Ethics

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Module 1 Introduction to Ethics
At the end of this module, you are expected t0:

1. Understand the importance of Ethics to Philosophy to Higher Learning
2. Learn its contribution to Man’s development
Ethics and Philosophy

What is Ethics? Why is it important to every society? First of all, let us define Ethics
– simply put it is the Philosophy of Life. By critical thinking it discerns men form brutes
making men decide better than mere a priori judgment. The quality of life men lived is a
testament to man’s mental development. Ethics is the primary vehicle for men to reach the
very purpose of life – the pursuit of happiness. Ever since civilizations began their baby
steps, societies are created to ensure their security from predators – real or imagined, they
have to create laws but of what use is it if not guided by reason, and that is where Ethics
come in. The written law is used to ensure order but what is the ultimate source of it all –
ethics no doubt. Ethics made men decide what is right or wrong guided by reason should
ambiguity in the written law persists.
As we all know nothing is perfect, everything has flaws, with that confusion comes
in. Human Ethics are clouded by man’s self-interest that interpretation to law and order as
muddled as needle in a haystack. As time goes by changes in the environment as well as the
complexities of the human world as well as his thinking altered the understanding of
Ethics. That is an undeniable fact. Sadly leaders of the modern world lack ethical standards
that at times their morals are condescending.
In the current world we are currently in, there are age-old questions that even
baffled geniuses and they are: 1) what is the supreme purpose of human living?, 2) What is
man’s greatest good and perfection?, 3) what is the ultimate objective of human strivings, is
it attainable?, 4) what is the summum bonum (highest good) of human life and 5) what is
the root cause and remedy to human suffering.
Is man intrinsically good or evil? If we are to correlate man as part of the Animal
Kingdom then men are bad. Take for example co-workers in an office who display
“decency” in each other’s presence but invent stories behind their backs to discredit them
to their boss and gain brownie points a sure sign of a lack of professional ethics. We might
say this is immoral but logical just the same, we live in a dog-eat-dog world. Survival at all
cost is the name of the game. Which brings us to another philosophical question, why are
not moral acts are not legal and vice versa? Going to church is moral but why was this not
legislated? In the same way, why is divorce considered immoral to us Filipinos is legally
approved in other societies? The decadence of ethics is not just limited to the business
world. It has even affected every aspect of society, such as sports and entertainment.
Course Module
Ethics and Human Development
Humans are not born endowed with ethics as if it is an inherent charcterisitic; but
their behavior jives with human development. Man initially behaves like brutes, and under
human development, he behaves less morally and more ethically. Ethics and morality are
interchangeable for they are both patterns of human behavior but in reality are different.
Ethics refer to rules provided by an external source, such as laws, codes of conduct in
workplaces or principles in religions. Morals on the other hand refer to an individual’s own
principles regarding right and wrong. Ergo as man progressed he deviates from his clouded
personal beliefs to a more socially acceptable norm.
Ethical human behavior depend on two things: personal development and human
development. Personal development, in general, is a process of internalization of values,
judgement and thought; and morally, is a transition from what we should ought to do, to
what is the best thing to do. Human development is the combination of -collective- personal
development and social development. The ethics of human behavior ranges from the
spectrum of low personal and human development to high personal and human
development. In time, man’s ethical development will also serve as his transition from a
self-indulging individual to a person endowed with knowledge that will aid him in his
pursuit for happiness.
References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. Montemayor, Felix; Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro Manila; National Book Store
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus
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Module 2 The Scope and Meaning of Ethics
At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. To understand the Definition of Ethics
2. Morality and other phases of Human Life
3. To learn about Human Acts
A deeper understanding of Ethics

Ethics is a branch of Philosophy that studies human acts and human conduct. Although
there are subjects that study human conduct such as Psychology and Sociology. Ethics has a
deeper meaning in its standpoint by further delving into the aspect of human acts. They are more
concerned with the morality of human acts.
Noted definition of Ethics

1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human actions
2. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality
3. Ethics is the study of human conduct from the standpoint of morality
4. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference of right and wrong
Relation of Ethics with Other Sciences
1. Ethics and Logic – Logic is the science of right thinking and while Ethics is the
science of right living. Thinking and Doing things go hand-in-hand, we cannot
move without thinking right the same way every action is guided by reason.
2. Ethics and Psychology – The two subjects dealt with the study of man, human
nature and human behavior but that is all their similarity ends. Psychology only
tell us the causes of man’s actions that may be psychological or physiological but
ethics tell us how man should react. Ethics is interested in moral obligation while
Psychology ends there.
3. Ethics and Sociology – as we all know, Sociology deals with the study of society
as well as the social order that regulates the society as a whole. But then what is
the foundation of their social order if there is no basis of right and wrong which
is Ethics. Any society is doomed to fail if devoid of correct basis of thinking.
4. Ethics and Economics – Napoleon once said that an army marches on its
stomach, in relation to economics man has to fulfill is economic needs. The need
for material wealth is inherent in man that there are instances that economic
topics needed ethical principles such as capital-labor relations, profit, interests,
money et al. The need to settle these conflicts must have ethical basis to incur
equitable results.
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Morality and Other Phases of Human Life
1. Ethics and Education – Education whether formal or informal is a never-ending
process and is the foundation of man’s moral, intellectual and physical
capacities. But then again education is illicit if it is not supported by ethics, they
say ethics is life the same way education is intertwined with life. Learning is
good but learning supported by ethics is better inasmuch as ethics is living right.
2. Morality and Law – as mentioned in the previous module, not everything moral
is legal and not everything legal is moral. Meaning there are good things that do
not need legislation and immoral acts that the State may approve. But to further
differentiate them laws only used external acts while ethics cover man’s “acts”
that play in his mind that will not incriminate him in any statute. For example, a
plan for a robbery if discovered is not criminally liable in any court of law but
ethics said it is a fault for such “act” is intrinsically evil.
3. Ethics and Politics - Man in his constant search for happiness be it temporal or
eternal is never ending. They say politics and ethics are poles apart – in a certain
point that is correct it is the very reason why politics become dirty for they
deviate from ethics. Man’s insatiable greed for wealth and power thru politics
means absence of ethics. An ideal state should be an ethical state.
4. Ethics and Art – Ethics is about positive morality while art is beauty. Any work of
art that is beautiful, will give a positive outlook to the looker that will be greatly
appreciated. The purpose of art is for appreciation that is contributory to man’s
ethics.
5. Religion and Ethics – Religion is ethics and ethics is religion, they are
interchangeable for the any religious belief tends to ethical standards in relation
to his most fundamental tenet. What unites them all boiled down to three things
namely: a) belief in the Supernatural, b) man’s beginning and end and c) right
living.
Morality and Human Acts

Morality is the quality of goodness or badness in a human act. In this case, we base
judgement on any human act based on its ethicality. The quality of an act may be justified
according to its gravity. An evil human act maybe considered “right” just as long as it can be
justified which lead us to its norm of morality. By that term, we mean that the basis for
determining its correctness are the standard of the judging party and the reason why an act
is morally wrong or right.
Human Acts just like the word itself means actions of men that are done willfully
and willingly. Keep in mind that scenarios beyond human control are not human acts such
as rainfall, sunset, earthquake even the beating of the heart or blood circulation are beyond
human act for these are actions man cannot control. In the case of assassinations where the
culprit pulled the trigger, the gun is not to blame but the doer of the action that caused
taking the life of another man. Once questioned he has the right to justify his action as
either morally right or wrong.
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Books and Journals
1. Agapay, Ramon B.; Ethics and the Filipinos; Mandaluyong Metro Manila, National
Book Store
2. Montemayor, Felix M.; Ethics, the Philosophy of Life; Navotas Metro Manila; National
Book Store Inc.
Written by:
Course Module
Module 3 Moral Standards and Human Freedom

1. To understand moral standards in relation to human life
2. To learn the issue of voluntariness in human acts
Moral Standards
Morality it must be noted, is present only in humanity. Meaning man can only be moral if he
is fully aware of his actions. Brutes have no morality for they are not guided by reason hence they
are not responsible for their actions and are not classified as human acts. Let us be guided based
on these principles:
1. Man is the only Moral Being – due to three things: a) man is capable of action, b) man
has intellect and c) man has free will. Being capable of action man can employ his bodily
activities to perform actions. With man’s intellect he can discern the good or evilness of
his actions and at the same time equate the repercussions of his actions once asked to
justify them. Free will is present and inherent in men unless they ar e idiots and with
that they have the freedom of choice whether to perform or not the action at hand.
2. Man is a the highest form of Animal – endowed with intellect, man can decide what’s
best for him although their desires are the same with brutes such as h unger, thirst, pain
and sensual needs; man moves based on reason while their lower counterparts have
only instinct. Sentient beings like animals rely on instinct which are natural biological
drives, while men can decide whether an act is moral or not.
3. Man is a rational animal – Ratio is the Latin term for reason that means man has the
power to discern things based on his previous knowledge of things. Unlike brutes, man
has the power of abstraction – this is his ability to correlate ideas previously based on
his mind as well as his understanding of the situation at hand, thereby giving him a
logical or correct decision.
4. The intellect and the will – they are correlative with each other because the intellect is
the agent of knowing while the will is the agent of choice. From intellect – knowledge is
stored this will then guide the will to decide which is basically “good”. They co-exist and
from their partnership “virtue” is born.
Voluntariness of Human Acts

A voluntary act is under the control of the intellect and the will and must be answerable for
their actions. As mentioned in the previous module, only human acts are valid in ethics and at the
same time possess moral significance. There are four types of voluntary acts and they are:
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1. Perfect voluntariness – when a person acts with full knowledge and complete freedom –
we are fully aware of what we are doing
2. Imperfect voluntariness – when a person acts without full understanding and no
freedom – we are made to perform acts we did not like
3. Simple voluntariness – it is the disposition of a person doing the activity regardless to
his liking or not – this may be positive or negative. The former is by making him to do
something while the other is to prevent or stop him from doing things.
4. Conditional voluntariness - it is the situation when the person was forced by
circumstances or under duress which he would not do under normal circumstances.
Example is being extorted money by a neighborhood toughie in exchange for his
“protection”.
But what modifiers may cloud the intellect and the will that may either reduce or increase
accountability:
Modifiers of Human Acts:

1. Ignorance – this simply means absence of knowledge. A doer’s responsibility for his
actions may be increased or decreased due to this. A person may have committed an act
for he is unaware of it. There are three types of ignorance and they are: Vincible
ignorance that can easily be corrected such as calling a person with a wrong name or
entering the wrong classroom. On the other hand Invincible ignorance – cannot be
rectified an example is a waiter who gave the wrong food to the customer or a killer
that claimed the life of a wrong victim. The third is Affected ignorance – is the doer’s
attempt to escape responsibility such as a suspect denying his complicity in a crime he
has done.
2. Passions – Psychic responses that may adhere or abhor them to either desirable or
undesirable tendencies. Positive emotions such as love, desire or hope are
manifestations of the first while hatred, horror and despair are example of negative
emotions. There are also two passions such as antecedent and consequent passions
wherein the former are passions that occur before the stimulus such as accidentally
meeting a special someone; while the other came after a stimuli we ourselves caused
for example meeting a special someone that we are already aware of his arrival.
3. Fear – it is the disturbance of the mind when confronted by danger to himself or a loved
one. Actions whether done with fear or out of fear may affect one’s action. Acts done
with fear are voluntary while acts done out of fear are two different things. If one moves
with fear this means he has to decide and yet is afraid he might err an example is an
amateur singer performing in front of a large crowd or driving a vehicle with limited
know-how in driving. Actions out of fear are situations that needed immediate
decisions such as jumping out of a plane about to crash land or run away from a violent
situation.
4. Violence – it is physical force given to a free person to coerce him to do or not to do
something. Physical threats such as torture, starvation or mutilation are examples of
violence but was free will impaired? No, the free will is still there for they can still resist
making their moral integrity intact, in short, there is still a choice.
5. Habits – readiness to perform habitual acts. Habits are done mechanically that thinking
is no longer necessary may either be good or bad. It is second-nature to the doer and
doing it is instinct.

Books and Journals
Book Store Inc.
2. Babor, Eddie R.; Ethics – The Philosophical Discipline of Action; Manile, Rex Book
Store
3. Montemayor, Felix; Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro Manila; National Book
Store
Written by:
Course Module
Module 4 Morality

1. To know the Two Fundamental Questions
2. To understand the Norms of Morality
3. To learn what are Defective Moralities
The Two Fundamental Questions

Two important questions are raised one is “What is Morality” and “What is the meaning of
life?”. The first question pertains to the rightness or wrongfulness of an act and what is the basis of
the judge concerned. These are ethical questions that up to this time, baffled sages and peons alike
and remain unanswered. The second is about the summum bonum (ultimate good) of human
existence, what is the very reason why man exists on this world?
In a nutshell, those two questions are related – Ethics is about morality which is the basis of
good, evreytime we decide on dilemmas using morality men experienced happiness and that is
“good”. The more we attain happiness by being good – the closer we are to the Ultimate Good. To
sum it up, both questions boil down to two words “goodness” and “purpose”, a thing that is of use
is good for it has served its purpose. For example, a politician is good if he has fulfilled his promise
to the people after serving his term of office in doing so by being useful to his constituent, he felt
that he lived a worthy life. This will then be a step to reaching his ultimate goal – the ultimate
good. A good life will ultimately lead to ultimate happiness.
The Norms of Morality

Rationally speaking man acts in accordance to his nature, that human nature quantify as
justification as to why an act be it good or bad is performed. In doing so it conflicts with the higher
intelligence endowed to men. Is man basically good? We can say yes but of what context of
goodness is man supposed to follow? The morality of man follows a proximate norm and an
ultimate norm so where does human nature come in? As mentioned earlier man has baser
tendencies that is human nature equivalent to brutes that may come in the form of stimuli. The
proximate norm there is to follow human nature which is the low end of a human being. On the
other hand, the ultimate norm is to follow divine nature which are decisions that are based on
morality. For example the stimulus of hunger based on proximate norm simply means to eat the
food regardless as to whether it is for somebody else, spoilt or poisonous. Human nature dictates
that man has to satiate his hunger no matter what and may be considered moral if we are to
consider human nature. If man decides to study the situation by not initially grabbing the
“opportunity”, then he acted in relation to the ultimate norm.
However, we are not discarding human nature as a basis of human existence, man is a
social animal which is the nature of man’s need for association. In truth we can never reach divine
status but we must keep in mind that there is no conflict with the Natural law and the Eternal law
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(the Law of God). The Natural is patterned after the Eternal Law, man must adhere to his nature of
man which is using his intellect unlike human nature that is only to follow his passions.
Defective Norms of Morality
Human Nature is a simple foundation of man but there are philosophies and they are:
1. Hedonism – this is also known as the Philosophy of Pleasure that pleasure alone is the
primary purpose of man’s existence. It is true man desires for happiness but a happy
life need not be composed of pleasure alone. True happiness is seeking good but
wallowing in pleasure made man’s life baser than brutes.
2. Utilitarianism – is simply the ends of an action must be good, if it is not then the action
is unjustified. From the word “utility” it means that anything that is of use to the agent is
moral. There are two types of utilitarianism and they are individual utilitarianism and
social utilitarianism – the first is known as egoism which is the definition given – the
agent is the one who will gain. Altruism is the other term for social utilitarianism but
the receiving factor is the society where the agent belongs.
3. Moral Rationalism – simply states that human reason is the only foundation of morality
as postulated by German Philosopher Immanuel Kant which he dubbed as “Categorical
Imperative”. However as Kant further explained we have to do good because we ought
to be good in doing so he is implying blind obedience. In his philosophy “autonomy of
reason”, inasmuch as reason creates the law, it is “reasonable” for men to obey it
without question nor ambiguity. The general rule is that everyone thinks the same for
men are reasonable so conflict is a remote possibility.
4. Moral Positivism – states that morality is adherence to State Laws as philosophizes by
the English sage Thomas Hobbes. The State is the foundation of morality since laws are
geared for the common good apparently, an act is moral if he obeys the law and evil if
he disobeys it. Comparing to Moral Rationalism where reason is the law, Moral
Positivism only has the State Law as its source of morality.
5. Moral Evolutionism – In relation to Sociologist Herbert Spencer, morality just like
evolution is ever-changing until it reached its perfect form. Friedrich Nietsche added
that man was born withj hardly any basis for right and wrong and their collective lives
is a never-ending struggle for change until they reach perfection.
6. Moral Sensism – Contrary to Moral Evolutionism men are born with a special moral
sense (not reason) that is comparable to the five senses. For example, man can easily
differentiate noise from music, salty from sweet as well as pleasant and unpleasant that
may also serve as means to moral judgment.
7. Communism - Although this is more of an economic theory its social implication cannot
be denied and is geared for a classless society. They believed in the philosophy of
material dialectics that means two material things are the only ingredients necessary
for change. They deny the existence of God, the free will and immortality for they do not
matter being immaterial. Ergo, anything that will lead to a classless society is good and
moral and any thing otherwise is evil and immoral.
Books and Journals
Book Store Inc.
Store
Store
Written by:
Course Module
Module 5 Dilemma

1. To understand the importance of dilemma to human reasoning
2. To help the learner gauge his level of thinking
3. To discern one’s level of maturity
What is dilemma
A social dilemma is an action situation in which an individual must decide on his own even
if it is against the socially-accepted norms. It is the situation that measure one’s maturity. Below is
the scale used by Lawrence Kohlbeg in human reasoning.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s sequence of moral reasoning

Situation: You are a loving husband/wife whose spouse was suffering from terminal cancer.
At present, you are unemployed and cannot provide medicine for your suffering partner. One
morning, your beloved was screaming in pain and you are forced to find ways to ease the pain or
better yet eradicate it. You went to a drug store that has just opened, and the guard was out at that
moment and the solitary sales agent was busy preparing herself. The medicine was there but you
are penniless to buy it, that is just within your reach and the chance was ripe to steal it. Will you
take the opportunity for your partner or back track to avoid committing?
Level 1: Pre Conventional Level – The concrete interests of an individual is merely rewards and
punishment. This is a childish mentality that are only encouraged or discouraged based on what
they can get from the situation at hand.
Stage 1: “Obedience and Punishment Orientation”. People stick to the rules to avoid punishment
Favor: If partner dies there will be trouble for you since you are the spouse and must make
a move instead of being idle.
Against: If you steal you might get caught if not your conscience will bother you, this means
that you have to make a move otherwise you will be punished by your conscience by not
doing so.
Stage 2: “Reward Orientation” – Rules are followed only for its benefits. Obedience occurred
because of the rewards. It means that the doer is only after what can he gain from the actions he
perform or did not perform.
Favor: If you steal and got caught just return the just return the drug and forget everything.
Somehow you might end up in jail but the wife is still alive just the same
Against: The sin committed is not that serious so a life term is impossible but it will still be
a lose-lose situation for this will temporarily save her life but may end up dead sooner or
later.
Level 2: Conventional Morality – People approach problems as members of society and would like
to be a role model.
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Stage 3: “Good Boy Morality” - Individuals show an interest in maintaining the respect of others
and is doing what is expected of them.
Favor: To be a good father is to do everything for his family that if you do not steal the drug
the people will label you as an “irresponsible father”
Against: If you steal the drug the people will tag you as a “criminal” and will bring dishonor
to your family.
Stage 4: “Authority and Social Order maintaining Morality” – People conform to what is right in a
society.
Favor: If you have a sense of honor, you wouldn’t let your wife die by denying the only
means of saving her life. You will feel guilty and this will haunt you for the rest of your life.
Against: You are aware that stealing is evil but the effect of that shall be more painful once
you are sent to jail. You will feel guilty and will haunt you for the rest of your life. You are
no longer honorable.
Level 3: Post Conventional Morality: People use moral principles which is seen as broader than
any particular society.
Stage 5: “Morality of Rights and Laws” – People do what is right as a sense of obligation to law and
society, however they can be modified.
Favor: If you don’t steal you’ll lose the people’s respect for you avoided the act because of
fear and not reason
Against: If you steal you’ll lose your social standing for violating the law, don’t get carried
away by emotions
Stage 6: “Morality of an Individual Principle and Conscience” – A person follows laws based on
ethical principles. Laws that run counter to principles are violated.
Favor: If you don’t steal and wife dies you won’t be condemned by society for you lived up
to your own expectations but did not live to your own standard of conscience
Against: If you steal the drug you will not be blamed by others but you’ll condemn yourself
for not living within your own conscience and your virtue of honesty.

Books and Journals
1. Colendrina-Bucu, Luz et al; Introduction to Psychology; Rex Bookstore; Quezon City
Written by:
Module 6 Culture in Moral Behavior

1. To understand the role of culture in human behavior
2. To give examples of cultural diversity between oriental and occidental
societies
Culture in Moral Behavior Explained

Dr. Emma Butchel in her work, “Challenging the concept of Morality”, explained a
comparison of morality between Chinese and Western cultures. Both cultures have their
respective sense of morality that even conflicts the other. Her study also focused on the moral and
social concepts these two societies abide. One factor that polarized these civilizations is their
behavior that helped mold their people to what they are now, as they say tradition outlasts a
lifetime so they can no longer alter moralities that they are already used to. Both civilizations once
immersed with their own, classify “odd” behavior reprehensible that they branded them as either
major offense, minor offense or at least tolerable however there are behavior that may be
integrated to their civilization. One example was during the time of Maoist China, western culture
was considered a taboo that fashion for them is a non-entity but with the transition of Communist
China to a capitalism – the very reason why the Chinese society adhered to Marxist ideology,
western culture made China into one of the richest country in the world. Cultural bias made
people fail to see the moral principle of their counterpart. Many societies even in the past adhere
to ethnocentrism, an idea that their culture alone is the only thing that matters and at the same
time dismissed others as either “uncouth” or “barbaric”. So why waste time with societies below
their station? In this case, western morality is “blind” to Asian values and as mentioned cultural
bias clouded their judgment that they can’t seem to understand the morality of another person’s
culture that is the foundation of their morality.
The Hindus and some Asian countries used arrange marriages to ensure a good future for
their children that western countries find overlapping with their principles of their freedom of
choice. Another example was raised and it was the educational system that divided the occidental
from the oriental thought. Oriental schools believed in the “infallibility” of teachers that they are
the only source of knowledge and should not be questioned whereas the occidentals rely on the
idea that students have every right to debate with their teachers that even the philosopher
Socrates subscribed to. Flexibility and broadmindedness are the two things that can help bridge
the gap between the two opposing cultures. By opening our minds and removing whatever bias
we habe we can have room to put ourselves in the shoes of others and will help usher global unity.
Man by nature tends to do good so the culture of other people especially those we held with
contempt or mirth also have goodness in them. There is nothing wrong to understand another
person’s morality devoid of cultural bias.
What is Culture?
According to David Brinkenhoff and Lynn White culture is the whole idea that provides a
blueprint for living. It is a powerful force that lived in all peoples that tells us what is right from
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wrong. Eating dogs for example is tolerated in the Philippines but is totally banned in the United
States and other Western countries. That is because not everything we do is acceptable to others.
According to Alan Johnson culture is the sum of symbols, ideas, forms, expressions and material
products associated with a social system. Edward Taylor defined culture as the complex whole
which includes beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs and habits acquired by people as members of
society.
Symbols are manifestations of culture and are anything that represents more than itself an
example is a cross that to some it is just an object or figure formed by two short intersecting lines
or pieces but has several meanings. There are four kinds of symbols namely 1) Symbolic
objectives – they may mean a flag to represent a nation a currency to mean a nation’s medium of
exchange. 2) Symbolic characteristics of object – purple for royalty, yellow for cowardice and red
for war. 3) Gestures – actions that can give cultural control. 4) Spoken and written words - the
most important set of symbols in every culture for it is the building block used to construct ideas.

Books and Journals
1. Panopio, Isabel et al; Sociology Focus in the Philippines; Ken Inc.; Quezon City
Online Supplementary Reading Materials

1. “Considering the Influence of Culture on Morality”;
http://thegoodproject.org/considering-the-influence-of-culture-on-morality/ August
20, 2015
Written by:
Module 7 Filipino Culture and Morality

1. To understand the meaning of cultural relativism
2. To prove why cultural differences are not applicable to Ethics
3. To make a comparison between Filipino psyche and Asian thinking
Cultural Relativism
Culture relativity is a concept that cultural norms and values must be understood based on
the culture he is adhered to. As the saying goes, “different strokes for different folks” which simply
means that if I am to understand a situation the explanation must primary begin with my own
culture. According to William Graham Sumner, in his book entitled “Folkways” written in 1906
culture can only be understood in its own value and content. Example is December 30 to the
Filipinos it is of value for it is Rizal Day but is worthless to the Americans and the Japanese. On the
other hand, February 22 is Washington’s Birthday to the Americans but of no value to the Filipinos
or the Japanese. Same is true every February 6 which is the Foundation of the Japanese Empire but
is just an ordinary day to Filipino and American calendars. The example reflects the significance or
insignificance of these dates reflecting a national holiday to some and an ordinary day to others. In
the first place who is Jose Rizal to the Japanese and Americans but he is adored in the Philippines.
Conversely George Washington is just a face in a one-dollar bill as far as Filipinos and Japanese are
concerned but a revered persona in America.
Ethics and Cultural Relativism
Before we delve into that let us define ethical relativism, it is the theory that holds that
morality is related to the tenets of his culture. Right or wrong a certain belief that prevailed in a
culture is shared by everyone. In a nutshell, everybody thinks the same way considering that
anyone who belongs to a certain society subscribed to every norm they dictated. This is
universality in a culture for as what everyone believed, culture is shared by everyone and denial of
their practices is a pariah among their ranks. However not everyone shared their beliefs because
blind obedience denies man his fundamental right of his freedom of choice. With his free will, he
can decide what is right or wrong but he is aware of what his culture dictates him what to obey.
For example During the Second World War, NAZI Germany believed that the extermination of Jews
is the “final solution” that may be akin to ethnic cleansing. The dictates of their Fuehrer Adolf
Hitler has to be taken into account by every German and is expected that every German must obey
it to the letter. But not all Germans believed in this among them was German industrialist and war
profiteer Oscar Schindler who saved twelve hundred Jews from the Auschwitz Concentration
Camp to work in his metal factory. This proves that ethical relativism is untrue. To discuss further,
although Communist China Party Chairman believed in the apogee of communism of human
development and abhorred western culture his successors believed otherwise among them were
Deng Xiaoping who even went to the US and begin China’s rise to industrialization –the worst
enemy of the communist/socialist ideology.
Filipino psyche and morality
Course Module
Being a nation of multi-cultural race, Filipinos are also cosmopolitan that our hospitality
extends to almost every nation in the world. Filipinos are a happy people that are known for their
hospitality, subtleness, patient and fun-loving. Despite coming from a third world country,
personal and family honor are given priority if given a choice. They value education highly that
poverty is not an excuse to get a scholastic degree. At an early age Filipinos consider shame as the
worst among the negative trait they avoid they value dignity as an important value in life that they
cannot live in a society that consider them as outcast. Spanish and American colonial rule that
lasted for more than four centuries are the major ingredients in the Filipino psyche.
Comparing Filipinos to other Asian nations they are generally more easy-going than their
Asian counterparts. In a study conducted by the Hong Kong-based Political and Economic Risk
Constituency (PERC) the Filipinos are "the easiest people in Asia to get along with." Being a happy
people that is understandable. In the 2006 Happy Planet Index (HPI), the Philippines ranked 17th
out of 178 countries with the progressive United States at 150. This means to show that
materialism is not a primary source of Filipino happiness. In a study conducted by Howard, he
described Filipinos as nice, cheerful and open people, everyone is welcomed even social misfits
being the most nonjudgmental and the least racist country in Asia. Filipino negative traits in an
article written by Alisa Krutovsky mentioned that Filipinos have colonial mentality and are often
tardy during appointments.

Books and Journals
1. Panopio, Isabel et al; Sociology focus in the Philippines; Ken Inc.; Quezon City

1. Filipino character and Personality; http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-
asia/Philippines/sub5_6c/entry-3867.html; June 2015
2. Ethical Relativism; http://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-
making/ethical-relativism/; August 1, 1992
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Module 8 Morality and Conscience

1. To understand the development of values
2. To learn the importance of conscience
3. To answer the question of the “greatest good”
Morality – a review
Morality according to Perry is man’s effort to harmonize conflicting human interests. As
mentioned in the past modules morality of a person is different from another person. One example
is the case of public execution. There are some sectors in the Philippine society that consider this
evil for taking life ran contrary to their belief that taking human life is against the laws of God. On
the other hand public execution especially the most humane type that is lethal injection is a
necessity to curb men from committing evil deeds, a necessary evil so to speak. Morality is the
goodness or evilness of the act that may be justifiable. People mistook that anything that we find
good is moral because man’s pursuit of happiness is the primary reason why we live in this world.
This is not true, for man’s desire to be good is innate in him and may prevent his pursuit of such
act. A married man might entertain extra-marital affairs, especially to a lovely woman that also
implied interest in him and for him that is “good” for that is a means to his pursuit of happiness.
But then again he might neglect this passion once he recalled his marital vows which is the greater
good.
Values
Values are anything that satisfies human needs. Aristotle once said that the ultimate good is
to find things that will give us happiness and that is where happiness comes in, he further added
that value is a “fitting function” –anything that is important or significant to us. Anything that
enriched our life or at least made it meaningful such as a special someone, a friend, our laptop, our
birthdays or anything that is special are values. Even our beliefs and principles are values that we
even shared to our offspring that will guide them to their adulthood. Values may also come as
actions of our own or of others that we classify good acts are values while evil acts are not because
they result to unhappiness. Morally good values are genuine for their goodness are evident
whereas evil are called apparent values for they are evil things masquerading as good.
Kinds of Values
1. Biological values – they are important because they for the physical survival and
growth of man examples are food, shelter, work, pleasure, medicine and the likes.
2. Psychological values – this contributes to his psychological and social life examples are
companionship, friendship, marriage etc.
3. Intellectual values – this developed man’s mental fulfillment such as truth, science, art
and religion
4. Moral values – this is for the formation of one’s character. Examples are generosity,
kindness, charity and honesty
Conscience
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Is a feeling or inner voice that served as a guide to the correctness or error of one's
behavior. Some authors viewed it as the “inner law” or the “sixth sense” that gives premonitions to
acts we are to perform or acts we already did. Where did this come from? Moral conscience is
innate idea that simply follow God’s unwritten dictum of “follow good and obey evil”. Man is
basically good for man is a creation of God, being the source of goodness, He created man
endowed with free will but induced conscience to make sure His words are heard.
An upright conscience is a necessity for human dignity, because it knows moral principles
and practiced them in each circumstance. Only prudent judgments can recognize the truth.
Anyone who follows his conscience is prudent for he is guided not only by human reason but by
the voice of God. God is the source of the truth and through conscience man can grasp a semblance
of reason. Inasmuch as conscience is present in man he assumes responsibility. When an evil act
is performed, he realized his error by feeling remorse for his action then later regret it, which is a
manifestation of conscience. An act that is willfully done is appeared to be guided by conscience
thereby responsibility is undeniable.
The Greatest Good
Jeremy Bentham a British philosopher during the 19th Century answered that question
when he said that the “greatest good is for the greatest number”. He introduced Utilitarianism
that is simply states that the ends of an action must be good, if it is not then the action is
unjustified. Which is simply anything of use is good while useless are evil. But like a double-edged
sword it also has a good side, he implied the spirit of humanity where everyone lived in single
planet and their desire to be happy and goodness are innate in man. Everybody wants to be happy,
so the best thing is to follow happiness and goodness that is common to everyone. Being children
of God, we have identical aspirations, so whatever we find good might also be good to others.

Books and Journals
Book Store Inc.
Store
Store

1. Moral Conscience; https://catholicity.com/catechism/moral_conscience.html; 2018
Written by:
Module 9 Feelings and Moral Decisions

1. To understand the contribution and non-contribution to moral decisions
2. To know the ethics of love
3. To differentiate virtues from vices
What are feelings and emotions?

Before we begin this discourse, let us differentiate feelings and emotions. Feelings are
defined as an emotional state or reaction while emotions are distinctive feeling distinguished from
reasoning or knowledge. Simply put emotions or feelings do not play any role in a human act and
is not justifiable with regard to moral decisions. As mentioned in many books human acts are
human actions men perform knowingly, freely and voluntarily. Ergo a human act must have these
three qualifications a) he must be fully be aware of what he is doing or what he will do, b) he used
his freedom of choice to decide using his innate free will and 3) his decision is not coerced by any
outside factor. Feelings and emotions are one and the same for it plays merely to the weakness of
men which some sociologists dubbed as “human frailties”. It can never be used as an excuse for
our negative actions for if we allow our emotions to “decide” then we are not acting as human
beings. Brutes react only to mere instincts for they lack reason, emotions are devoid of reason and
rely to spur-of-the-moment decisions or the mood of the doer.
The ethics of Love
Many people are confused between love and emotions. We think that emotions are strong
because of love for it propels people to feel it. We have to refute this perverted claim, in the
scientific world emotions can be seen through the face of the doer (see emoticons) from there we
can discern happiness, sadness, anger and content but what moves them, it is not love but drives.
By drive me mean the cravings of men that they simply can’t do without such as hunger, need for
sex, companionship and the likes. From these needs man developed a desire to acquire them by
any means possible and emotions are born, if we succeed in doing so we felt happy or contented if
not it lead to frustration that may later result into anger or sadness. These craving of man boosted
his competitive nature that he won’t stop until he achieved it. In short, emotions are simply
attachments that resulted due to man’s desires. Love on the other hand is an intense feeling of
deep affection that is also a drive but compared to emotion which is solely for self-
aggrandizement, love does not necessarily have to be reciprocated. Man can love another person,
thing or event even if it does not render love in return. In relation to love when it comes to moral
decision such love is acceptable just as long as it is guided by morality and reason.
Vice and Virtue
Socrates once said that, “knowledge is virtue and ignorance is vice”. We got these things
from the habits we obtain from dealing with people in our everyday lives. A virtue is a trait or
quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good
moral being while vice is the opposite is what we know as vice. Different from feelings, this is not a
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spur-of-the-moment affair, this develops as man progressed intellectually and physically. Bad
habits develop into vice that as mentioned earlier the opposite of virtue.
Moral Values – are those pertaining to the functions of the intellect and the will – that may
be our choices, decisions and actions that became habits. This later will develop spiritual growth
that is part of human perfection. Moral values have the following characteristics: a) they have
intrinsic work – they are good acts in themselves without any shadow of doubt, b) they are
universally accepted by all people and c) they are obligatory which means everyone is expected to
abide by it considering that it is a universally accepted good.
Guidelines for choosing values:
1. Paramount or lasting values over temporal ones
2. Values favored by the majority instead by a few individuals
3. Essential values must be preferred over the accidental
4. Moral values must be preferred over physical values

Books and Journals
Book Store Inc.
Store
Store

1. Love isn’t an emotion; https://theanatomyoflove.com/what-is-love/love-isn’t-an-
emotion/ ; October 26, 2016
2. Virtue; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue;
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Module 10 Human Reasoning

1. To understand the importance human reasoning
2. To differentiate the types of human reasoning
3. To learn the steps for moral reasoning
Human Reasoning
Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying
facts, applying logic, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or
existing information. In short, this is the ability of man to decide which is also the same way how
morality is. But let us make a discernment here, as Immanuel Kant explained, morality is the usage
of our freedom of choice but is based on what we want, this is purely based on the necessities men
needed to fulfill such as the freedom to do whatever we want. Human reasoning is our sense of
obligation to do what is right even if we do not want to do it. For example we have fifty pesos in
our pocket and we went to a canteen to satisfy our need for food. In the counter, we see a plate of
fried chicken and a bowl of hot noodles, you want them both so morality tells us to make a choice.
But circumstance denied you these things for they cost beyond your allowance and cannot spare
additional cash from your transportation allowance so you have to choose only one to fit within
your means – that is where reason comes in.
Reason is a feature that is characteristic of men and without it they are not classified as
such. Reason is a tool for the man to cognizance as well as our guide to correlate to the absolute
truth (God). It must be noted though that it is reason just as long as man can act on them,
supernatural truth is beyond human reason. Stimuli such as human sensation, perception, and
observation that the five senses can perceive are part of man being part of the animal kingdom but
the power transforming sensuous stimuli into experience is inherent in man’s intellect denied to
brutes. With it, he alone can arrange his experience that will later guide him in his decisions. In
any human endeavor, action is secondary to thinking. Thinking is a deliberate act of anticipating
future events that might come by reflecting past actions or occurences. Thinking and acting are
inseparable. Every action rests upon the foundation of an idea related to causal relations. Casual
relations developed theories that guide human action. Action without basis is absurd but acting
without thinking is ludicrous. The reason for his action may be erroneous and his understanding
of the situation is muddled; but thinking and theorizing are still present so his action might be
“valid” or at least acceptable. Thinking is an individual process, society does not think for man
even if his customs, traditions or laws are dictated by the society an individual belongs. There is
joint action, but no joint thinking, meaning people can be moved into a collective action but
collective thinking is impossible. People often subscribe to common sense but the trouble with
common sense is that it is not common. People can never think the same hence there is no
common sense.
In the religious point of view, God created human beings aside from his image and likeness as
rational creations capable of reason. Divine Revelation that may center on the salvation of the soul or
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foreboding natural catastrophes are in harmony with reason. Reason is God and comes from God so
human reason is the only way of understanding Him.
Types of Human Reasoning
1. Deductive Reasoning– it is the form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows

logically and coherently from the factual premises and proposition. Arguments are
based upon the concept of logical reasoning. In doing so the premises which the
conclusion hinges its validity that if they are true then the resulting statement are true
and valid. This is plain logic.
2. Inductive Reasoning– refers to reasoning that takes specific information and makes a
broader generalization that is considered probable, allowing for the fact that the
conclusion may not be accurate. This type of logic also uses experiences to come up
with conclusions based on general observations coming from occurrence that might
give similar results. To differentiate, Deductive reasoning began with a premise while
Inductive reasoning begins with a conclusion. Examples Deductive Reasoning – The
Pope is the Representative of God, God is never wrong therefore The Pope is never
wrong. Inductive Reasoning – Mark shows a golden ring to his friend Paul, Mark said he
will marry Martha therefor Paul thinks Martha will receive the ring.
3. Abductive Reasoning – is a method of reasoning in which one chooses the hypothesis
that would, if true, best explain the relevant evidence. It is a type of reasoning that gets
its conclusion in an abductive argument of what is possibly true. This type of logic is
also considered as inference to the best explanation. It is choosing the most likely or
best hypothesis or explanation based upon the most relevant evidence. Example: You
wake up in the morning and you see that your roommate has left but you see a half-
eaten food in the kitchen then you abduce that he left early.
4. Reductive Reasoning – It is proving a statement true by reducing to the opposite of it
and showing the absurdity of the opposite result. A statement is true based on reducing
or showing the absurdity of the opposite result. It is also called Reductio ad absurdum
(Latin: “reduction to absurdity”). Example: People do not go to college because they
don’t need it.
5. Fallacious Reasoning– It is not real reasoning, it is the faulty premises for
critical thinking and logic. Example: God is love , love is blind ergo God is blind.
The seven steps to moral ethical decisions
1. State the problem – what is the dilemma one is facing
2. Check the facts – find out if the problem can easily be solved by mere speculations alone
or there is still a need for a deeper means of resolving it.
3. Identify the relevant and irrelevant factors – there are things that are contributory in
answering the question but we have to separate from those that might help or not.
4. Develop the list of options – by options we mean sources beyond what we are aware of
that may be a list of sources person or books that might help in answering the dilemma.
5. Prepare test questions – that might give us possible solutions
6. Choose the best answer
7. If need be, review steps 1 – 6.
1. Human Reason; https://mises.org/library/human-action-0/html/pp/713;
2. God, Man and the Universe; http://scalar.usc.edu/works/god-man-and-the-
universe/what-about-human-reason;
Written by:
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Module 11 Courage and Moral Courage

1. To understand what is courage
2. To enumerate the types of courage
3. To expound moral courage
The Virtue of Courage

Courage is defined as taking action even one doubts or questions about the consequences
of his actions. Courage is often a stereotype about soldiers giving their lives for the country;
sometimes is accepting defeat after a hard-fought struggle. Courage is on a daily basis because
everything that mattered to us require this trait. We feel deep courage and strength to protect our
children either from sickness or bodily harm that we risk our lives just to secure them. Courage
comes even to the most cowardly for it is innate in man. Mary Anne Radmacher, author of “Lean
forward into your life” mentioned in that poew “Courage doesn’t always roar. Sometimes courage
is the silent voice at the end of the day that says ‘I will try again tomorrow’.”
Types of Courage
1. Physical Courage - This is the courage most people often subscribes to - bravery at the
risk of bodily harm or death. In order to attain this must develop his physical strength,
resiliency, and awareness.
2. Social Courage - This type of courage is common to most of us because it involves the
risk of social embarrassment or exclusion, unpopularity or rejection. It also involves
leadership. Adhering to socially-accepted norms is a mandate all members have to
follow to avoid being a social outcast.
3. Intellectual Courage - This talks about our willingness to engage in cerebral fitness by
raising questions on things we know and will know, as well as to avoid the risk of
making mistakes.
4. Moral Courage - This involves doing the right thing, particularly when risks involve
shame, opposition, or the disapproval of others. Details will be discussed in the next
topic.
5. Emotional Courage - This type of courage opens us to feeling the full spectrum of
positive emotions, at the risk of encountering the negative ones. It is strongly
correlated with happiness.
6. Spiritual Courage – Courage that deals with questions about faith, the purpose, and
meaning of life whether in a religious or nonreligious framework.
Moral Courage
Moral courage is the courage to take action for moral reasons despite the risk of
adverse consequences and it requires deliberation and careful thought. Moral courage entails a
person’s strength of character and must be willing to face risks in order to act according to his or
her values and beliefs. Moral courage is the strength to stand up to authority to protect his or her
Course Module
soldiers’ welfare or defend his or her decisions. This virtue develop leaders that are followed by
their inferiors without any iota of doubt. Integrity is gained by leaders who perform their jobs
even if they do not want it because they knew their leader has their trust and confidence.

1. Mary Ann Radmacher Inspires; http://www.maryanneradmacher.net/
2. The Real definition of courage; https://www.huffingtonpost.com/rebecca-
perkins/the-real-definition-of-courage_b_6857068.html; December 6, 2017
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Module 12 Aristotle on Virtue

1. To know Aristotle’s understanding of virtue
2. To learn about Telos philosophy of Aristotle
3. To understand happiness in Aristotle’s point of view
Virtue according to Aristotle

Aristotle believed that virtue (arête) is a trait of mind or character that helps us achieve a
good life guided by reason. Virtues may be intellectual and moral. The first deals with qualities of
mind and character that promote critical thinking, and the pursuit of truth. Moral virtues talks
about behaving in the right manner that differentiate need from avarice that lead to vice. Aristotle
mentioned that anything that is passion, a faculty or a state (trait) of character is part of the soul
(the mind) that regulates vice and virtue. Virtues are part of the soul, they must be in union with
the following:
1. Passions: By ‘passions’ we mean our bodily needs and stimuli (examples are the need for
food, drink, sex, etc.), our emotions, and any feelings that accompany either pleasure or pain. We
must keep in mind though that these cannot be virtues per se because. a. passions cannot exactly
define a goodness or character of a person. b. We can never choose our passions because it is
inherent in person, however virtues are related to the choices we make. we cannot will what we
want for passions come to man it is only his decision in relation to that passion that create virtues.
c. Virtues center only on our responses; they are not desires that actually motivate us.
2. Faculties: are stimuli that we get from our senses. They are not actually virtues but these
perceptions can guide us in the creation of virtues.
3. Virtues must be states of character. Aristotle defines it as ‘the things in virtue of which
we stand well or badly with reference to the passions’. Character is formed, by means of a person’s
decisions in relation to what they feel, how they think, how they react, the choices they make, as
well as their reaction based in a given situation. For example someone is short-tempered often to
feel angry at the slightest provocation; quick-witted people can think and decide in an instant and
so on. Character traits last much longer and change less easily than many ‘states of mind’, such as
moods and desires. But as what everybody believes character changes as well.
Aristotle’s Telos Philosophy
Aristotle widely known as the ancient Greek father of western philosophy, believed that
there is purpose in life, and he called that purpose as telos. The word might be interchanges with
‘purpose,’ ‘intent,’ ‘end,’ or ‘goal,’. Aristotle for his part, termed it as the inherent purpose of each
thing. He refers it as the ultimate reason for each thing being the way it is, regardless as to
whether it was man-made or created by nature.
Man-made objects
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Take for example a coffee mug. A simple definition is that it is metal, plastic or ceramic-
handled object that can carry hot liquid; but the mug reveals other purpose. You can’t use your
coffee mug to contain petrol or book cover. Describing the color, texture or height of the object
might be useful; but doing so would miss the most important thing about it, it’s very reason for
existing – it’s telos. The coffee mug was created by humans to drink of coffee with, and every
human artifact is made for a specific purpose—chairs for sitting, cars for driving, television shows
for entertaining.
Natural Objects
What about natural objects? Do they have inherent purposes? Can we make a definition of
them sans any reference to religious beliefs? Aristotle said that the telos of a plant or animal is
also ‘what it was made for’ that we can be observe. For example, the trees’ purpose is to grow,
develop branches, produce fruit, nuts, or flowers, provide shade, and reproduce. The telos of a tree
is something that can make use of its full potential –the very purpose why it was created. Some
observers include the telos of a tree is it’s eventually decaying and death, and perhaps that is part
of it, but Aristotle could disagree by saying that the telos of a thing is that which it does when it
fulfills its full potential.
Humans
Humans according to Aristotle, has happiness as the telos for human beings. The Greeks
termed it as or eudemonia that also means something more like “fulfillment.” By what Fulfillment
is he speaking of? Man of all beings has the potential for excellence, or “virtues” in English
translations of Aristotle. Aristotle defined “virtue” as referring to artistic, scientific, athletic, or any
other kind of excellence. When man performed a chore such as painting a masterpiece, winning an
athletic event or aspiring for scholastic honors happiness can be achieved once one aims for
perfection.
Aristotle’s definition of Happiness
"Happiness depends on ourselves." More than anybody else, Aristotle enshrines happiness
as a central purpose of human life and a goal in itself. As a result, he devotes more time in pursuing
happiness than any other topic to think about in the modern era. Living during the same period as
Mencius, but on the other side of the world, he draws some similar conclusions. Aristotle was
convinced that in order to attain a completely happy life requires the fulfillment of a broad range
of conditions, including physical as well as mental well-being. Essentially, Aristotle argues that
virtue is achieved by maintaining the Mean, which is the balance of the mind to a state of
equilibrium.
Books and Journals

1. Aristotle on Virtue; http://documents.routledge-
interactive.s3.amazonaws.com/9781138793934/A22014/ethical_theories/Aristotle
%20on%20virtue.pdf;
2. Philosophy of Terms; http://philosophyterms.com/telos/
3. The Pursuit of Happiness; http://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/history-of-
happiness/aristotle/
Written by:
Course Module
Module 13 The Philosophy of St. Thomas
Aquinas

1. To get a brief background of The Angelic Doctor
2. To learn The Natural Law
3. To understand St. Thomas Aquinas’ definition of Happiness
St. Thomas Aquinas – The Angelic Doctor

St. Thomas Aquinas is also known as Doctor Angelicus or “Angelic Doctor” because of his
chastity that remained with him until he died. Angels are pure and being a Doctor of the Church he
was called as such. He was born on 1224 at Roccasecca, near Aquino, in Sicily where he got his
surname. He died on March 7, 1274 at Fossanova, Italy; and was canonized as saint on July 18,
1323. He was an Italian Dominican theologian and one of the leading Scholars of the Medieval
Period. He developed his own conclusions based on Aristotelian logic, notably in the study
of Metaphysics (the study of the existence of God) that personality, creation, and Providence. As
a theologian he was responsible for the masterpieces namley, the “Summa Theologica” – a
compendium, of church teachings for the laity and the “Summa Contra Gentiles” (Summary
against the Gentiles) which is a guidebook for missionaries who might debate Moslems and Jews
in the East. As a poet, he wrote some of the most gravely beautiful eucharistic hymns for church
services.
St. Thomas Aquinas on The Natural Law
What is the Natural Law: Do Good and Avoid Evil. Man is born intrinsically good and being
molded in the image and likeness of God this law is natural to every human being. St. Thomas
Aquinas based his doctrine on the aforementioned law being a prelate himself. Based on his
theory, the Natural Law is a reflection of the Eternal Law (in God). In order to explain the existence
of the Eternal Law, he gave a definition of all laws: Law is an ordinance of reason promulgated by
the one in charge of the society. Laws are dictated by reason and it is the reason or intellect of the
ruler that propels the creation of laws. The purpose of law is for a well-ordered function of
community under the sovereign’s care. (This political theory of St. Thomas Aquinas believed that
rulers rule for the sake of the governed. By well-being, we mean the good and betterment of his
subjects.) With his idea that God rules the world with his reason, Aquinas concludes that God has
an idea on how to govern the world. This Idea, in God, for the governance of things is the eternal
law.
The Natural Law, which is an extension of the Eternal Law applies to human beings,
requires greater precision because of the fact that we have reason and free will. It is the nature of
humans to act freely (by being free from outside intervention and coercion) by synchronizing our
acts and ends. Human beings must exercise our natural reason to discover what is best for us in
order to achieve the end to which their nature inclines. Natural Law tells us that it is natural for
humans to achieve their ends through reason and free will. In other words, the Natural Law is
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humans' participation in the Eternal Law, through reason and will that helped them discern good
from evil thereby giving them a happy contented life.
The Philosophy of Happiness and The Universal Man
In relation to Human happiness, Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas agreed that man is
constantly searching for happiness. But St. Thomas believed that with the immortality of Human
Soul happiness can be achieved and it can be found in God alone. The Universal Man, according to
Aristotle whom he also calls “The Whole Man” is a reasonable man. St. Thomas believed that while
man exists on earth he must possess an eternal and infinite perfection. Despite the presence of
material things, man is not perfectly happy. While man lives on earth his happiness is mortal finite
and perfect but upon the attainment of the Supreme Purpose man’s happiness is divine, immortal
and perfect.

Books and Journals

1. St. Thomas Aquinas on the Natural Law;
http://www.aquinasonline.com/Topics/natlaw.html
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Module 14 The Philosophy of Immanuel Kant

1. To understand Immanuel Kant’s philosophy of Good Will
2. To learn about Kant’s Categorical Imperative
3. To know the Kingdom of Ends
Man and Duty

Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher that believed in the dignity of human reason,
duty, goodwill and the ends of human actions. But first, let us begin with duty – it simply means
that it is anything that has to be done or omitted. Others believe that it is a moral obligation one
has to do but within the framework of human freedom. There are four kinds of duty namely:
1. Natural Duty – These are moral duty of citizens to obey the laws of their state and God
in relation to the Eternal Law. Examples are the duty to worship God or the duty to
value human life
2. Positive Duty – An obligation to do an act, on the part of the person on whom it is
imposed. Examples are the duty to hear mass, pay taxes and tuition fees
3. Affirmative Duty – these are things that adhere to moral obligation. Examples are the
inherent law of doing good and avoiding evil, helping the poor, aid the needy and the
likes.
4. Negative Duty – Moral obligation to avoid or refrain from doing something. Examples
are prohibitions of “no smoking”, “no littering” or “loitering” as well as legal decisions.
Kant’s philosophy revolved around the dignity of Human Reason. Man has gift or reason
and free will and the master of his destiny. Man is the only creature who can create his own
destiny and is the end not the means of God’s creation. Man having a free will should never exploit
his fellow men that slavery, bribery and any form of human exploitation degrades men into beasts
which is morally wrong. God created all things as means and Man is an end being an instrument of
God’s Divine Plan. Man’s primary duty is to make sure that God’s Divine Plan of being like Him is
implemented but in accordance with his free will.
Kant’s Philosophy of Good Will
Contrary to the Aristotelian and Thomistic philosophies that mentioned Moral Law came
from God and was made undisputed by Man through his conscience for conscience came from
Him. Kant believed that reason made all laws and makes everyone obey all laws at the same time
this is called the “Autonomy of reason”. Reason is endowed in men that laws are created because
there is reason for it and that is to reach a reasonable end. Man is the only being capable of
grasping the truth, according to Kant it can only be seen through sense experience (sensation felt
by the senses). We can only grasp the tangible and phenomenon never the noumenon
(unexplainable events). Man cannot know the very essence of the thing itself for man cannot know
everything. Man will never know what is right from wrong since there is no certainty in this world.
Course Module
So what is Good Will then, Kant means to act out of a sense of moral obligation or "duty".
The German Scholar believed that the Eternal Law “do good and avoid evil” is inherent in man,
meaning that there is goodness in every man that no matter how evil they are, the tendency to do
good or wanting something good is innate in man. The will is his ability to pursue his good with
help of human reason but then again the goodness or badness of an act lies in the purpose why
had he done it. Not all good acts are good in itself such as a politician doling out goods to typhoon
victims or an adversary delivering a eulogy to a fallen opponent. Good Will is the reason why he
made such action and the ends he wanted to achieve upon doing it.
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
This philosophy of Immanuel Kant is a derivation of The Golden Rule mentioned in the
Chinese Classics “Do not do unto to others what you do not want others to do unto you”. In his
case he “Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that
it become a universal law”. To sum it up that is a command or an imperative. There are two kinds
of imperatives hypothetical and categorical, let us differentiate. The former are commands that are
dependent on the goals to be fulfilled. These are commands that apply only in particular
circumstances, for particular people who happen to have these desires, these goals. Examples are
brushing your teeth to avoid bad breath, go to school to fulfill your scholastic needs and the likes.
Categorical Imperatives are commands that are universal and impartial. It encompasses every
reasonable being regardless of their origin, culture or social standing and at the same time they
have to perform these in respect for the dignity of everyone which devoid of their bias or
inclinations. Universal Love is an example of Categorical Imperative, World Peace is another.
The Kingdom of Ends
Immanuel Kant believed in the dignity of human reason but also of the free will. As
mentioned in past modules man is endowed with free will and human reason to decide but if they
are coerced then their freedom of choice is hampered making them less of a human being. Dignity
of man should not be compromised. The Kingdom of ends is the idea of a state equal to Sir
Thomas More’s Utopia. Kant defines it as, "a systematic union of different rational beings through
common laws". But is it attainable? He believed it is because as long as men think the same way
which he deemed as “categorical imperative” it is attainable. The Kingdom of ends has three
ingredients: the members, the sovereign, and the private ends which the members have. The
members refer to reasonable free-willed persons, who obey universal laws. They are ends in
themselves and are willing to spread their ideals to others absent of personal biases. The
sovereign is perceived to be God for he is not subject to any law but has no “power” to break the
law itself he is a role-model that the members will subscribe to. The private ends of the members
are the goals they wanted to achieve that will benefit everyone that might refer to categorical
imperatives. In this kingdom, human degradation, slavery and exploitation for the private ends
they wanted to attain are for everyone’s benefit.
Books and Journals
Store
Store
1. Ethical Traditions;
www.qcc.cuny.edu/SocialSciences/ppecorino/MEDICAL_ETHICS_TEXT/Chapter_2_Et
hical_Traditions/Categorical_Imperatives.htm; 2002
2. The Kingdom of Ends; https://limnk.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-010-
3099-1_26;
Written by:
Course Module
Module 15 Rights

1. To give a definition of Rights as well as the types of rights
2. To differentiate rights from privilege
3. To discern moral rights from legal rights
What are Rights?

Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement. Rights are part of
modern civilizations, and are regarded as established pillars of society and culture. Conflicts in
history such as war, for example, began and end with rights. Democracy protected the rights of
individuals, property and privileges that is a thing men can never do without. Human
rights are moral principles that describe standards of human behavior protected by law. They are
considered as inalienable and fundamental, which means they can be given and taken away once
abused and is a necessity for human existence. Human rights are inherent among human beings
because that is part of their existence regardless of their race, color or creed. It must be noted that
human rights may be protected by law but if abused, as mentioned will be taken away but with
due process. The “aggrieved” party may lose his fundamental rights backed up by a court litigation
and at the same time mete punishment for his mistake.
Types of Human Rights:
1. Civil and Political Rights - “civil-political” rights center on political liberties dealing with
politics. They are strongly individualistic and negatively constructed to protect the
individual from the state. These rights got their origin from Thomas Paine’s “Rights of
Man” that is part of the democratic process. Civil rights include the security of peoples'
well-being, the protection from discrimination, and the exercise of freedoms of speech,
freedom, press and assembly. By Political Rights we mean natural justice such as the
right of the accused to fair trial, redress of grievances and legal remedies.
2. Socio-Economic and Cultural Rights – are human rights guarantee equal conditions and
treatment of necessities provided by the State. These include the human right
employment, the right to a high quality of life, including the basic needs of food,
clothing, and shelter and the right to social security, healthy environment, and
education. These rights are part of the body of human rights that resulted after World
War II.
3. Collective-Developmental Rights – the right of peoples and groups to development in
relation to states’ rights to public assembly. This is for the protection of associations
and groups with the help of the state in its well-being.
Rights versus Privileges
Course Module
A privilege is an entitlement to immunity granted by the state or another authority to a
restricted group on a conditional basis. On the other hand a right is an inherent, irrevocable
entitlement held by all citizens or all human beings from the moment of birth. What is the
difference, privilege refers to special powers or immunities held as a consequence of political
power, social status, or wealth. Any local citizen has the right to elect a public official but having a
driver’s license is a privilege for it cannot be demanded. Such government ID needed exams to
pass and laws to follow. Privileges elevate a person, that granted them status and power that not
everybody can claim. Both of them however can be taken away once abused.
Moral Right versus Legal Right
As explained in the past modules not everything moral as legal and vice versa but we will
give an in-depth analysis of that in this module. Moral rights are rights accorded under some
system of ethics. Moral rights adhere to the idea that men are to be respected because they are
rational people. This includes the right to fair treatment and right to privacy. That is, if Pedro has
the right to these things Juan also being a human being must also be given the same privileges.
Legal rights are people’s rights under some legal system, granted by the government or any
duly-constituted authority. Everyone has the right to know the veracity of a news item that the
State may upheld the right to information but cannot force the people to believe in it.

1. How to tell the difference between the right and a privilege?;
https://voicesofliberty.com/2015/04/22/how-to-tell-the-difference-between-a-
right-and-a-privilege/; April 22, 2015
2. What is difference between moral rights and legal rights?;
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-moral-rights-and-legal-
rights; January 9, 2017
3. Three Generations of Human Rights; http://www.globalization101.org/three-
generations-of-rights/; 1991
4. What are Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; http://www.cesr.org/what-are-
economic-social-and-cultural-rights;
Written by:
AMA Caloocan Campus
Module 16 The Philosophy of Utilitarianism

1. To learn the core of this 18th Century Philosophy
2. To differentiate the beliefs of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
3. To correlate Utilitarian philosophy in business
Utilitarianism
This philosophy is also known as Consequentialism that says the rightness or wrongness of
an object depends on the effect of the consequence regardless of the method it utilized. There are
two kinds of utilitarianism and they are Act utilitarian and Rule utilitarian, the first believed about
the goodness or badness of a particular act. An example is the assassination of former Indian
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1984 that was an act of murder by the civilized people but to the
perpetuators it was an act beneficial to the maligned Indian minority. Rule utilitarian means the
goodness or evilness of an act itself. Say abortion may be an evil act but Western civilization view
it as a means to combat population explosion. Morality is defined, simply as increasing good and
decreasing evil by eliminating traditions, taboos or archaic beliefs that obstruct human
development. These age-old beliefs put man in a “primitive” way of life that denied their right to
free-will and are a bane to human behavior. The proponents of this theory were Jeremy Bentham
and John Stuart Mill wherein the first thought about this idea and later shared to his pupil which
the latter propagated for humanity albeit with his own interpretation. Despite being thinkers of
the 18th Century their ideas were utilized by the present generation but were doubted for its
absurdities. That even today the ideas of these scholars were unsure as to they tend to Act
Utilitarian or Rule Utilitarian. Their writings are ambiguous that they have no idea what utilitarian
act they subscribe.
The Philosophies of Bentham and Mill
Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) proposed utilitarianism in this premises: 1) Human life is
greatly-affected by pleasure and pain; 2) consequences of actions are caused by pleasure and pain;
3) the idea of anything pleasurable is good and anything painful is evil is absolute; and 4) Pleasure
and pain can be quantified. To sum it up, man’s happiness is quantified by either pleasure and pain
and nothing else. They can be measured according to the following criteria such as: intensity,
duration, certainty and nearness.
John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873) for his part clarified his professors’ stand by making his own
counterpoint: 1) the quality of happiness is more important than its quantity; 2) the quality of
happiness cannot be measured for these things are felt and no amount of calculation can quantify
it; 3) Mill believed in the idea of the “General Happiness of the People” that happiness can be felt
by everyone, in short common happiness.
Positive and Negative Utilitarianism
Course Module
Utilitarianism is famous for its maxim “Greater happiness for the greater number” and
believed in the premise that while man’s purpose in this world is to be happy, we must only think
more of happiness and neglect misery in our lives. Which brings us to Positive Utilitarianism
which adheres to the maxim mentioned, while is negative counterpart centers on its complete
contradiction “least misery for the least number of people”. It must be noted, though that both are
absurd because suffering is part of human existence that comes in great numbers that made a
considerable number of people suffering as well. Negative utilitarianism is also impractical if not
totally ludicrous because by experiencing misery we became emotionally stronger inasmuch as it
is triumph over adversity, life is not a bed of roses anyway. Positive Utilitarianism is also
preposterous for happiness may not be attained by everyone and anyone might not feel the same
way. For example, if we are happy inflicting pain to another being a sadist will the receiving party
feel pleasure? Certainly not unless he is a masochist.
Business Utilitarianism
As mentioned earlier, the rightness or wrongness of an action is based on the consequence
regardless of the method employed. We can also connect that to the common adage “the end
justifies the means” just as long as it benefits the society where one belongs. Conversely speaking,
any action is valid as long as it is for the “greater good for the greater number”. Now let us
correlate Utilitarianism to Business, four things have to be kept in mind:
1. Business depends upon the consequence of an action ergo consequentialism – as
mentioned the validity of the action is the consequence or the attainment of its ends.
This type of belief is considered bad because this is practically permitting the profiteers
of exercising avarice by jacking up price of commodities and at the same time using
substandard goods and services just as long as they attain of raking cash at the expense
of good business.
2. Business depends on welfarism – by welfarism we mean an act is valid if the society
where one belongs subscribed to that similar understanding. This is has positive effects
because it deals with the well-being of the society such as raising the salaries of the
workers that the State (unless they adhere to Command economy practiced by
Communists) approved.
3. Business is individualism – this centers on the happiness of the consumer while the first
two ideals are for the businessmen and the workers respectively. In this concept, the
businessmen will give quality goods and services at affordable prices devoid of profit
but merely public service.
4. Business is aggregation – by aggregation this means the rightness or wrongness of an
action is dependent in only on the average values of all the individual, egalitarian in the
real sense of the word. It simply means that happiness should be shared by all sectors of
business – the businessmen, workers, buyers and society.

1. Act and Rule Utilitarianism; https://www.iep.utm.edu/util-a-r/;
2. Utilitarianism; http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/Cavalier/80130/part2/sect9.html; 2002
3. Positive and Negative Utilitarianism;
https://procrastinatoryponderings.wordpress.com/2013/03/28/positive-and-
negative-utilitarianism-two-absurd-versions-of-consequentialism/; March 28, 2013
4. Applying Utilitarianism in Business;
https://www.academicwritersbureau.com/samples/219-applying-utilitarianism-in-
business; December 1, 2016
Written by:
AMA Caloocan Campus
Course Module
Module 17 Justice and Fairness

1. To define justice and social justice
2. To understand Law and the State
3. To discern how societies dispense justice
What is Social Justice?

Plato in his writing “The Republic” dubbed social justice as Pantheism because he
compared justice or fairness as the universe in its entirety that is moved by an invisible source.
The universe has been here since time immemorial and no one can determine the age but why is it
that it never collided and still “in order”? He defined justice as universal, absolute and eternal. But
what is justice, Merriam and Webster defined it as, the maintenance or administration of what
is just especially by the impartial adjustment of conflicting claims or the assignment of merited
rewards or punishments. So to correlate that with Plato’s “The Republic”, the components of
justice is harmony and unity. But that can never be attained if there is no State which is the very
purpose why the need for state, politics and law is a must in every society.
Social Justice only came in to being during the 19th Century in the Industrial Revolution to
be exact by European counties. The populace who were fed up by their monarchs demand justice
and fairness based on the premises of equality among men and to resolve capitalist exploitation.
This later expanded to issue such as rights of the poor, equal distribution of wealth, race, gender
and the likes. Aristotle, Plato’s most apt subordinate gave his own definition when he said, "equals
should be treated equally and unequals unequally” that means that individuals must be treated the
same but if necessity dictates there are exceptions. For example, John and Joanne are both
workers in the same factory and in the same position and are having the same compensation.
However, there are things may differ when it comes to age, sex, educational background or
religious belief.
State and Law

State is a community of persons more or less numerous permanently occupying a definite
territory having a government of their own to which a great body of inhabitants render habitual
obedience and enjoying freedom from external control. A State has the following elements namely:
1) People: Mass of population living within the state; 2) Territory: Land, maritime, aerial and
fluvial area over which jurisdiction exists; 3) Government: The agency through which the will of
the state is carried out; 4) Sovereignty: Supreme power of the state to enforce its will on the
people without foreign intervention and; 5) Recognition: the acceptance of a nation into the
Family of Nations.
A law is part and parcel of a state and is defined as any rule that if broken will mete
punishments to offenders. It is also defined as a body of rules made by the government interpreted
by the courts and backed by the power of the State. It is a legal order which refers to a specialized
Course Module
phase of social control. Law is not only a means to a civilization but also a product of civilization
according to Roscoe Pound, the spokesman for the School of Social Jurisprudence. Law is
responsible for social engineering for it is a mechanism in reacting to changes in a society. laws
are susceptible to change and is not bound by traditions and legends and is created for the interest
of all members of society.
Government and Justice
1) Egalitarianism - Egalitarianism is a trend of thought in political philosophy. It favors
equality to everyone where people are treated the same as equals. Justice is given to
everyone regardless of race color or creed.
2) Communism - is simply based class dictatorship of the proletariat (the ruling party).
This type of governance was thought of by Karl Marx, where a society is dominated by
one class over the entire state. Socialism is the reciprocal of capitalism, where state
control of the economy is the nation’s priority.
3) Socialism - A political ideology that advocates for an equal redistribution of wealth and
power in society through a democratic ownership and distribution of society’s means of
production (or means of making money).

Books and Journals
Store

1. Social Justice; https://www.pachamama.org/social-justice/what-is-social-justice
2. Justice and Fairness; https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-
making/justice-and-fairness/; August 1, 2014
3. Definition of Justice; https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/justice
4. Egalitarianism; https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egalitarianism/; April 24, 2013
5. Social Justice: Code for Communism; https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-communist-
government-1; August 4, 2016
6. What is Socialism Really? https://www.dailydot.com/layer8/what-is-socialism-
definition/
Written By:
AMA Caloocan Campus
Module 18 Pluralism versus Fundamentalism

1. To differentiate the Pluralist and Fundamentalist Philosophies
2. To explain Globalization and Pluralism
3. To define Filipino Millennials or Filinnials
4. To understand the role of religion in ethics
Pluralism versus Fundamentalism

Let us define Pluralism – it is the holding of two or more beliefs or concepts in a single
society. This is the prevailing idea that is introduced in the modern world to make this a better
place to live in. The Pluralist ideology fell on the following premises: 1) Pluralism is engagement
with diversity. This means that the walls that divide people due to religious beliefs shall be
removed, at present religious diversity is present but devoid of religious pluralism. That is in
certain countries religious ghettoes allow religious minorities to exist in their fold but is still
alienated due to their biases by the adherents of the dominant religion. 2) Pluralism is
understanding that transcends lines of differences. Many are mistaken that we have to learn the
entire religious doctrine of another only a portion is enough to at least build a bridge to connect
them. Absence of knowledge of another culture led to bias and alienation. 3) Pluralism is
encounter of commitments, this is simply to empathize to people of another religion. We should
not isolate ourselves from what we know but break borders. 4) Pluralism is based on dialogue –
talking is the most basic way of communicating, silence will bring us nowhere.
Fundamentalism is defined as a strict belief in the literal interpretation of the religious
tenet. Fundamentalists view of other religious beliefs are biased and contrary to their fundamental
beliefs are considered “heretic”. Their religious tenets adhere to the idea that morality is ebbing
due to modernization.
Globalization and Pluralism
In our ever-changing world, pluralism are political responses to different historical
challenges that they shape history that build bridges than Fundamentalism that create walls.
Policies geared religious pluralism center on religious toleration, rights for denominations, or
individual religious freedom. They believed that even if they subscribe to religious beliefs they
belong to One Faith and are unified by the philosophy of being one. Globalization since we are now
in the Digital Age, play a major role in achieving common understanding that Ecumenical Services
accepted people of “alien” religions to be at one thanks to the internet. With the continuing
development in telecommunications that will prove brighter in the years to come, will lead to
peaceful co-existence and even to ideological convergence. Then again, like a double-edged sword,
pluralism may also lead to social dissolution, since the awareness of fundamental differences
between religious world-views and might lead to misunderstanding and lead to religious wars.
One example is the Crusades that occurred in the Middle Ages between Muslims and Christians in
spite of the fact that Islam revered Christ as one of their prophets and the Muslim beliefs foster
humility and brotherhood akin to Christian traditions.
Course Module
The Filipino Millennials aka Filinnials
Time Magazine, described millennials as people born from 1980 to 2000. This generation
comprise the largest age group in America and Asia. Their age group is called the “yuppie” age
(from the acronym YUP or Young Urban Professionals). In the Philippines, they are described as
the “selfie” generation and followers of social media no thanks to modern communication gadgets
such as mobile phones, laptops and tablets that seems they can never do without. A Filinnial
(short for Filipino millennials) are usually spendthrifts due to their propensity to spend money for
luxury goods which left their bank accounts “broke.” Another trait that unified most of them is
their narcissistic attitude, making them known as the “Me, Me, Me Generation.” They are so
conscious of what and how they look that selfies are a common thing. It must be noted though that
there are also good attitudes which millennials possess among them are their politically and social
astuteness. The social media opened their eyes that traditional media such as TV, movies, radio
and print are no longer the source of information. Compared to other generations, millennials
have their say about issues and are more involved with politics and are not squeamish about
revealing their opinions.
The Role of Religion in Ethics
Even in the current situation, many are still arguing about the role of religion in Ethics. Will
this age-old institution be the primary agent for the right ethics for they propagate the Word of
God? Most religions have an ethical component because ethics is yardstick for right conduct and
good life. A necessary component of making this a guide to temporal happiness. Is this the most
reliable conception of analyzing what is right from what is wrong? The central theme of ethics is
"the good life", the very reason we aspire for in this temporal world we live in that ancient Greeks
regarded as eudaimonia or happiness. The ancient Greeks believed happiness was brought about
by living one’s life in accordance with virtue – positive traits of character. Virtue is the source of
good character, that us integrated by good personal habits such as courage and temperance, but
also friendship and justice and intellectual virtue.
1. What is Pluralism; http://pluralism.org/what-is-pluralism/; 2006
2. What is Fundamentalism; https://www.gotquestions.org/fundamentalism.html
3. Modes of Religious Pluralism under Conditions of Globalization;
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-
sciences/resources/periodicals/diversities/past-issues/vol-1-no-1-1999/modes-of-
religious-pluralism-under-conditions-of-globalisation/#topPage; 1999
4. Millennials in the Philippines; http://primer.com.ph/blog/2016/06/27/millennials-
in-the-philippines-who-are-they-and-what-do-they-do/
5. Can we be ethical without being religious; http://www.ethicssage.com/2012/09/the-
role-of-ethics-in-religion.html; Sept. 4, 2012
Written by:
AMA Caloocan Campus
Course Module

Ethics

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Module 1 Introduction to Ethics

At the end of this module, you are expected t0:

Ethics and Philosophy

References and Supplementary Materials

Module 2 The Scope and Meaning of Ethics

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

A deeper understanding of Ethics

Noted definition of Ethics

Morality and Human Acts

References and Supplementary Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected t0:

Voluntariness of Human Acts

Modifiers of Human Acts:

References and Supplementary Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected t0:

The Two Fundamental Questions

The Norms of Morality

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

Lawrence Kohlberg’s sequence of moral reasoning

References and Supplementary Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

Culture in Moral Behavior Explained

References and Supplementary Materials

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

References and Supplementary Materials

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected t0:

References and Supplementary Materials

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

What are feelings and emotions?

References and Supplementary Materials

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

Types of Human Reasoning

1. Deductive Reasoning– it is the form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

The Virtue of Courage

References and Supplementary Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

Virtue according to Aristotle

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

St. Thomas Aquinas – The Angelic Doctor

References and Supplementary Materials

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

Man and Duty

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

What are Rights?

Rights versus Privileges

References and Supplementary Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

Positive and Negative Utilitarianism

References and Supplementary Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

What is Social Justice?

State and Law

References and Supplementary Materials

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

Pluralism versus Fundamentalism