2020-2021

Tema 32. El texto narrativo. Estructura y características.

Topic 32. Narrative text. Structure and characteristics

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© 2020 by Stephen Pearse Hughes. All rights reserved. Any copying or distribution, partial
or otherwise, may not be undertaken without the express authorisation of the author.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Narrative Structure
2.1 Basic narrative structure
2.2 Variations to the basic narrative structure
3. Characteristics of narrative texts
3.1 General characteristics
3.2 The author, narrative voices and focalisation
3.3 Linguistic considerations
3.4 Genre and characteristics of the narrative
4. Pedagogical and curricular implications
5. Conclusion
References

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1. Introduction
Myths and legends, fairy tales and chronicles, biographies and novels, news reports and personal
anecdotes all share a common unifying element: they all contain a narrative structure. Narrative
texts in the language class not only represent a source of comprehensible input, but also provide
exposure to different cultures and new forms of expression and can serve as a focus on salient
language points and as a model or inspiration for output. At the same time, when students
produce their own narratives they are essentially given the opportunity to creatively practice and
consolidate their acquired skills, bringing into play a wide range of lower and higher order thinking
skills, from memory and understanding to analysis and creativity. The exploration and exploitation
of narrative texts, then, is a fundamental area in the language learning process and is highlighted
within methodological guidelines in the curricula for compulsory and non-compulsory secondary
education (Consejería, 2016a; 2016b; 2020; MECD, 2015a; 2015b).
The treatment of narratives, however, presents a number of challenges. Firstly, storytelling
is a complex area which requires the engagement of all receptive and productive skills. Among
the various linguistic problems which may arise with the use of narratives is the variety of simple
and compound tenses and the wide range of lexical items, collocations and idiomatic expressions.
There are also cultural differences and issues related to general and specific knowledge of
contexts which are added on to the linguistic concerns, thus further complicating this area.
These areas are treated in this topic, in which a number of different types and characteristics
of narratives will be discussed along with subordinate levels or genre included within narrative
texts. In the course of this discussion, the structures and types of language that is employed will
be also examined. Additionally, this topic will include some of the major pedagogical and
curricular implications for the use of narrative in the English language class.

2. Narrative Structure
Before looking at the more specific characteristics of narrative texts, it might be useful to examine
the overall structure in terms of how ‘stories’ are constructed. In this section, the macro-
categories which make up stories will be discussed in addition to some of the variations which
take place within these overarching areas. Novels, comics, fables, biographies, soap operas and
movie trilogies all have one thing in common: they tell a story and contain a narrative text. As Bal
(2009: 36) states: ‘a narrative text is a text in which a narrative agent tells a story’. Often, the main

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purpose of the narrative is to entertain, for example in a novel; but it is also used nourish and
extend the imagination off the reader or listener (Derewianka, 1990).

2.1 Basic narrative structure

While all narratives are stories and their main focus is on the sequence of events, there are a
number of important differences between narrative genres. Perhaps the largest structural
difference to be found in narrative texts is that which exists between fictional non-fictional texts.
Unlike fiction, non-fictional texts tell us about real people and events. Here, the writer’s
imagination does not come into play although it is possible that the portrayal of certain events or
people may be tinged by the subjectivity of the narrator. Fiction, on the other hand, has a series
of literary characteristics which sets it apart as a genre. As a literary element in fiction, the
framework for a ‘story’ generally includes the parts or events within the story and the order in
which these are presented. The three main components usually involve a) the setting, b) a conflict
and c) a resolution. This narrative is often represented by a triangle, which is attributed to Gustav
Freytag in the 1800’s:

The exposition or orientation stage basically sets the scene, the atmosphere and the time of the
story. At this point, the main characters are introduced to the reader along with background
details and settings. Rising action occurs during the development of the plot. At this stage it is
common to see the emergence of rising tension or even crisis, and it is that the reader’s level of
engagement would be fairly high. During this point, there may be a minor resolution, whereby
the problem that arises may seem to have been solved, but where in reality, the situation actually

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becomes worse (Van Djck, 1976). The climax is often the most dramatic moment of the story and
requires a resolution. It is not, however the end of the story and one or more resolutions could
take place and where the author may tie up loose ends. At the final stage, or dénouement, there
may be a series of implications drawn implicitly for the reader. This stage may have an evaluation
of the events or a conclusion a moral of the story which might suggest future actions for the
speaker or listener (Van Djck, 1976).

[PERHAPS INSERT YOUR OWN MINI-STORY TO EXEMPLIFY]

This basic structure may be employed in formal written narratives such as novels, but same major
components are often present in other less formal accounts, such as those seen in joke-telling or
anecdotes.

2.2 Variations to the basic narrative structure

Within this basic scheme of narrative structure, however, structural variations do occur. For
example a story could begin with flashback or part of the resolution could be followed by rising
action (e.g. Chapter 1 in The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald). This mixing of the chronological
order of events can lend complexity to the novel and add depth to the story.
At the same time, stories often contain a plot and a subplot. Here it is normal to see how
a separate narrative plots may share a parallel sequence or, alternatively, move back and forth to
end up in a joint resolution (or not). Similarly, as previously mentioned, the rising action might
include temporary resolutions and multiple micro-climaxes before ending. Even the final part of
the story could end in the introduction of another problem, which prepares the way for a sequel
to the story.
Additionally, novels may have an episodic structure, whereby individual protagonists’
stories are told through episodes which are eventually woven together. While these novels may
focus on the same protagonists, the different challenges or adventures they face tend to appear
in self-contained chapters. Examples of authors who use this type of structure include Jonathan
Swift, Mark Twain and Jack Kerouac. Perhaps one of the best-known masters of the episodic story,
however, is Tolkien. In both The Hobbit and the Lord of the Rings we can see how the overall
stories are split into smaller self-contained episodes which are generally connected through a
series of unifying themes or a final mission.

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 While alternatives to the basic narrative structure do exist, the narratives themselves still
rely on an audience's familiarity with typical narrative structures. Additionally, these different
types of story normally share a series of characteristics, several of which are discussed below.

3. Characteristics of narrative texts

While there is a more or less solid structure in narrative texts, there is a high level of variability
present in the characteristics of stories depending very much on the genre and intended
audience. Some of the more salient general and specific characteristics are presented below.

3.1 General characteristics

In relation to the general aspects of a narrative, Herman (2009) suggests that prototypical
characteristics could include the following:
• Situatedness: A representation that is situated within a specific discourse context
• Event sequencing: This representation encourages the audience to make inferences
about a time-frame structure of events
• World making/world disruption: The nature of these events means that some kind of
disruption or disequilibrium takes place in the storyworld involving human or human-like
agents
• What it’s like: The portrayal of this narrative also depicts the experience of living through
the influence of this storyworld and shows the how real or imagined events affect
characters; in other words, this is concerned with the philosophical term of ‘qualia’, or
what it is like to experience what another feels.

A further list of general characteristics of narrative texts is provided by Van Dijk (1976), who states
that within this type of text:
• There is a certain communication context for a specific purpose;
• The narrator assumes that the audience does not know about the events that take place;
• Often more than one action is described;
• Both descriptions of events and states may be presented;
• Unexpected, surprising or dangerous events occur.

Narration, then, refers to the conveyance of a series of events but these events are embedded in
certain contexts. Descriptive and narrative texts, for example, often go hand in hand and can
equally be seen in novels and stories as well as in biographies. Similarly, expository texts may also
share some narrative features. However, it would appear that settings or context, the relationship
between the narrator and the reader, the sequencing and language characteristics involved, all

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contribute to making a complete narrative text fairly distinguishable from other types of text.
These features will be discussed in the following sections.

3.2 The author, narrative voices and focalisation

All narrative texts start, not with the setting, but with the author. The author’s decisions
ultimately determine not only the story but the contexts in which it is told, as well as the language
employed and the register and tone. In addition to the voices of other narrators and characters,
the voice of the author may also be heard throughout the text. Ultimately, it is the author’s
interpretative knowledge and perspective that constitute the most important factors within a
narrative.
Genette (1980) makes a distinction between various narrators within a story. These include:
• A homodiegetic narrator – who is also a character in the narrative
• A heterodiegetic narrator – who is not a character in the story

Within narratives it is frequent to see various narrators come into play, however, regardless of
the ‘speakers’ presence within a story it is always the narrator’s voice we hear. It is important to
note that the narrator is not necessarily the same as the author. An example of this can be seen
in Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights (Figure 2).

Author Narrator 1 Narrator 2 Characters

Emily Joseph Lockwood Nelly Heathcliff, Isabella, Cathy, Zilla

Brontë
Figure 2. Narrative perspectives in Wuthering Heights

[THINK OF YOUR OWN EXAMPLE]

Here, Brontë is the omniscient author, while Lockwood is the first narrator. He in turn meets Nelly
Dean, who narrates the stories of the main characters. Even within these characters themselves
we have separate examples of narratives, such as diary excerpts from Cathy.

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 A major role played by the author is that of focalisation, which essentially refers to the
perspective through which the story may be observed. This focalisation may fall into one of three
major categories:
• External focalisation, whereby the third-person (omniscient) perspective is used
• Internal focalisation, where first person narratives, subjective feelings, thoughts,
interpretations and actions predominate the text;
• Mixed focalisation, in which the two above areas may be combined.
Within these narratives, perhaps the most important distinction to be made is the narrative mode
(i.e. first person or third person narrative). In general terms, the external focalisation could
include the omniscient narrator, who has a complete view of the created world (i.e. Brontë in the
example above). A variation of this is the third-person limited narrator who, by definition, has a
restricted world view and depends on others to complete that view (e.g. Lockwood’s dependence
on Nelly’s accounts). Finally, by using the first person narrative the author is able to reveal
intimate thoughts and feelings of a character (as in the previously mentioned example of Cathy
and her diary).
As Bel (2009: 39) mentions, the narrator and the focalisation together determine the
narrative situation. It is the writer, however, who makes the narration special or unique, and it is
this person, to all extents and purposes, who constitutes the most important variable within the
narrative text. The type of discourse used, the real or imaginary plots, the purpose and the
protagonists all depend on the author.

3.3 Linguistic considerations

There are a number of frequently employed linguistic elements within narrative texts, although
this again will depend on the specific genre. Among the basic language considerations, we can say
that narratives may be provided in the spoken or written form and are generally related in the
first or third persons singular or plural. While normally narrated using past tenses, it is possible to
see the use of present tenses in order to heighten tension or to make the action more immediate.
Narratives often blend elements of action and description with dialogue and, in this sense,
specific linguistic elements are employed for each function. In terms of action, the author or
speaker might choose action verbs in order to bring the story to life, along with other elements,
such as sequencers and adverbs.

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 Descriptions can also contribute to the developing action and move the plot forward. These
descriptions can vary depending on the situation and can include the use of adjectives and
adverbs and descriptive verbs to enhance the communicative or even literary objectives. With
verbs, for example, there is often a move away from more frequently employed words (e.g. she
said vs. she declared or he went into vs. he ventured into); similarly, nouns move away from more
generic forms (e.g. dog or plant) to more specific ones (Dalmatian or Chrysanthemum). In
addition, adjectives and adverbs tend to be carefully selected in order to give more precise or
colourful descriptions. Within narrative texts, it is also frequent to see rhetorical devices
employed. Simile and metaphor, for example, are used to respectively provide direct or indirect
comparisons (e.g. When she laughed she sounded like a donkey having a bad day or Her head was
a universe of ideas). Personification of non-human objects or elements of nature may also be used
often to reflect the internal feelings of a person or to convey the mood within the story (The skies
covered themselves up with a grey shroud). All of these narrative and descriptive devices may be
employed to heighten a readers awareness of a character's attitude or an impending situation
(e.g. Her lips tightened and her fists clenched as she saw the grave faces of the jury).
Dialogues are also a common feature of narratives and are used not only to further the story,
but also to give an insight into the psychology of the main characters. Here we can find different
modes of speech which include:

• Direct speech, where all of the characters’ words are transcribed without interpretation;
• Reported speech, where a narrator or the author summarises what another person has
said and done;
• Stream of consciousness, where we hear the internal thoughts of the character.
These aspects make narrative texts much more readily distinguishable from other text types and
lend the story a blend of unique characteristics. The text types employed and the devices used,
however, will very much depend on the literary genre within which the narrative is written. This
aspect of the narrative is discussed below.

3.4 Genre and characteristics of the narrative

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As previously indicated, the most important categorisation involved in narrative comes in the
differentiation between non-fictional and fictional texts. In the first case, examples of non-
fictional texts could include:
• A newspaper story relating an event
• A magazine article talking about a personal experience
• A diary entry describing how the day went
• An essay about a past experience
• The life story of a famous person

Within the genre, there can be many different narrative types and categorisations, starting with
the most basic area of non-fictional or fictional narratives. With the former, we are essentially
dealing with ‘stories’ which are real. Often there is a logical sequence of events although this is
not necessarily chronological; however, it is not frequent for the use of fictional narrative devices
(e.g. flashback or suspense) for dramatic effect. Like fictional narrative, the use of direct and
indirect speech may be seen (e.g. in a newspaper article reports on a trial). Similarly, it may rely
heavily on past tense forms.
Fictional narrative, however, enters a more creative realm with differentiating linguistic
and structural characteristics. Within fictional texts, some of the genres to be found could include
versions which reflect reality or which are more fantasy-based.
In the case of historical fiction, for example, real events are presented and play an
important part in the story, however they do not limit the story itself. There are often universal
themes present in the narrative which can be identified by contemporary readers and related to
present-day events or people.
There is a certain degree of overlap between historical fiction and realistic fiction,
particularly in the portrayal of characters. The settings for realistic fiction reflect the time period
depicted; both the situations and the characters are believable, although dramatic life-changing
events may occur. An important aspect of realistic fiction is that society and social issues often
have an important part to play. Within realistic fiction, there may be other sub-genres, such as
murder, mystery and suspense or humorous novels.
Within non-realistic fiction, we can find two main sub-genres: science fiction and fantasy.
In the first case we are often dealing with futuristic settings with characters who may have very
identifiable characteristics. Frequently, the focus of science fiction is on the action, although there

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is also a large emphasis on elements which (currently) do not exist. Fantasy, on the other hand,
deals with the concept of ‘otherworldliness’, in which characters often engage in an epic quest.

4. Pedagogical and curricular considerations

Storytelling has played a vital role in the construction of human knowledge and the
understanding, retelling and production of narratives all form part of our cognitive development.
Stories provide a meaningful and authentic social environment for learning and knowledge
transfer. They have the potential to engage learners’ interest and to help them to respond
creatively. It is not surprising, then, that narratives should be highlighted in official curricular
guidelines.
In recent national legislation Royal Decree 1105 (MECD, 2015a) and regional Orders of 14th
July for Compulsory Secondary Education (Consejería, 2016a), for example, students in the first
three years of secondary education are expected to deal with narratives in relation to the
communicative skills. Within the assessable learning standards this includes:
• Listening: Understand narrations (as well as other text types) when they are related
clearly, slowly and directly
• Speaking: Make brief, rehearsed presentations and participate in informal or formal
conversations (this may involve narrated events)
• Reading: Understand personal correspondence which (among other areas) narrates
past events; understand the main ideas in brief newspaper articles; understand the
main idea of well-structured fictional stories for young people.
• Writing: Write brief reports; write personal correspondence describing important
events

By the time students reach the end of non-compulsory secondary education, they are expected
to understand more complex narratives and to produce oral and written texts in relation to a
number of areas, including literary works (see Order 14th July for Upper Secondary Education,
Consejería, 2016b). The development of receptive and productive narrative skills among learners,
then, is an important aspect of language training and this is reflected in legislative guidelines.
Another important development in terms of the treatment of narrative comes in the
recently published Companion Volume to the Common European Framework (CoE, 2018). Here,
along with the focus on receptive, productive and interactive skills, we have a concern for

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mediation in terms of the mediation of texts, concepts and communication. Here, working with
narratives has the potential to develop learner strategies and abilities in all of these areas and
allows them to engage in activities to practice higher order thinking skills.
In terms of the major pedagogical considerations, it would appear necessary to incorporate
narrative-based activities which are meaningful and purposeful to them (see Harmer, 2012;
Newby et al., 2007). Similarly, texts should be within their stage of comprehensible input (see
Krashen, 1985) and students should be provided with opportunities to notice elements of the
language (Schmidt, 1990). Here, the use of graded readers may offer learners the opportunity to
become familiar with the variety of narrative worlds and discourse and allow them to have
maximised contact with the most frequently used words; these frequent encounters with
vocabulary and structures allow for effective and meaningful language acquisition (Nation, 2001).
Students also need to engage in their own output (see Swain, 1981) of narrative texts. Here,
there are several possible scenarios for students to creatively produce texts which fall within the
categories and genres mentioned above. This could include an email to a friend about something
that has just happened, the development of a chain story or a dialogue between parents and
children. With this type of activity, students can incorporate memory and imagination individually
or collaboratively in ways which give them the opportunity to produce language in a meaningful
way with multiple varieties of language practice.
Finally, the format of narratives in general lends itself to classroom tasks and projects (see
Orden ECD/65/2015, MECD, 2015b). This type of learning has the potential not only to integrate
the different communicative skills in purposeful and meaningful ways, but also to prepare
students for life beyond the school context through the development of key competences.

5. Conclusion
Without narrative texts, the world as it is today would not exist. Narratives spring from human
memory, cognition and imagination and fill our minds with countless stories. The writer or
speaker is the creator of the narrative and the way in which this creator devises the story, through
choice of genre, storyline and language, brings the creation itself to fruition.
The great diversity of narrative texts, from the general categories of fiction and non-fiction,
to the genres which span historical fiction to conversational anecdotes make this medium a
particularly useful source of linguistic and cultural input and can potentially provide inspiration
for meaningful narrative production.

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 Under the right conditions, then, narratives can serve as a reference point, as a source of
enrichment and entertainment, and as a means to convey important life events or to create new
imagined stories. In order for students to be able to understand, appreciate and, indeed, produce
narrative texts, it would seem necessary for them to become familiar with some of their most
salient features. In this sense, questions of structure, including aspects related to scene-setting,
tension building, climax and denouement are all important features. Similarly, familiarity with
concepts related to characteristics, including ‘qualia’, narrative voice and genre can also help with
effective comprehension and production and can potentially contribute to increasingly higher
levels of literary appreciation at later stages of learning.

Legislation
Consejería (2016a). Orden de 14 de julio de 2016, por la que se desarrolla el currículo
correspondiente a la educación Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autónoma de
Andalucía.
Consejería (2016b). Orden de 14 de julio de 2016, por la que se desarrolla el currículo
correspondiente al Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía.
Consejería (2020). INSTRUCCIÓN 9/2020, de 15 de junio, de la Dirección General de Ordenación y
Evaluación Educativa, por la que se establecen aspectos de organización y funcionamiento
para los centros que imparten Educación Secundaria Obligatoria.*
MECD (2015a). Real Decreto 1105/2014, de 26 de diciembre, por el que se establece el
currículo básico de la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria y del Bachillerato.
MECD (2015b). Orden ECD/65/2015, de 21 de enero, por la que se describen las relaciones entre
las competencias, los contenidos y los criterios de evaluación de la educación primaria,
la educación secundaria obligatoria y el bachillerato.

References
Bal, M. (2009), Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, Toronto: University of
Toronto Press
Derewianka, B. (1990). Exploring how Texts Work. Sydney: Primary Teaching Association.
CoE (2018). Common European Framework of reference for languages: learning, teaching,
assessment. Companion volume with new descriptors. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Genette, G. (1980) [Narrative Discourse] trans. by Jane E. Lewin. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Harmer, J. (2012). Essential Teacher Knowledge. London: Pearson.
Herman, D. (2009). Basic Elements of Narrative. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing.
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman.
Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Newby, D., et al. (2007). European Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages. Graz: European
Centre for Modern Languages.
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning, Applied
Linguistics, 11, 129-158.

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Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and
comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass, & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in
second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley, MZ: Newbury House.
Van Dijk, T.A: (1976). Narrative macro-structures: Logical and cognitive foundations. PTL: A
Journal for Descriptive Poetics and Theory of Literature, 1, 547-568.

[*Please note that this is an instruction for ESO for the year 2020-21. It is possible a new law will
come out later, this will be discussed as events develop]

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