) in the soprano against the roots
of V to I in the bass, as in the example below. Because
we already have two tonics in the final chord (in
soprano and bass) the leading note in this situation can
only resolve to 5 unless we triple the tonic (and miss
out a note from the chord) or break the 7-3 rule.
You can see in Example B that the resolution from 7-3
is not very good voice-leading in any case, as it leaps
more than is ideal for an inner part (see guidelines
on leaps).
Notice that the inner parts are swapped round between
these two extracts. Swapping inner parts can often
make solving a particular voice-leading problem
easier.

notes

What are the rules?


on leaps).
easier.

notes

What are the rules?


on leaps).
easier.
Voice-leading in Bach chorales: Accidentals

What's the problem with accidentals?
There is no real problem with accidentals except for the

fact that students often forget to put them in their
chorales! This is not really a matter of voice-leading, it
is just something that needs checking very carefully.
Where are mistakes most commonly made?
The most common errors are as follows:

 forgetting to sharpen the seventh degree of the scale in a
minor key (e.g. G# in A minor)
 forgetting about the necessary accidentals in
modulations
How can they be avoided?
When you have decided

on the key of each
phrase (see method),
lightly pencil in the
accidentals you will need
above the stave. This will
remind you when you
later go back to fill in the
inner parts, when most
mistakes arise.
Voice-leading in Bach chorales: Accidentals
What's the problem with accidentals?
There is no real problem with accidentals except for the

fact that students often forget to put them in their
chorales! This is not really a matter of voice-leading, it
is just something that needs checking very carefully.
Where are mistakes most commonly made?
The most common errors are as follows:

 forgetting to sharpen the seventh degree of the scale in a
minor key (e.g. G# in A minor)
 forgetting about the necessary accidentals in
modulations
How can they be avoided?

When you have decided on the key of each phrase
(see method), lightly pencil in the accidentals you will
need above the stave. This will remind you when you
later go back to fill in the inner parts, when most
mistakes arise.
Voice-leading in Bach chorales:

Awkward intervals
Why are some intervals considered

awkward?
There are a number of intervals in the major

and minor scales that are only used rarely in
vocal melodies because they are awkward to
pitch and therefore quite often end up being
out of tune.
What intervals should be avoided and
where do they appear?
The tritone (augmented fourth or diminished

fifth) spans three whole tones and was long
avoided in Western music as a melodic
interval; its awkwardness led it to be
called diabolus in musica (the devil in music).
It occurs between the fourth and seventh
degrees of both major and minor scales and
between the second and sixth of the minor.:
The augmented second appears between
the sixth and seventh notes of the minor
scale. As well as being awkward to sing, it has
a distinctive Eastern (or folk) feel that Western
composers have generally avoided.
It is also best to avoid the other odd interval in
the minor scale - the diminished
fourth/augmented fifth which appears between
the third and the seventh note of the minor
scale.
How can these intervals be avoided?
Tritones
In the bass, check that what you think is a
perfect fourth or fifth is not in fact a tritone
between scale degrees four and seven. It is
easy to eliminate the tritone by changing
either the inversions or the chord progression
itself. In particular, make sure you avoid the
following progressions:
 IIb-Vb
 IV-Vb
 IV-VII (vii should only be used in first inversion
anyway - see harmonic DOs and DON'Ts)
In the inner parts, fourths and fifths are rather

large leaps in any case and they should be
rewritten to smooth this out as in the example
below. As so often with chorale exercises, the
tritone is not the only problem in this example
- there are also parallel fifths between bass
and alto.
Augmented seconds
These are a common and annoying problem
when writing in minor keys. In the bass,
progressions between VI and VII should be
avoided in any case (see harmonic DOs and
DON'Ts). Similarly, you cannot write bass
progressions between IVb and Vb, putting one
chord in first inversion.
The most common problems with augmented
seconds, however, are caused by passing
notes. The progression from I to VI shown in
the example below works well in both major
and minor, but if you try and add a passing
note in the minor, you will end up with an
augmented second (see example b). There
are two solutions:
 the first is simply to miss the passing note out
 the second is to flatten the seventh on the way
down as in a melodic minor scale (see second
half of example below)
Important note: you cannot flatten the

seventh or raise the sixth if the note is part of
the chord rather than a passing note - in such
cases you need to find a different chord
progression
Voice-leading in Bach chorales: Parallel fifths
and octaves
What's the problem with parallels?
The reasons why Bach (along with virtually all tonal

composers) avoids parallel fifths and octaves are not
straightforward. In the end, avoiding the sound of
parallels is part of the aesthetic of tonal music - they
are considered ugly in the same way as, for example,
unprepared dissonances. There is not necessarily a
wholly logical reason why this might be, it is just a
feature that has to be accepted and absorbed.
The following factors have probably contributed to the
emergence of this 'rule' of tonal composition:
 The intervals of a fifth and an octave create a distinctive
'bare' sound. If they are written in parallel attention is
drawn to this bareness, even if there are other voices in
the texture.
 Early sacred vocal music involved a lot of parallel motion
between voices, particularly in fifths and octaves. As
music developed, there was an increasing emphasis on
writing independent parts - the avoidance of parallel
motion (especially fifths and octaves) formed a part of
this development.
 Theorists as early as 1300 advised against the use of
parallel fifths - although composers continued to write
them occasionally, by the end of the Renaissance, they
were avoided in virtually all types of Western classical
music
 Since at least the 1500s, a large number of composers
began their training by learning 'species counterpoint', a
method for learning how to write Renaissance
polyphony. In species counterpoint compositional
exercises, the shape of the lines and the way they
interact are very carefully controlled - parallel fifths and
octaves are strictly forbidden.
 Parallel fifths imply an ungainly progression of root
position triads with all the voices moving together.
Avoiding parallel fifths helps to eliminate this type of
voice-leading.
The 'ban' on parallel fifths and octaves is therefore

bound up with other less easily defined aspects of
music - learning how to avoid them also guides your
writing in the right direction in terms of both harmonic
progressions and part-writing in general.
What exactly is not allowed?
Consecutive parallel consecutive fifths and octaves
You must not write fifths or octaves that are both:

 consecutive (i.e. in two chords that are next to each other)
 and parallel (i.e. moving in the same direction)
In the example below, A is not allowed, but in B the

fifths are not consecutive, and in C they are
not moving in parallel (this is the end of one phrase
and the beginning of the next):
Hidden or exposed fifths and octaves
The sensitivity to parallels in the simple texture of

Bach's chorale style means that even similar motion to
a fifth or octave can give the impression of parallels.
The example below explains these 'hidden' or
'exposed' octaves - the same can happen with fifths.
The rule is that you should also avoid similar motion to
an octave or a fifth between the outer parts (soprano
and bass) when (and only when) the soprano is
also leaping. This is because the the leap to a perfect
interval with the bass stand out and sound a bit like
parallels. You may well not hear this yourself, but you
just have to accept that it is part of the convention of
writing in this style. In the example below, the second
progression is OK because the soprano moves by step
and the third progression is OK because the outer
voices are in contrary motion.
Where do they crop up and how can they be

avoided?
The only way to avoid parallels is to check religiously at

all stages as outlined in my Bach chorale method. If
you write a bass line first that avoids parallels, you are
much less likely to end up with them in the inner parts.
To can save time checking by following these steps:
For each chord progression, make the following checks
1. are any parts moving in the same direction? - if not, stop
checking, there cannot be parallels
2. if any parts are moving in the same direction, are they
moving by the same interval? - again, if not, stop
checking
3. finally, check what the interval is between the parts
(thirds, fourths and sixths are fine)
There are a few specific circumstances in which fifths

and/or octaves are particularly likely to crop up:
 two chords in which both the harmony and melody are
moving in the same direction by step (as in example A
below)
 two chords in which all the parts are moving in the same
direction
 adding a passing note in the progression Ib-V (as in
example B below)
 adding a passing seventh at the same time as an
anticipation (as in example C below)
Voice-leading in Bach chorales: Passing
sevenths
What's the problem with passing sevenths?
Adding a passing seventh to a perfect cadence is an

excellent way of making it sound like Bach
(see cadential fingerprint resources for more on
characteristic Bachian touches). There are some very
common mistakes that students make with adding
passing notes at cadences that you need to be careful
to avoid.
How can I avoid making mistakes?
The most common problem is adding the wrong

passing note at the cadence. As shown in the example
below, it is often possible to add a passing note to
either of the inner parts at a cadence.
The correct passing note, however, is the one that
makes seventh above the root of chord V. This creates
a dominant seventh, which strengthens the cadence -
the other passing note adds a passing ninth, which is
much less characteristic (and for which you will not get
a mark in your A level exam!).
You also need to be careful of is if the third of the final

chord of a perfect cadence is already in the soprano
part. The passing seventh must fall by step and this is
impossible to achieve without doubling the third if it is
in the soprano part already.
Method - Step 1a: Closely related keys

[next step]
In tonal music, there are five keys that a piece is most

likely to modulate too because they are most closely
related (i.e. they have the most notes in common).
In G major, as in the example below, these are the
subdominant (C major) and the dominant (D) plus the
relative minors of all three keys. Put another way, it is
the subdominant and dominant of the tonic key and of
its relative minor (E).
If two keys are adjacent on the diagram they are more

closely related than if they are not. For example, G
major and D major only differ by one note, whereas C
and D differ by two (F# and C# as opposed to
naturals). Modulations between adjacent keys
therefore sound much more natural and smooth.
In a minor key, it is the

same but the other way
around. In other words, if
you were in E minor to
begin with the five most
likely are subdominant
and dominant of both E
minor and its relative
major (G).
Method - Step 1a: Closely related keys
[next step]
In tonal music, there are five keys that a piece is most

likely to modulate too because they are most closely
related (i.e. they have the most notes in common).
In G major, as in the example below, these are the
subdominant (C major) and the dominant (D) plus the
relative minors of all three keys. Put another way, it is
the subdominant and dominant of the tonic key and of
its relative minor (E).
If two keys are adjacent on the diagram they are more

closely related than if they are not. For example, G
major and D major only differ by one note, whereas C
and D differ by two (F# and C# as opposed to
naturals). Modulations between adjacent keys
therefore sound much more natural and smooth.
In a minor key, it is the

same but the other way
around. In other words, if
you were in E minor to
begin with the five most
likely are subdominant
and dominant of both E
minor and its relative
major (G).
Method - Step 1b: Working out the cadences
[previous step / next step]
For each cadence, follow the steps outlined below and

make a note of the possible cadences � you may
change your mind when it comes to working out the
modulations in the next step. The examples in the table
refer to the two phrases below, which are used
throughout the explanations of the method.
Step-by-step Phrase 1 Phrase 2
The D at the end of

The G at the end of
the second phrase
a) Work out the first phrase
could be
which tonic could be harmonised by:
and harmonised by:
dominant  a G major
 a G major
chords from chord - I in G
chord - I in G
the closely or V in C
or V in C
related  a D major
 a C major
keys can fit chord - I in D
chord - I in C
with the or V in G
 an E minor
pause note.  a B minor
chord - I in E
chord - I in B
minor
minor
b) For any  I in G  I in G

possible V would be a V would be a
tonic chords, D major chord, D major chord,
work out if which doesfit which does
with the A not fit with the
before the E before the
the previous
pause. pause.
note (before
 I in C  I in D
the pause) V would be a V would be an
can be G major chord, A major chord,
harmonised which does which does fit
by the not fit with the with the E
dominant of A  I in B minor
that key to  I in E minor V would be an
make V would be a F# major
B major chord, chord,
a perfect
which does which does
cadence. not fit with the not fit with the
A E
c) For any
possible  V in C
I would be a C
dominant
major chord,
chords, work which doesfit
out if the  V in C with the E
previous I would be a C before the
major chord, pause.
chord can
which does
be not fit with the  V in G
harmonised A before the I would be a G
by the tonic pause. major chord,
which does
of that key
not fit with the
to make E before the
an imperfect pause.
cadence
d) Consider Only one choice There are two

which of the from the closely possibilities:
above related keys fits
options are both notes - a  I to V in C -
most likely. perfect cadence in although this
fits, the
Remember G major
previous note
the most is an F#,
common which is not in
(but by no C major -
means the therefore less
only) likely
melodic  V to I in A -
patterns are: this fits better
with the
 2-1 or melody in the
7-8 for previous notes
a
perfect
cadenc
e
 3-2 or
8-7 for
an
imperfe
ct
cadenc
e
The most
likely keys
overall are
probably
dominant,
relative
minor or
subdominan
t in a major
key and
dominant,
relative
minor or
subdominan
t in a minor
key. If the
correct
accidentals
for a key are
present or
lacking in
the chords
previous to
the
cadence,
this
indicates
that the key
is less likely.

a) Work out The G at the end of The D at the end of

which tonic the first phrase the second phrase
and could be could be
dominant harmonised by: harmonised by:
chords from
the closely  a G major  a G major
related chord - I in G chord - I in G
or V in C or V in C
keys can fit
with the
 a C major  a D major
chord - I in C chord - I in D
pause note.
 an E minor or V in G
chord - I in E  a B minor
minor chord - I in B
minor
 I in G  I in G
b) For any V would be a V would be a
possible D major chord, D major chord,
which doesfit which does
tonic chords,
work out if before the E before the
the previous pause. pause.
note (before  I in C  I in D
dominant of
A  I in B minor
that key to
 I in E minor V would be an
V would be a F# major
make
a perfect which does which does
A E
c) For any  V in C  V in C

possible I would be a C I would be a C
dominant major chord, major chord,
chords, work which does which doesfit
out if the not fit with the with the E
A before the before the
previous
pause. pause.
chord can
 V in G
be I would be a G
harmonised major chord,
by the tonic which does
of that key
not fit with the
to make
E before the
an imperfect pause.
cadence

fits, the
Remember G major
previous note
the most is an F#,
only) likely
with the
a
perfect
cadenc
e
 3-2 or
8-7 for
an
imperfe
ct
cadenc
e
The most
likely keys
overall are
probably
dominant,
relative
minor or
subdominan
t in a major
key and
dominant,
relative
minor or
subdominan
t in a minor
key. If the
correct
accidentals
for a key are
present or
lacking in
the chords
previous to
the
cadence,
this
indicates
that the key
is less likely.


a) Work out The G at the end of The D at the end of

which tonic the first phrase the second phrase
and could be could be
dominant harmonised by: harmonised by:
chords from
 a G major
 a G major
chord - I in G
the closely chord - I in G
or V in C
related or V in C
 a D major
keys can fit  a C major
chord - I in D
with the chord - I in C
or V in G
pause note.  an E minor
 a B minor
chord - I in E
chord - I in B
minor
minor
 I in G  I in G
b) For any V would be a V would be a
possible D major chord, D major chord,
which doesfit which does
tonic chords,
work out if before the E before the
the previous pause. pause.
note (before  I in C  I in D
dominant of
A  I in B minor
that key to
 I in E minor V would be an
V would be a F# major
make
a perfect which does which does
A E
c) For any  V in C  V in C

possible I would be a C I would be a C
dominant
major chord,
chords, work
which doesfit
out if the with the E
previous before the
chord can major chord, pause.
which does
be
not fit with the  V in G
harmonised A before the I would be a G
by the tonic pause. major chord,
of that key which does
not fit with the
to make
E before the
an imperfect pause.
cadence

fits, the
Remember G major
previous note
the most is an F#,
only) likely
with the
a
perfect
cadenc
e
 3-2 or
8-7 for
an
imperfe
ct
cadenc
e
The most
likely keys
overall are
probably
dominant,
relative
minor or
subdominan
t in a major
key and
dominant,
relative
minor or
subdominan
t in a minor
key. If the
correct
accidentals
for a key are
present or
lacking in
the chords
previous to
the
cadence,
this
indicates
that the key
is less likely.
Method - Step 2a: Planning modulations

see notes on modulation
Once you have decided on the keys cadences, you

need to think about the key for the start of each phrase
before you you can go onto the next step of completing
a simple primary-chord harmonisation.
The easiest course of action is to start each phrase in
the key in which it cadences. Any changes of key can
then be handled by using a phrase modulation (the
new key starts at the beginning of the phrase).
However, there are several circumstances that may
stop you being able to modulate in this way:
 if accidentals (or a lack of accidentals) make the cadence
key impossible at the beginning of the phrase
 if the beginning of the phrase cannot be harmonised in a
sensible way using the cadence key. For example, if the
only possible harmonisation using primary chords is IV -
IV-I this might indicate that you are in the wrong key.
 if the key at the end of the previous phrase is too distant
from the cadence key of the next phrase (i.e. not
adjacent on the closely related keys diagram)
In such cases, you will need to use a pivot modulation.

Modulations are discussed in the next step of the
method and there are examples of modulations on
the resources pages.
In this example, the first phrase is straightforward as

the home key is G major and this is the key of the first
cadence. There therefore is no good reason not to start
the chorale in G and end the first phrase in this key.
The second phrase, however, is more awkward. It ends
in D major, but if you harmonise the beginning in this
key using primary chords there are no dominant chords
for the first five beats - only I and IV. This indicates the
it might be better to start the phrase in G and then
move to D later in the phrase. Modulating within a
phrase is covered in the next step of the method.

Method - Step 3b: Rewriting the bass

This is where you turn your plodding series of root

positions from step 2b into a proper bass line! You will
change the bassline (and harmonies where necessary)
in order to eliminate voice-leading problems and to
create a strong melody that works well with the
soprano and leads effectively into the fingerprints that
you chose in the last step.
Beware! Only change the harmonies if it is
necessary in order to create a good bass line - if
you change them too much you will destroy the
clear sense of key achieved in step 2b. Less is
often more ...
What to aim for in a bass
... how to achieve it
line ...
Apart from eliminating In order to improve your

voice-leading errors (see bass line, you can do any
the Double SLAP - in of the following:
particular leaps, awkward
intervals and parallels),  change to another
the following basic primary chord (so
long as it fits the
guidelines summarise
melody)
what you are trying to
 change from root
achieve in this step. position to first
inversion
The bass should:
 add a passing note
 have a good balance  replace a primary
of leaps and steps chord
 not leap twice in the with VI or II (but
same direction see harmonic DOs
(unless roots and DON'Ts)
of I - V - I)  using a mid-phrase
 not have any fingerprint
repeated notes (other (see resources - I -
than in Ic - V - I) VIIb- Ib or Ib - VIIb - I
 not follow the top line are particularly
too closely in either effective)
similar or parallel
motion (there should
be some contrary
motion and as a rule
of thumb don't move
in parallel thirds or
sixths for more than
three notes in a row)
 have some sense of
shape and direction -
avoid the 'siren'
bassline that goes
repeatedly between
two or three notes!
In addition, you need to be

aware of harmonic
progressions that you
should avoid - have a look
at the DOs and DON'Tsof
harmony.
In the example below, I have identified various

problems with the primary chord harmonisation from
the previous step (plus the fingerprints from Step 3a)
and then made some changes to the bassline and
harmonies in order to solve them. Notice how few
changes you can make to make a massive
improvement. Although it could be improved further,
this is now a good bassline for a Bach chorale.
Problem Solution
The bass in the first bar Changing the V in the

has rather a lot of second beat to a first
leaps. Although it is fine inversion chord
for basslines to leap, creates a better bass
there should be a good line in which the first
three notes are a bit
more melodic and
balance of leaps and singable before the
steps so that it is a leap down to the C
melody rather than just that leads into the
a series of roots of fingerprint (obviously
chords the leap in the perfect
cadence is inevitable
and not a problem)
The third bar starts with

a repeated D - Bach
virtually never repeats
a bass note because it
Changing the V in the
breaks up the flow of
second beat to a first
the music (the
inversion and then
exceptions are between
joining the D and F#
the pause note at the
with a passing note
end of one phrase and
makes for a more
the first note of the next
melodic bass line
and between an upbeat
and the following
downbeat at the very
beginning of a chorale)
Substituting the first G

There are parallel
major chord of the
octaves from the end of
fourth bar to
the third bar into the
a VIIb eliminates the
beginning of the fourth
parallels
Making the above
change to VIIb and
changing the next D
The bass line in the major chord to a first
second phrase is too inversion makes the
leaping and repetitive bass line much more
stepwise and gives
the melody a better
sense of direction.
Method - Step 4: Adding inner parts

The alto and tenor parts anchor the texture and make
the progression of chords sound smooth and coherent.
It does not matter if they seem boring - their role is to
support the counterpoint between the soprano and
bass.
There are two basic principles:
1. the inner parts should be as stepwise as possible - avoid
unnecessary. If you can use the same note in an inner
part from one chord to the next then you should. See the
page on leaps from the Double SLAP voice-leading
rules.
2. in order that the texture is not too bottom heavy, the
inner parts should be as high in the texture as possible. If
there is a large gap, it should be between the tenor and
bass. See the page on spacing from the Double SLAP
voice-leading rules.
In addition, you need to be aware of the doubling

guidelines (i.e. which note of the triad you should
double).
The following example adds inner parts to the bass and
soprano from the previous stages. If you have written a
good bassline, you should not have too many problems
with avoiding voice-leading problems. Remember to
check your work carefully using the Double SLAP.
Method - Check 3
[previous step]
The following gives some examples of the sort of errors

that might creep in when you add the inner parts (the
numbers correspond to the blue numbers on the
example). Click on the links to read more about each
type of error. It is common, as on this example, for one
mistake to lead to several more - they tend to appear in
clusters. The only solution is to check you work
thoroughly using the Double SLAP.
1. Spacing: the inner parts are unnecessarily low - the
largest gap is between the soprano and alto
2. Leaps: the tenor part leaps a sixth up and back down -
this is far too big a leap and can easily be avoided
3. Doubling: second inversion chords should have the fifth
doubled (D) not the root of the chord as here (G)
4. Passing seventh: at a cadence the passing note should
be the seventh of the dominant chord - in this case C
rather than E
5. Suspensions: the suspended D in the II7b chord needs
to resolve downwards by step to C#
6. Leading notes: the seventh degree of the scale (here D
major) must not resolve to the third as it does here - it
should either resolve to the tonic (D) or the fifth (A)
7. Parallels: there are three consecutive parallel fifths
between tenor and bass.
Version with errors
Corrected version
Figure (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Accompaniment figures in Schubert's Octet, Op. 166.[1] Play (help·info)
A phrase originally presented as a motif may become a figure which

accompanies another melody, as in the second movement of Claude
Debussy's String Quartet (1893).[2] Play (help·info) White would
classify the accompaniment as motivic material since it was, "derived
from an important motive stated earlier."[1]
A musical figure or figuration is the shortest idea in music; a short
succession of notes, often recurring. It may have
melodic pitch, harmonic progression, and rhythm (duration). The
1964 Grove's Dictionary defines the figure as "the exact counterpart of
the German 'motiv' and the French 'motif'": it produces a "single
complete and distinct impression".[3][page needed] To the self-taught Roger
Scruton,[4] however, a figure is distinguished from a motif in that a
figure is background while a motif is foreground:
A figure resembles a moulding in architecture: it is 'open at both ends',
so as to be endlessly repeatable. In hearing a phrase as a figure,
rather than a motif, we are at the same time placing it in the
background, even if it is ... strong and melodious[5]
A phrase originally presented or heard as a motif may become a figure
that accompanies another melody, such as in the second movement
of Claude Debussy's String Quartet. It is perhaps best to view a figure
as a motif when it has special importance in a piece. According to
White, motives are, "significant in the structure of the work," while
figures or figurations are not and, "may often occur in accompaniment
passages or in transitional or connective material designed to link two
sections together," with the former being more common.[1]
Minimalist music may be constructed entirely from figures. Scruton
describes music by Philip Glass such as Akhnaten as
"nothing but figures...endless daisy-chains".[6]
A basic figure is known as a riff in American popular music.
See also

MOTIVIC

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 Motivic

– taking the intervals and rhythm of notes into account

1 Writing a simple Classical theme

Compose a Basic Idea Writing Cadences Choosing a phrase structure

Being familiar with the basic conventions of the Western Classical

* Although the music is BASED on straightforward principles, you will

HOME » 8 – COMPOSITION (HOME) » WESTERN CLASSICAL TRADITION: STYLE

Western Classical Tradition: Style Composition Hub

Stage 1: Compose a Basic Idea

[back to Composing Hub]

You can work on an instrument or computer but remember the following:

Choose Tempo, Metre, Key etc.

3/4 Allegretto Bb major A legato t

Choose a Chord Sequence

Basic idea examples

Use Up/Down Arrow keys to increase or decrease volume.

Idea based on chords I and V

Idea based on chords I and vii

 dissonant notes followed by a leap (other than escape notes)

(Americans call this sort of strong perfect cadence

Use Up/Down Arrow keys to increase or decrease volume.

The way the actual cadence is approached tends to

This simple cadence has a few decorations of the basic 3-2-1

Haydn String Quartet op. 33/1, second movement.

Approaching the perfect cadence from chord ii6 is very common –

V-I (with Haydn String Quartet op. 33/3, second movement.

Use Up/Down Arrow keys to increase or decrease volume.

Use Up/Down Arrow keys to increase or decrease volume.

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

[back to Composing Hub]

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

This 8-bar structure introduces a contrasting idea in the secon

This longer 16-bar structure begins with a period, adding som

Use Up/Down Arrow keys to increase or decrease volume.

I vii6 [leads nice

vi ii6 [leads nicely

[Back to Choosing a Phrase Structure]

 Basic idea (2 bars) – this is the melody you wrote in

In this Haydn example the opening idea is extremely simple with a

Use Up/Down Arrow keys to increase or decrease volume.

Use Up/Down Arrow keys to increase or decrease volume.

 Basic idea (2 bars) – this is the melody you wrote in

Haydn Op. 64 No. 4, third movement