Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus
1
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus
Course Module
Moral Standards
Morality it must be noted, is present only in humanity. Meaning man can only be moral if he
is fully aware of his actions. Brutes have no morality for they are not guided by reason hence they
are not responsible for their actions and are not classified as human acts. Let us be guided based
on these principles:
1. Man is the only Moral Being – due to three things: a) man is capable of action, b) man
has intellect and c) man has free will. Being capable of action man can employ his bodily
activities to perform actions. With man’s intellect he can discern the good or evilness of
his actions and at the same time equate the repercussions of his actions once asked to
justify them. Free will is present and inherent in men unless they are idiots and with
that they have the freedom of choice whether to perform or not the action at hand.
2. Man is a the highest form of Animal – endowed with intellect, man can decide what’s
best for him although their desires are the same with brutes such as hunger, thirst, pain
and sensual needs; man moves based on reason while their lower counterparts have
only instinct. Sentient beings like animals rely on instinct which are natural biological
drives, while men can decide whether an act is moral or not.
3. Man is a rational animal – Ratio is the Latin term for reason that means man has the
power to discern things based on his previous knowledge of things. Unlike brutes, man
has the power of abstraction – this is his ability to correlate ideas previously based on
his mind as well as his understanding of the situation at hand, thereby giving him a
logical or correct decision.
4. The intellect and the will – they are correlative with each other because the intellect is
the agent of knowing while the will is the agent of choice. From intellect – knowledge is
stored this will then guide the will to decide which is basically “good”. They co-exist and
from their partnership “virtue” is born.
Voluntariness of Human Acts
A voluntary act is under the control of the intellect and the will and must be answerable for
their actions. As mentioned in the previous module, only human acts are valid in ethics and at the
same time possess moral significance. There are four types of voluntary acts and they are:
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1. Perfect voluntariness – when a person acts with full knowledge and complete freedom
– we are fully aware of what we are doing
2. Imperfect voluntariness – when a person acts without full understanding and no
freedom – we are made to perform acts we did not like
3. Simple voluntariness – it is the disposition of a person doing the activity regardless to
his liking or not – this may be positive or negative. The former is by making him to do
something while the other is to prevent or stop him from doing things.
4. Conditional voluntariness - it is the situation when the person was forced by
circumstances or under duress which he would not do under normal circumstances.
Example is being extorted money by a neighborhood toughie in exchange for his
“protection”.
But what modifiers may cloud the intellect and the will that may either reduce or increase
accountability:
5. Habits – readiness to perform habitual acts. Habits are done mechanically that thinking
is no longer necessary may either be good or bad. It is second-nature to the doer and
doing it is instinct.
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus
Course Module
Module 4 Morality
(the Law of God). The Natural is patterned after the Eternal Law, man must adhere to his nature of
man which is using his intellect unlike human nature that is only to follow his passions.
Defective Norms of Morality
Human Nature is a simple foundation of man but there are philosophies and they are:
1. Hedonism – this is also known as the Philosophy of Pleasure that pleasure alone is the
primary purpose of man’s existence. It is true man desires for happiness but a happy life
need not be composed of pleasure alone. True happiness is seeking good but wallowing
in pleasure made man’s life baser than brutes.
2. Utilitarianism – is simply the ends of an action must be good, if it is not then the action is
unjustified. From the word “utility” it means that anything that is of use to the agent is
moral. There are two types of utilitarianism and they are individual utilitarianism and
social utilitarianism – the first is known as egoism which is the definition given – the
agent is the one who will gain. Altruism is the other term for social utilitarianism but the
receiving factor is the society where the agent belongs.
3. Moral Rationalism – simply states that human reason is the only foundation of morality
as postulated by German Philosopher Immanuel Kant which he dubbed as “Categorical
Imperative”. However as Kant further explained we have to do good because we ought
to be good in doing so he is implying blind obedience. In his philosophy “autonomy of
reason”, inasmuch as reason creates the law, it is “reasonable” for men to obey it
without question nor ambiguity. The general rule is that everyone thinks the same for
men are reasonable so conflict is a remote possibility.
4. Moral Positivism – states that morality is adherence to State Laws as philosophizes by
the English sage Thomas Hobbes. The State is the foundation of morality since laws are
geared for the common good apparently, an act is moral if he obeys the law and evil if he
disobeys it. Comparing to Moral Rationalism where reason is the law, Moral Positivism
only has the State Law as its source of morality.
5. Moral Evolutionism – In relation to Sociologist Herbert Spencer, morality just like
evolution is ever-changing until it reached its perfect form. Friedrich Nietsche added
that man was born withj hardly any basis for right and wrong and their collective lives
is a never-ending struggle for change until they reach perfection.
6. Moral Sensism – Contrary to Moral Evolutionism men are born with a special moral
sense (not reason) that is comparable to the five senses. For example, man can easily
differentiate noise from music, salty from sweet as well as pleasant and unpleasant that
may also serve as means to moral judgment.
7. Communism - Although this is more of an economic theory its social implication cannot
be denied and is geared for a classless society. They believed in the philosophy of
material dialectics that means two material things are the only ingredients necessary for
change. They deny the existence of God, the free will and immortality for they do not
matter being immaterial. Ergo, anything that will lead to a classless society is good and
moral and any thing otherwise is evil and immoral.
References and Supplementary Materials
Books and Journals
1. Agapay, Ramon B.; Ethics and the Filipinos; Mandaluyong Metro Manila, National
Book Store Inc.
2. Babor, Eddie R.; Ethics – The Philosophical Discipline of Action; Manile, Rex Book
Store
3. Montemayor, Felix; Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro Manila; National Book
Store
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus
Course Module
Module 5 Dilemma
What is dilemma
A social dilemma is an action situation in which an individual must decide on his own even if it is
against the socially-accepted norms. It is the situation that measure one’s maturity. Below is the scale
used by Lawrence Kohlbeg in human reasoning.
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus
Module 6 Culture in Moral Behavior
What is Culture?
According to David Brinkenhoff and Lynn White culture is the whole idea that provides a
blueprint for living. It is a powerful force that lived in all peoples that tells us what is right from
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wrong. Eating dogs for example is tolerated in the Philippines but is totally banned in the United
States and other Western countries. That is because not everything we do is acceptable to others.
According to Alan Johnson culture is the sum of symbols, ideas, forms, expressions and material
products associated with a social system. Edward Taylor defined culture as the complex whole
which includes beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs and habits acquired by people as members of
society.
Symbols are manifestations of culture and are anything that represents more than itself an
example is a cross that to some it is just an object or figure formed by two short intersecting lines
or pieces but has several meanings. There are four kinds of symbols namely 1) Symbolic
objectives – they may mean a flag to represent a nation a currency to mean a nation’s medium of
exchange. 2) Symbolic characteristics of object – purple for royalty, yellow for cowardice and red
for war. 3) Gestures – actions that can give cultural control. 4) Spoken and written words - the
most important set of symbols in every culture for it is the building block used to construct ideas.
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
Cultural Relativism
Culture relativity is a concept that cultural norms and values must be understood based on
the culture he is adhered to. As the saying goes, “different strokes for different folks” which simply
means that if I am to understand a situation the explanation must primary begin with my own
culture. According to William Graham Sumner, in his book entitled “Folkways” written in 1906
culture can only be understood in its own value and content. Example is December 30 to the
Filipinos it is of value for it is Rizal Day but is worthless to the Americans and the Japanese. On the
other hand, February 22 is Washington’s Birthday to the Americans but of no value to the Filipinos
or the Japanese. Same is true every February 6 which is the Foundation of the Japanese Empire but
is just an ordinary day to Filipino and American calendars. The example reflects the significance or
insignificance of these dates reflecting a national holiday to some and an ordinary day to others. In
the first place who is Jose Rizal to the Japanese and Americans but he is adored in the Philippines.
Conversely George Washington is just a face in a one-dollar bill as far as Filipinos and Japanese are
concerned but a revered persona in America.
Being a nation of multi-cultural race, Filipinos are also cosmopolitan that our hospitality
extends to almost every nation in the world. Filipinos are a happy people that are known for their
hospitality, subtleness, patient and fun-loving. Despite coming from a third world country,
personal and family honor are given priority if given a choice. They value education highly that
poverty is not an excuse to get a scholastic degree. At an early age Filipinos consider shame as the
worst among the negative trait they avoid they value dignity as an important value in life that they
cannot live in a society that consider them as outcast. Spanish and American colonial rule that
lasted for more than four centuries are the major ingredients in the Filipino psyche.
Comparing Filipinos to other Asian nations they are generally more easy-going than their
Asian counterparts. In a study conducted by the Hong Kong-based Political and Economic Risk
Constituency (PERC) the Filipinos are "the easiest people in Asia to get along with." Being a happy
people that is understandable. In the 2006 Happy Planet Index (HPI), the Philippines ranked 17th
out of 178 countries with the progressive United States at 150. This means to show that
materialism is not a primary source of Filipino happiness. In a study conducted by Howard, he
described Filipinos as nice, cheerful and open people, everyone is welcomed even social misfits
being the most nonjudgmental and the least racist country in Asia. Filipino negative traits in an
article written by Alisa Krutovsky mentioned that Filipinos have colonial mentality and are often
tardy during appointments.
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
Morality – a review
Morality according to Perry is man’s effort to harmonize conflicting human interests. As
mentioned in the past modules morality of a person is different from another person. One example
is the case of public execution. There are some sectors in the Philippine society that consider this
evil for taking life ran contrary to their belief that taking human life is against the laws of God. On
the other hand public execution especially the most humane type that is lethal injection is a
necessity to curb men from committing evil deeds, a necessary evil so to speak. Morality is the
goodness or evilness of the act that may be justifiable. People mistook that anything that we find
good is moral because man’s pursuit of happiness is the primary reason why we live in this world.
This is not true, for man’s desire to be good is innate in him and may prevent his pursuit of such
act. A married man might entertain extra-marital affairs, especially to a lovely woman that also
implied interest in him and for him that is “good” for that is a means to his pursuit of happiness.
But then again he might neglect this passion once he recalled his marital vows which is the greater
good.
Values
Values are anything that satisfies human needs. Aristotle once said that the ultimate good is
to find things that will give us happiness and that is where happiness comes in, he further added
that value is a “fitting function” –anything that is important or significant to us. Anything that
enriched our life or at least made it meaningful such as a special someone, a friend, our laptop, our
birthdays or anything that is special are values. Even our beliefs and principles are values that we
even shared to our offspring that will guide them to their adulthood. Values may also come as
actions of our own or of others that we classify good acts are values while evil acts are not because
they result to unhappiness. Morally good values are genuine for their goodness are evident
whereas evil are called apparent values for they are evil things masquerading as good.
Kinds of Values
1. Biological values – they are important because they for the physical survival and growth
of man examples are food, shelter, work, pleasure, medicine and the likes.
2. Psychological values – this contributes to his psychological and social life examples are
companionship, friendship, marriage etc.
3. Intellectual values – this developed man’s mental fulfillment such as truth, science, art
and religion
4. Moral values – this is for the formation of one’s character. Examples are generosity,
kindness, charity and honesty Conscience
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Is a feeling or inner voice that served as a guide to the correctness or error of one's
behavior. Some authors viewed it as the “inner law” or the “sixth sense” that gives premonitions to
acts we are to perform or acts we already did. Where did this come from? Moral conscience is
innate idea that simply follow God’s unwritten dictum of “follow good and obey evil”. Man is
basically good for man is a creation of God, being the source of goodness, He created man endowed
with free will but induced conscience to make sure His words are heard.
An upright conscience is a necessity for human dignity, because it knows moral principles
and practiced them in each circumstance. Only prudent judgments can recognize the truth. Anyone
who follows his conscience is prudent for he is guided not only by human reason but by the voice
of God. God is the source of the truth and through conscience man can grasp a semblance of reason.
Inasmuch as conscience is present in man he assumes responsibility. When an evil act is
performed, he realized his error by feeling remorse for his action then later regret it, which is a
manifestation of conscience. An act that is willfully done is appeared to be guided by conscience
thereby responsibility is undeniable.
when he said that the “greatest good is for the greatest number”. He introduced Utilitarianism that
is simply states that the ends of an action must be good, if it is not then the action is unjustified.
Which is simply anything of use is good while useless are evil. But like a double-edged sword it
also has a good side, he implied the spirit of humanity where everyone lived in single planet and
their desire to be happy and goodness are innate in man. Everybody wants to be happy, so the best
thing is to follow happiness and goodness that is common to everyone. Being children of God, we
have identical aspirations, so whatever we find good might also be good to others.
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Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus
Module 10 Human Reasoning
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. To understand the importance human reasoning
2. To differentiate the types of human reasoning
3. To learn the steps for moral reasoning
Human Reasoning
Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying
facts, applying logic, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or
existing information. In short, this is the ability of man to decide which is also the same way how
morality is. But let us make a discernment here, as Immanuel Kant explained, morality is the usage
of our freedom of choice but is based on what we want, this is purely based on the necessities men
needed to fulfill such as the freedom to do whatever we want. Human reasoning is our sense of
obligation to do what is right even if we do not want to do it. For example we have fifty pesos in
our pocket and we went to a canteen to satisfy our need for food. In the counter, we see a plate of
fried chicken and a bowl of hot noodles, you want them both so morality tells us to make a choice.
But circumstance denied you these things for they cost beyond your allowance and cannot spare
additional cash from your transportation allowance so you have to choose only one to fit within
your means – that is where reason comes in.
Reason is a feature that is characteristic of men and without it they are not classified as
such. Reason is a tool for the man to cognizance as well as our guide to correlate to the absolute
truth (God). It must be noted though that it is reason just as long as man can act on them,
supernatural truth is beyond human reason. Stimuli such as human sensation, perception, and
observation that the five senses can perceive are part of man being part of the animal kingdom but
the power transforming sensuous stimuli into experience is inherent in man’s intellect denied to
brutes. With it, he alone can arrange his experience that will later guide him in his decisions. In
any human endeavor, action is secondary to thinking. Thinking is a deliberate act of anticipating
future events that might come by reflecting past actions or occurences. Thinking and acting are
inseparable. Every action rests upon the foundation of an idea related to causal relations. Casual
relations developed theories that guide human action. Action without basis is absurd but acting
without thinking is ludicrous. The reason for his action may be erroneous and his understanding of
the situation is muddled; but thinking and theorizing are still present so his action might be “valid”
or at least acceptable. Thinking is an individual process, society does not think for man even if his
customs, traditions or laws are dictated by the society an individual belongs. There is joint action,
but no joint thinking, meaning people can be moved into a collective action but collective thinking
is impossible. People often subscribe to common sense but the trouble with common sense is that
it is not common. People can never think the same hence there is no common sense.
In the religious point of view, God created human beings aside from his image and likeness as
rational creations capable of reason. Divine Revelation that may center on the salvation of the soul or
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foreboding natural catastrophes are in harmony with reason. Reason is God and comes from God so
human reason is the only way of understanding Him.
Types of Human Reasoning
1. Deductive Reasoning– it is the form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows
logically and coherently from the factual premises and proposition. Arguments are
based upon the concept of logical reasoning. In doing so the premises which the
conclusion hinges its validity that if they are true then the resulting statement are true
and valid. This is plain logic.
2. Inductive Reasoning– refers to reasoning that takes specific information and makes a
broader generalization that is considered probable, allowing for the fact that the
conclusion may not be accurate. This type of logic also uses experiences to come up with
conclusions based on general observations coming from occurrence that might give
similar results. To differentiate, Deductive reasoning began with a premise while
Inductive reasoning begins with a conclusion. Examples Deductive Reasoning – The
Pope is the Representative of God, God is never wrong therefore The Pope is never
wrong. Inductive Reasoning – Mark shows a golden ring to his friend Paul, Mark said he
will marry Martha therefor Paul thinks Martha will receive the ring.
3. Abductive Reasoning – is a method of reasoning in which one chooses the hypothesis
that would, if true, best explain the relevant evidence. It is a type of reasoning that gets
its conclusion in an abductive argument of what is possibly true. This type of logic is
also considered as inference to the best explanation. It is choosing the most likely or
best hypothesis or explanation based upon the most relevant evidence. Example: You
wake up in the morning and you see that your roommate has left but you see a halfeaten
food in the kitchen then you abduce that he left early.
4. Reductive Reasoning – It is proving a statement true by reducing to the opposite of it
and showing the absurdity of the opposite result. A statement is true based on reducing
or showing the absurdity of the opposite result. It is also called Reductio ad absurdum
(Latin: “reduction to absurdity”). Example: People do not go to college because they
don’t need it.
5. Fallacious Reasoning– It is not real reasoning, it is the faulty premises for critical
thinking and logic. Example: God is love , love is blind ergo God is blind.
Written
by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
Course Module
Module 11 Courage and Moral Courage
Types of Courage
1. Physical Courage - This is the
2. most people often subscribes to - bravery at the risk of bodily harm or death. In order
to attain this must develop his physical strength, resiliency, and awareness.
3. Social Courage - This type of courage is common to most of us because it involves the
risk of social embarrassment or exclusion, unpopularity or rejection. It also involves
leadership. Adhering to socially-accepted norms is a mandate all members have to
follow to avoid being a social outcast.
4. Intellectual Courage - This talks about our willingness to engage in cerebral fitness by
raising questions on things we know and will know, as well as to avoid the risk of
making mistakes.
5. Moral Courage - This involves doing the right thing, particularly when risks involve
shame, opposition, or the disapproval of others. Details will be discussed in the next
topic.
6. Emotional Courage - This type of courage opens us to feeling the full spectrum of
positive emotions, at the risk of encountering the negative ones. It is strongly correlated
with happiness.
7. Spiritual Courage – Courage that deals with questions about faith, the purpose, and
meaning of life whether in a religious or nonreligious framework.
Moral Courage
Moral courage is the courage to take action for moral reasons despite the risk of adverse
consequences and it requires deliberation and careful thought. Moral courage entails a person’s
strength of character and must be willing to face risks in order to act according to his or her values
and beliefs. Moral courage is the strength to stand up to authority to protect his or her
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soldiers’ welfare or defend his or her decisions. This virtue develop leaders that are
followed by their inferiors without any iota of doubt. Integrity is gained by leaders who perform
their jobs even if they do not want it because they knew their leader has their trust and confidence.
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus
Module 12 Aristotle on Virtue
Man-made objects
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Take for example a coffee mug. A simple definition is that it is metal, plastic or
ceramichandled object that can carry hot liquid; but the mug reveals other purpose. You can’t use
your coffee mug to contain petrol or book cover. Describing the color, texture or height of the
object might be useful; but doing so would miss the most important thing about it, it’s very reason
for existing – it’s telos. The coffee mug was created by humans to drink of coffee with, and every
human artifact is made for a specific purpose—chairs for sitting, cars for driving, television shows
for entertaining.
Natural Objects
What about natural objects? Do they have inherent purposes? Can we make a definition of
them sans any reference to religious beliefs? Aristotle said that the telos of a plant or animal is
also ‘what it was made for’ that we can be observe. For example, the trees’ purpose is to grow,
develop branches, produce fruit, nuts, or flowers, provide shade, and reproduce. The telos of a tree
is something that can make use of its full potential –the very purpose why it was created. Some
observers include the telos of a tree is it’s eventually decaying and death, and perhaps that is part
of it, but Aristotle could disagree by saying that the telos of a thing is that which it does when it
fulfills its full potential.
Humans
Humans according to Aristotle, has happiness as the telos for human beings. The Greeks
termed it as or eudemonia that also means something more like “fulfillment.” By what Fulfillment is
he speaking of? Man of all beings has the potential for excellence, or “virtues” in English
translations of Aristotle. Aristotle defined “virtue” as referring to artistic, scientific, athletic, or any
other kind of excellence. When man performed a chore such as painting a masterpiece, winning an
athletic event or aspiring for scholastic honors happiness can be achieved once one aims for
perfection.
1. Aristotle on Virtue;
http://documents.routledgeinteractive.s3.amazonaws.com/9781138793934/
A22014/ethical_theories/Aristotle %20on%20virtue.pdf;
2. Philosophy of Terms; http://philosophyterms.com/telos/
3. The Pursuit of Happiness; http://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/history-
ofhappiness/aristotle/
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
a.
Emotional Courage
b.
Social Courage
c.
Physical Courage
d.
Intellectual Courage
Question 3
Correct
Flag question
Question text
Physical strength, resiliency and awareness are characteristics of social
courage
Select one:
True
False
Question 4
Correct
Flag question
Question text
A type of Courage characterized by bravery at the risk of bodily harm
or death.
Select one:
a.
Social Courage
b.
Emotional Courage
c.
Intellectual Courage
d.
Physical Courage
Question 5
Correct
Flag question
Question text
Even the most coward man can display courage
Select one:
True
False
Question 6
Correct
Flag question
Question text
Courage is evidenced only by the ability to make ultimate sacrifices.
Select one:
True
False
Question 7
Correct
Flag question
Question text
A type of Courage characterized by the possibility of risking social
embarrassment, exclusion or even rejection.
Select one:
a.
Social Courage
b.
Physical Courage
c.
Emotional Courage
d.
Intellectual Courage
A type of Courage characterized by being open to feelings and is correlated to happiness.
Select one:
a.
Emotional Courage
b.
Social Courage
c.
Physical Courage
d.
Intellectual Courage
Question 3
Correct
Flag question
Question text
Physical strength, resiliency and awareness are characteristics of social
courage
Select one:
True
False
Question 4
Correct
Flag question
Question text
A type of Courage characterized by bravery at the risk of bodily harm
or death.
Select one:
a.
Social Courage
b.
Emotional Courage
c.
Intellectual Courage
d.
Physical Courage
Question 5
Correct
Flag question
Question text
Even the most coward man can display courage
Select one:
True
False
Question 6
Correct
Flag question
Question text
Courage is evidenced only by the ability to make ultimate sacrifices.
Select one:
True
False
Question 7
Correct
Question text
A type of Courage characterized by the possibility of risking social
embarrassment, exclusion or even rejection.
Select one:
a.
Social Courage
b.
Physical Courage
c.
Emotional Courage
d.
Intellectual Courage
Course Module
humans' participation in the Eternal Law, through reason and will that helped them discern
good from evil thereby giving them a happy contented life.
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus
Module 15 Rights
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMA Caloocan Campus
Module 16 The Philosophy of Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism
This philosophy is also known as Consequentialism that says the rightness or wrongness of
an object depends on the effect of the consequence regardless of the method it utilized. There are
two kinds of utilitarianism and they are Act utilitarian and Rule utilitarian, the first believed about
the goodness or badness of a particular act. An example is the assassination of former Indian Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi in 1984 that was an act of murder by the civilized people but to the
perpetuators it was an act beneficial to the maligned Indian minority. Rule utilitarian means the
goodness or evilness of an act itself. Say abortion may be an evil act but Western civilization view it
as a means to combat population explosion. Morality is defined, simply as increasing good and
decreasing evil by eliminating traditions, taboos or archaic beliefs that obstruct human
development. These age-old beliefs put man in a “primitive” way of life that denied their right to
free-will and are a bane to human behavior. The proponents of this theory were Jeremy Bentham
and John Stuart Mill wherein the first thought about this idea and later shared to his pupil which
the latter propagated for humanity albeit with his own interpretation. Despite being thinkers of the
18th Century their ideas were utilized by the present generation but were doubted for its
absurdities. That even today the ideas of these scholars were unsure as to they tend to Act
Utilitarian or Rule Utilitarian. Their writings are ambiguous that they have no idea what utilitarian
act they subscribe.
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Utilitarianism is famous for its maxim “Greater happiness for the greater number” and
believed in the premise that while man’s purpose in this world is to be happy, we must only think
more of happiness and neglect misery in our lives. Which brings us to Positive Utilitarianism
which adheres to the maxim mentioned, while is negative counterpart centers on its complete
contradiction “least misery for the least number of people”. It must be noted, though that both are
absurd because suffering is part of human existence that comes in great numbers that made a
considerable number of people suffering as well. Negative utilitarianism is also impractical if not
totally ludicrous because by experiencing misery we became emotionally stronger inasmuch as it
is triumph over adversity, life is not a bed of roses anyway. Positive Utilitarianism is also
preposterous for happiness may not be attained by everyone and anyone might not feel the same
way. For example, if we are happy inflicting pain to another being a sadist will the receiving party
feel pleasure? Certainly not unless he is a masochist.
Business Utilitarianism
As mentioned earlier, the rightness or wrongness of an action is based on the consequence
regardless of the method employed. We can also connect that to the common adage “the end
justifies the means” just as long as it benefits the society where one belongs. Conversely speaking,
any action is valid as long as it is for the “greater good for the greater number”. Now let us
correlate Utilitarianism to Business, four things have to be kept in mind:
1. Business depends upon the consequence of an action ergo consequentialism – as
mentioned the validity of the action is the consequence or the attainment of its ends.
This type of belief is considered bad because this is practically permitting the profiteers
of exercising avarice by jacking up price of commodities and at the same time using
substandard goods and services just as long as they attain of raking cash at the expense
of good business.
2. Business depends on welfarism – by welfarism we mean an act is valid if the society
where one belongs subscribed to that similar understanding. This is has positive effects
because it deals with the well-being of the society such as raising the salaries of the
workers that the State (unless they adhere to Command economy practiced by
Communists) approved.
3. Business is individualism – this centers on the happiness of the consumer while the first
two ideals are for the businessmen and the workers respectively. In this concept, the
businessmen will give quality goods and services at affordable prices devoid of profit
but merely public service.
4. Business is aggregation – by aggregation this means the rightness or wrongness of an
action is dependent in only on the average values of all the individual, egalitarian in the
real sense of the word. It simply means that happiness should be shared by all sectors of
business – the businessmen, workers, buyers and society.
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMA Caloocan Campus
Course Module
Module 14 The Philosophy of Immanuel Kant
Course Module
So what is Good Will then, Kant means to act out of a sense of moral obligation or "duty".
The German Scholar believed that the Eternal Law “do good and avoid evil” is inherent in man,
meaning that there is goodness in every man that no matter how evil they are, the tendency to do
good or wanting something good is innate in man. The will is his ability to pursue his good with
help of human reason but then again the goodness or badness of an act lies in the purpose why had
he done it. Not all good acts are good in itself such as a politician doling out goods to typhoon
victims or an adversary delivering a eulogy to a fallen opponent. Good Will is the reason why he
made such action and the ends he wanted to achieve upon doing it.
Written by:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMACC Caloocan Campus
Course Module
Module 17 Justice and Fairness
phase of social control. Law is not only a means to a civilization but also a product of civilization
according to Roscoe Pound, the spokesman for the School of Social Jurisprudence. Law is
responsible for social engineering for it is a mechanism in reacting to changes in a society. laws are
susceptible to change and is not bound by traditions and legends and is created for the interest of
all members of society.
Written By:
Christopher S. Espiritu
AMA Caloocan Campus
Module 18 Pluralism versus Fundamentalism
Question 3
Correct
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Question text
Physical strength, resiliency and awareness are characteristics of social
courage
Select one:
True
False
Question 4
Correct
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Question text
A type of Courage characterized by bravery at the risk of bodily harm
or death.
Select one:
a.
Social Courage
b.
Emotional Courage
c.
Intellectual Courage
d.
Physical Courage
Question 5
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Even the most coward man can display courage
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True
False
Question 6
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Courage is evidenced only by the ability to make ultimate sacrifices.
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True
False
Question 7
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Question text
A type of Courage characterized by the possibility of risking social
embarrassment, exclusion or even rejection.
Select one:
a.
Social Courage
b.
Physical Courage
c.
Emotional Courage
d.
Intellectual Courage
Moral courage involves strength of character and acting according to
one's vales and beliefs
Select one:
True
People display courage everyday
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True
Question 1
Correct
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___________________ Courage is defined the ability to take action despite
the risk of adverse consequences. actions.
Select one:
a.
Emotional
b.
Ethical
c.
Logical
d.
Moral
Question 2
Correct
Question text
A type of Courage characterized by bravery at the risk of bodily harm
or death.
Select one:
a.
Social Courage
b.
Emotional Courage
c.
Intellectual Courage
d.
Physical Courage
Question 3
Correct
Flag question
Question text
People display courage everyday
Select one:
True
False
Question 4
Correct
Question text
Moral courage involves strength of character and acting according to
one's vales and beliefs
Select one:
True
False
Question 5
Correct
Flag question
Question text
Physical strength, resiliency and awareness are characteristics of social
courage
Select one:
True
False
Question 6
Correct
Flag question
Question text
A type of Courage characterized by being open to feelings and is
correlated to happiness.
Select one:
a.
Emotional Courage
b.
Physical Courage
c.
Intellectual Courage
d.
Social Courage
Question 7
Correct
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Question text
Even the most coward man can display courage
Select one:
True
False
Question 8
Correct
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Question text
A type of Courage characterized by the possibility of risking social
embarrassment, exclusion or even rejection.
Select one:
a.
Physical Courage
b.
Emotional Courage
c.
Social Courage
d.
Intellectual Courage
Question 9
Correct
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Question text
Courage is evidenced only by the ability to make ultimate sacrifices.
Select one:
True
False
Question 10
Correct
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Question text
___________________is defined as taking action even if a person doubts or
questions the consequences of actions.
Select one:
a.
Emotions
b.
Virtue
c.
Reason
d.
Courage
Question 2
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Question text
A type of Courage characterized by being open to feelings and is correlated to
happiness.
Select one:
a.
Emotional Courage
b.
Social Courage
c.
Physical Courage
d.
Intellectual Courage
Question 3
Correct
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Question text
Physical strength, resiliency and awareness are characteristics of social courage
Select one:
True
False
Question 4
Correct
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Question text
A type of Courage characterized by bravery at the risk of bodily harm or death.
Select one:
a.
Social Courage
b.
Emotional Courage
c.
Intellectual Courage
d.
Physical Courage
Question 5
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Question text
Even the most coward man can display courage
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True
False
Question 6
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Courage is evidenced only by the ability to make ultimate sacrifices.
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True
False
Question 7
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Question text
A type of Courage characterized by the possibility of risking social embarrassment,
exclusion or even rejection.
Select one:
a.
Social Courage
b.
Physical Courage
c.
Emotional Courage
d.
Intellectual Courage
Question 1
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Man is born intrinsically good
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True
Question 2
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Laws are dictated by reason and intellect of the ruler in a society
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True
False
Question 3
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St. Aquinas' philosophic beliefs are based on the Socratic doctrines, particularly on the
Socratic method
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False
Question 4
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The reasonable man is a whole man, as per Aquinas.
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Question 5
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Natural Law tells us that it is natural for humans to achieve their ends by outside
intervention and coercion
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True
False
Question 6
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Aristotle is known as the Angelic Doctor because his chastity remained intact until the
day of his death
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Question 7
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St. Thomas Aquinas was a Dominican Theologian
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Question 8
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Natural law is the reflection of the Laws of God.
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Question 9
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The need to possess material things is a way to achieve infinite perfection
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Question 10
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According to Aquinas human happiness can ultimately be found in God ALONE.
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True
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