Proceedings, Slope Stability 2011: International Symposium on Rock Slope Stability in Open Pit Mining and Civil

Engineering, Vancouver, Canada (September 18-21, 2011)

Fully Coupled 3D Deformation and Hydrogeology Simulation of an

Open Pit Slope in Arctic Conditions

D.A. Beck Beck Engineering, Sydney, Australia

J. Mathis Zostrich Geotechnical, Ellensburg, USA
J. Heimbach BHP Billiton Canada, Yellowknife, Canada
F. Reusch Beck Engineering, Berlin, Germany

Abstract
Hydrogeology is an important factor in slope stability. However, parameters governing hydrogeology may
change as a function of deformation in, and behind, the slopes. Thus, the coupling of deformation and
groundwater may be critical when assessing slope stability. The situation is further complicated in arctic
environments where variations in the depth of permafrost, especially around lakes, create irregular and
complex storage and flow geometries.
Pits at BHP Billiton Canada’s EKATI diamond mine, Northwest Territories, Canada, are located in the
aforementioned arctic conditions. The mine is surrounded by a number of lakes and some pits comparatively
large for an Arctic Diamond Mine. While the country rock is relatively stiff granite, cut by very persistent
structures, the lower pit walls will be composed of a much softer, and potentially plastically deforming,
kimberlite. The interaction of the stiffer country rock, with included persistent structures as potential dilating
hydrogeologic pathways, and the much softer kimberlite, with both physical and hydrogeologic properties
changing as a function of displacement, was deemed critical to slope stability evaluation. As such, the
ultimate slope design for one pit was recently assessed using a fully coupled, 3D, discontinuum finite element
hydromechanical model. Full coupling in this case refers to the simultaneous solution of the coupled
equations for hydrogeological flow, stress and strain.
Using past slope stability analyses as a guide to calibration, the 3D model was used to test hypotheses about
the interaction between subsurface water, structure and the slope and then to test successive iterations of the
design to aid the optimisation process. The project highlighted the importance of structure-water interaction
in slope stability even for modestly sized pits. Key learnings for data collection and design in similar
circumstances are presented.

1 Introduction
BHP Billiton Canada Incorporated’s (BBCI) EKATI diamond mine is located on the sub arctic tundra of
Canada’s Northwest Territories. The diamonds are hosted in a carrot shaped kimberlite pipe surround by
mild to moderately metamorphosed granite/granodiorites. Hydrogeological conditions are complicated by a
theoretically high water table, as water is commonly found at ground surface, a variable depth of permafrost
with potential hydgeologic connectivity under the permafrost between numerous local lakes, complex
structural conditions in the granitic host, granitic xenolith boulder zones within the pipe, and climatic
conditions resulting in substantial surface runoff during spring freshet and fall rains. The combined
hydrological, structural and rock mass conditions result in conditions that are difficult, if not impossible, to
assess accurately using standard analytic techniques.
To evaluate various slope design concepts, a tool that could consider the interactions between structure,
water and the rock mass was required. The analysis method chosen was 3D, hydro-mechanically fully
coupled, discontinuum, strain softening dilatant finite element (FE) simulation. The model included a high
fidelity representation of the pit excavation steps, the geology, structure and a best-possible representation of
the sub-surface hydrology using available data. After each design was simulated, BHPBC and their
designated consultants considered the model data as an aide to assess stability, and if required, modify the pit
slope design. The key differentiating point between this model and most common non-linear stress-strain
models, is the direct full coupling of the hydrogeological and hydrogeological problem solution and for the
hydrogeological model solution, the inclusion of faults as lower resistance pathways for fluid flow.
The end-state of the analysis after several design iterations and sensitivity analysis was provisionally
optimised final design that generally accounts for the complex geotechnical and hydrogeological conditions.
A monitoring and measurement program was recommended to collect data regarding slope performance,
both surficially and at depth, for inclusion in, and calibration of, future models. These future calibrated FE
simulations can then be utilized to further optimize the ultimate slope design before committing to final
implementation.

2 Model details
The pit geometries, extraction sequence and geological model were not simplified in the model; they were
the same as the planning team and geologists constructed for operations. The as-built model geometry is
shown in Figure 1, showing the structural complexity around the granitic pipe host and the configuration of
the xenolith, or granitic boulder, zones within the Kimberlite Pipe. Note that the structures in the granitic
host, though modelled as being through going features, were “turned off” in the kimberlite pipe after pipe
emplacement in the model.

Figure 1. Finite element model geometry showing final pit geometry and explicit structures.

The stress field used in the model is based on measurements at nearby pipes. Figure 2 depicts the pre-mining
major principal stress on a cut-away view through the pipe, both before mining and for the present, as
mined, pit configuration.

2.1 Constitutive mechanical and hydrogeological model for materials

The Levkovitch Reusch 2 (LR2) model (Reusch and Levkovitch, 2010; Levkovitch and Reusch, 2010) was
selected for this project. LR2 is a constitutive framework for discontinuum models that can incorporate any
common rockmass yield criterion and represents a package of approaches to handle the continuum parts and
the discontinuities in complex geotechnical problems. The Hoek-Brown yield criterion (1980, 1992, 2002)
was used for the rock mass in this project, though material properties were calibrated, rather than being
estimated using the empirical GSI scheme which was shown by calibration of models for nearby EKATI pits
to underestimate kimberlite strengths at EKATI.
 1
7MPa

(i)

1
7MPa

(ii)

Figure 2. Major Principal Stress: (i) pre mining and (ii) at current extraction state around the pit in the
current model

LR2's main features are:

‐ LR2 is a large strain, coupled hydromechanical discontinuum formulation. The continuum parts (ie, the
unfaulted rock) are modelled as a strain softening dilatant material. This means that as strain increases
the material softens, weakens and dilates. All parameters can vary at different rates with respect to strain
changes, and this allows approximation of complex stress-strain behaviour if necessary.
‐ The plastic strain potential is after Menetrey and Willam (1995). The plastic strain potential describes
the plastic strain increments resulting from increments of stress change due to yield.
‐ Discrete structures that are explicitly represented in the model are represented by contact elements
which bound continuum regions in the model. These elements allow simulation of the discrete block
movements and discontinuous deformation associated with faults or shears. In the FE formulation for
LR2, faults and shear zones are free to dislocate and dilate, the fault surfaces can dilate and degrade, and
if needed, blocks bound by contact elements may separate and roll or fall. The main benefit of the
implementation of structures in FE models using higher order elements in this way is that the mechanics
and kinematics of the contacts between solid continuous parts bounded by contact elements are very
well resolved and robustly solved; that is, the numerical solution is very stable and the representation of
the stress-strain behaviour within continuum regions need not be compromised in order to incorporate
discontinuum behaviour.
‐ Small scale structure can be represented in detailed models explicitly, or ubiquitously by smearing the
effects of the joints within the continuum parts. The global analytic scope of this project, coupled with
 the massive nature of the rock and the large number of persistent discontinuities did not require specific
inclusion of fabric properties. However the feature can be simply turned on or off.
‐ The constitutive behaviour for pore and fault fluid flow is governed by Darcy's law or Forchheimer's
law, depending on the fluid velocity. Darcy's law was used for the problem. The model allows transient
partially saturated simulation or steady state analysis. In this case steady state simulation was
undertaken.
The solution procedure is outlined fully in Simulia 2011, but in summary, the faulted porous medium is
modelled by adding a continuity equation equating the rate of increase in liquid mass stored at a point to
the rate of mass of liquid flowing into the point within the time increment. This continuity statement is
written in a variational form as a basis for finite element approximation . The liquid flow is described by
introducing Darcy's law or, alternatively, Forchheimer's law. The continuity equation is satisfied
approximately in the finite element model by using excess wetting liquid pressure as the nodal variable,
interpolated over the elements. The equation is integrated in time by using the backward Euler
approximation. The total derivative of this integrated variational statement of continuity with respect to
the nodal variables is required for the Newton iterations used to solve the nonlinear, coupled,
equilibrium and continuity equations (Simulia, 2011).
Geological domains and faults are assigned different hydrogeological and mechanical properties as part
of the calibration process, with faults having sufficiently high permeabilities to behave as discrete fluid
pathways. The higher order mesh and refinement of the model is essential to implement such a scheme.
A complete mathematical description of LR2 is summarised in Reusch and Levkovitch, 2010; Levkovitch
and Reusch, 2010

2.2 Hydrogeology
It was necessary to capture the hydrogeological complexity in the area within the FE model in order to
achieve realistic results and drive informed engineering decisions. The hydrogeology model has the
following key features:
‐ Explicit structures have a higher hydraulic conductivity (K) than the surrounding rockmass. The
kimberlite-granite contact has a higher K, based on observations from the exploration decline.
Additionally, including explicit structure with higher K values captures the hydrogeological
compartmentalisation observed at the mine.
‐ Mining-induced dilation and K have been coupled to capture the increase in K with dilation i.e. K is a
variable which is a function of strain. Both rockmass dilation, which is mining-induced damage, and
dilation on structures have been coupled with K. The latter was deemed to be of critical importance in
the kimberlite both for seasonal near surface flow and groundwater infiltration.
‐ Units were assigned K values based on measurements, or experience with similar materials from
elsewhere then adjusted during calibration to best match observations.
‐ Nearby lakes have been included to capture the impact of these on pressures and inflows to the pit
below the permafrost.
‐ The permafrost has been modelled to about 255 metres deep. It is assumed, based on site observations
that water can still flow along structures in the permafrost, albeit with a lower K.
‐ The talik below the nearest Lake has been included, with the geometry based on drill hole data. The
talik geometry is important as it connects the pit walls/floor with the sub-permafrost hydrogeologic
regime. Therefore, the talik can allow flow from depth as well as from adjacent lakes/talik zones.
‐ The active zone is a thin zone near the pit wall where water can flow. The active zone forms due to
rockmass dilation, radiant solar heating, and ambient temperatures. The active zone is probably thicker
on south facing slopes which receive more sunlight. Subsurface water flows through the active zone
from geologic structures behind the frozen pit wall. In the model the active zone is simulated by the
coupling of K and rockmass damage, which is higher at the surface in the model. Freeze-thaw cycles
 cause further deterioration of the active zone of exposed slopes but this effect is not captured in this
model.
‐ Proposed drains are simulated in the model by specifying the maximum flows or pressures in the drains.
Generally, this means specifying a very low pore pressure at the drain location. The resulting flows at
that point can be recorded and compared top measurements
The hydrogeological input parameters are subject to considerable uncertainty. The current undisturbed
parameters derived by calibration to match field observations are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Assumed undisturbed hydrogeological parameters and generic parameters for typical geological
materials.
Unit K (m/s) Specific Comments
yield
Granite 10−10 3% The granite is relatively impermeable with most water carried by
structures. The K used accounts for small scale structures (such as
joints) below the scale of the explicit structures built into the
model. It is one to two orders of magnitude higher than a typical K
for a single intact laboratory specimen due to the implicit
structures.
Structures in 10−7 10% Assumed K is 1,000 times higher than surrounding granite
granite rockmass.
RV Kimberlite 10−8 10%
T Kimberlite 1 × 10−10 1% This K accounts for small scale structures (such as joints) below
the scale of the explicit structures built into the model. It is one to
two orders of magnitude higher than a typical K for a single intact
laboratory specimen due to the implicit structures.
Structures in 10−8 3% Assumed K is 100 times higher than surrounding Kimberlite.
kimberlite
Xenoliths 2 × 10−7 20% The xenoliths have relatively high K values and are regarded as
local aquifers.
Diabase dykes 10−10 3% Assume properties same as granite.
Permafrost 0.1% K decreased by a factor of 103 within permafrost zones.

2.3 Material properties and calibration

The calibration of material properties was initially based on back analysis of the similar, nearby BBCI Koala
and Panda pits and underground mining using a similar modelling framework to that used in this project.
Two major failures in the otherwise stable pit were captured directly using the material model, and some
areas of the pit showing surface deterioration unrelated to block movements were also captured.
Figure 3 compares the FE modelled plastic strain to a photograph of the Panda pit immediately after one of
the aforementioned failures. Plastic strain is the damage and distortion in the rockmass, and as such, should
correlate well with observable material deterioration. The colouring and designation of strain levels in the
model results is based on a widely adopted standard known as the ‘common damage scale’ (Beck &
Duplancic, 2005).
A good match with stable and unstable areas is observed, particularly with respect to the extent and the
magnitude of the damage. Small areas of minor to moderate modelled damage outside the main failure also
correspond to observable changes in the real pit evidenced in the photograph.
A second modelled failure and a photograph of the Panda pit is shown in Figure 4. Again, the observable
failure is replicated by the zone of moderate to significant damage, and the location and scale of deterioration
in surface conditions outside the main failed zone is replicated. The match with the discrete zones of
deterioration is very good.
Coupled with the history of a good match between modelled results and actual behaviour at the Koala pit, the
qualitative correlation of the model was judged to be sound for purposes of this project. Ongoing
improvements are planned, using monitoring measurements from pit walls, as excavation continues.
Complete details of the material properties used in the model are included in the Appendix.

Figure 3. Modelled plastic strain and an observed early failure at a nearby EKATI pit.

Instability extent and magnitude

matched by analysis

Plastic
Strain
Significant 3.2%
Moderate 1.8%
1.0%
Minor 0.6%
0.3%
None 0.0%

Figure 4. Modelled plastic strain and sloughing at a later stage of extraction of a nearby EKATI pit.
2.4 Criteria for stability
The velocity, displacement and plastic strain at selected points on the underlying surface of previous EKATI
failures were used to establish stability criteria for interpreting model results. In previous pit models,
interpretation of the velocity, plastic strain and movement indicators for stability suggested the following
criteria as a guide:
‐ Rubblisation and mobilisation – an upper bound for instability
‐ 5-8% plastic strain
‐ Velocity >300-400mm / model step (month to quarters)
‐ Potential mobilisation defining a near-lower bound for instability due to rockmass degradation
‐ 5-8% plastic strain
‐ Velocity <300-400mm / model step
‐ Moderately damaged but stable
‐ <3-5% plastic strain
‐ Velocity <200mm / model step
At Panda pit, these criteria were used to estimate sloughing and waste entry into the sub level cave under the
pit, and over the life of the cave, the total waste ingress was accurate within 10-15%. The source of waste
was closely replicated, although the timing was difficult to match closely due to the variance between the
simulated mining schedule and the real mining sequence.

3 Engineering workflow
After calibration achieved a sufficient match between measured and modelled deformation and inflows, the
model was used to aid the design process. At each stage of the pit slope design process, results from the
calibrated FE model were used to assess stability and better understand the explicit structural, strength and
geometric interactions that contributed to wall instability potential. After results for each design were
interpreted, the pit designs were subsequently amended in an iterative fashion using the model results and the
indicated failure mechanisms as a guide to necessary modifications.
Example model results for an earlier, now superseded, pit design are shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7.
Figure 4 shows a schematic cut away view to highlight the types of hydrological information available from
the model for calibration and forecasting. To the left of the image, example fault flows are shown while on
the right, pore water pressure (PWP) isosurfaces are visible. Colours on the pit surface in this results collage
show rock mass damage.
Dislocations in the PWP isosurfaces are of interest as they indicate local drawdown and drainage of the slope
due to structures. Flux vectors on structures may also be plotted for direct comparison with inflows to the pit.
The images illustrate how the slope is dewatered by structures, but that higher flows are directed to the toe of
the slopes, as observed in the pit.. A hydrological model not accounting for these effects would not have
captured the impact of groundwater on the slope.
The nature of pit inflows in the real pit confirms the role of structures as higher flow conduits and the
calibration process for estimating properties of the materials and faults is used to ensure the observed
mechanisms are captured by the model. Key field observations such as these due to structure and the timing
and location of increased seepage through the floor or walls and the shape of the phreatic surface in the slope
that arises from the drainage along structures are used to understand hydrological impacts on the slope, and
also to check that the model is functioning correctly.
Figure 5. Cutaway view showing simulated surface damage, fault flows and pore pressure isosurfaces.

Figure 6 shows flows (arrows) and PWP (contours) for an example historic pit step. During the extraction
steps preceding the model step shown, the pit floor crossed or came close enough to the base of the
permafrost to draw more readily from the underlying layer of liquid water. A low velocity conduit to the
nearby higher PWP towards the lake was established that generated transient high fluxes that are closely
matched by the calibrated model. The initial connection occurs under the structures in the south western
(left) sector of the pit and is an example of typical data used for model calibration and validation.
The fault system connecting the lakes and the pit via the unfrozen deep pore water was foreseen for some
time and was suggested by the mine's hydrological consultants, but was a valuable test of model sufficiency,
especially for the means of simulating the effects of structure on flow. An image from the consultant report,
augmented with a model section replicating the mechanism, is also shown in the Figure 6.
Figure 7 shows an example of modelled rock mass damage and movements on a cross-section. The complex
interaction between structure, the weaker boulder zones found within the kimberlite pipe and the kimberlite
contacts is visible as a localised zone of shear damage along the boulder zone with associated heaving of the
kimberlite slope. This result is for a now superseded design, but shows how the model results can be used to
aide design modification - in this case the ramp design and push back strategy in this area were amended
over several iterations to reduce the modelled impact the interaction.
Sloughing and bench instability is an expected ongoing problem in materials of this strength in an arctic
environment, but the final pit design, after several analytic/modification iterations, appeared to delay
significant failures in the very weak kimberlite compared to earlier designs. The ultimate pit in kimberlites
is often determined by geotechnical considerations rather than economic constraints and this case is no
different; the goal is to maximise final pit depth and delay the onset of production effects from instability.
Figure 6. Schematic of the regional hydrological interactions in the model, compared to the hypothetical
mechanisms proposed by the mines hydrological consultants (Schlumberger, 2010). Note that
permafrost under the lake may be reduced, rather than absent.

4 Conclusions
Several pit FE analysis/modification iterations were conducted using a model with input properties calibrated
at nearby mines with similar materials. The previous models have matched observed and expected
hydromechanical phenomena, as well as the early pit behavior with high fidelity. The assumption, tested by
comparison of model results with field observations, is that the basic model specification is sufficient to
evaluate likely geotechnical performance of this design. Key aspects of the model were the hydromechanical
coupling, explicit fault flow, a large number of explicit discontinuities and strain softening dilatant material
behavior for the rock mass.
The mechanisms of instability and rock mass deterioration captured by the model were expected, but the
added quantitative information, and the observed interaction between different areas and the simulated
production gave insights that aided the mine's decision making during the pit design process.
The modeling of structures in granite as fluid pathways is key to the result. They transport water to the
granite kimberlite contact which can be a catalyst to larger movements. The more the faults move the more
open they become and the more water they transport. In an unfaulted hydromechanical model or a drained
model, the related mechanisms of instability would not have been possible to evaluate.
Going forward, the main effort for model improvement will be to update the calibration and to improve the
hydrological and hydrogeological model using field measurements (surface and sub-surface monitoring) and
observations made during operations. The engineering team foresees that the global nature of the result will
not change, but the resolution and certainty around forecasts will be improved, especially regarding the
timing of instability issues and the detail of the interpretation.
 DISPLACEMENTS 

DAMAGE 

Boulder zones 

Figure 7. Example model results for a now superseded design, showing instability in the toe of the slope.
Similar problems were targeted in successive iterations of the design, using the mechanisms
identified by the model as a guide to the necessary modifications.
5 References
Hoek, E., Brown E.T. (1980). Empirical strength criterion for rock masses. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering
Division 106(9): 1013-1035.
Hoek, E., Carranza-Torres, C., Corkum, B. (2002). Hoek-Brown failure criterion - 2002 edition. In Proc. 5th North
American Rock Mechanics Symposium and 17th Tunnelling Association of Canada Conference, Toronto, pp.
267–71.
Hoek, E., Wood, D., Shah, S. (1992). A modified Hoek-Brown criterion for jointed rock masses. In Hudson (ed.), Proc.
Rock Characterization, Symp. Int. Soc. Rock Mech.: Eurock ‘92, pp. 209-213.
Levkovitch, V., Reusch, F., Beck, D. (2010). Application of a non-linear confinement sensitive constitutive model to
mine scale simulations subject to varying levels of confining stress. In Zhao et al. (eds.), Rock Mechanics in
Civil and Environmental Engineering, CRC Press, pp. 161-164.
Menetrey, P., Willam, K. (1995). Triaxial failure criterion for geomaterials and its generalization. ACI Structural
Journal 92(3): 311–317.
Reusch, F., Levkovitch, V., Beck, D. (2010). Multi-scale, non-linear numerical analysis of mining induced deformation
in complex environments. In Zhao et al. (eds.), Rock Mechanics in Civil and Environmental Engineering. CRC
Press, pp. 697-700.
Schlumberger Water Services (2010). Report 7170-7, June.
Simulia (2007). Abaqus Version 6.7 Users Manual, ABAQUS, Inc., Dassault Systèmes.
Zostrich Geotechnical (2010). Letter dated 01 Feb 2010.
6 Appendix
UCS [MPa] E [Pa] v 1/a
GRANITE 131 1.78E+10 0.25 1.99
DIA01 7 1.49E+09 0.25 1.96
DIA02 15 2.18E+09 0.25 1.96
SHEAR 6 2.45E+08 0.25 1.71
FAULT 15 2.18E+09 0.25 1.96
XENO 6 2.45E+08 0.25 1.71 0.7% 
DYKE 131 1.00E+10 0.25 1.98 plastic 
strain 

Peak
ps
mb s dilation level
GRANITE 7.19 0.01174363 0.898691 0
DIA01 1.41 0.00127263 0.175979 0
DIA02 1.41 0.00127263 0.175979 0
SHEAR 0.32 4.54E-05 0.040184 0
FAULT 1.41 0.00127263 0.175979 0
XENO 0.32 4.54E-05 0.040184 0
DYKE 2.68 0.00386592 0.335354 0

Transition
ps
mb s dilation level
GRANITE 7.19 0.01174363 0.898691 0.001
DIA01 1.41 0.00127263 0.175979 0.001
DIA02 1.41 0.00127263 0.175979 0.001
SHEAR 0.32 4.54E-05 0.040184 0.001
FAULT 1.41 0.00127263 0.175979 0.001
XENO 0.32 4.54E-05 0.040184 0.001
DYKE 2.68 0.00386592 0.335354 0.001

ps
mb s dilation level
GRANITE 5.03 0.00386592 0.62879 0.007
DIA01 1.41 0.00041894 0.175979 0.007
DIA02 1.41 0.00041894 0.175979 0.007
SHEAR 0.32 4.54E-05 0.040184 0.007
FAULT 1.41 0.00041894 0.175979 0.007
XENO 0.32 4.54E-05 0.040184 0.007
DYKE 2.68 0.00013791 0.335354 0.007

Note: Dilation refers to the dilation parameter, relating to the material dilation that occurs as a consequence of yield
following over-stressing. It does not refer to the 'D' parameter used in the GSI scheme to estimate material properties