Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082

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Composites Part C: Open Access

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jcomc

Environmental benign natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites: A

review
Habib Awais a,b, Yasir Nawab b, Adnan Amjad a, A. Anjang a, Hazizan Md Akil c,∗,
M. Shukur Zainol Abidin a,∗
a
School of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Penang, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, National Textile University, 37610 Faisalabad, Pakistan
c
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Penang, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: The automotive and aerospace industries are in continuous struggle towards the development of lightweight com-
Natural fibres ponents to improve fuel efficiency. Thermoplastic matrix composites offer distinct advantages in terms of weight
Biodegradable reduction, recyclability, specific strength, corrosion resistance, cost-efficiency, and design versatility. Natural
Fabrics/textiles
fibres owing to their biodegradability, abundance in nature, and low cost not only expand the scope of these
Thermoplastic composites
materials but also curtail the dependency on petroleum-based products. This review presents a comprehensive
Mechanical properties
Fibre reinforced composites state of the art in natural fibres properties; mainly plant fibres, and their use as composite reinforcement followed
by the textile technologies used to fabricate the engineered architectures. The review also covers the properties
of commonly available thermoplastic matrices and the composite fabrication techniques to enable the selection
of the precise material and process for any specific product development. Finally, the mechanical properties of
natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites are reviewed and the key challenges that need to be dealt with
are highlighted.

1. Introduction
Within a few decades, fibrous composites have gained attention due
to the high specific strength and stiffness in the automotive and air-
craft structures compared to the conventional metal counterparts. The
fibrous composites are critical materials for weight reduction applica-
tions to improve the fuel economy in the transportation industry [1].
Fibres are usually embedded in the matrix with distinct interfaces to
fabricate the fibrous composites without compromising their identities.
The major focus of currently available review papers is on the typical
mechanical properties of fibrous composites, adhesion between the fi-
bres and matrices, or on the treatments but a comprehensive overview
of the natural fibres reinforced thermoplastics with mainly continuous
fibres has not been carried out; as per authors knowledge. Therefore,
in this review, the feasibility for broad industrial acceptance of such
composites is comprehensively explored by a thorough analysis of the
major technological considerations taken during the preparation of such
composite materials over the recent years.
Fibres are very versatile materials being used in apparel, fashion and
technical applications. Although there are various types of fibres, the fi-
bres can be broadly categorised into two types; synthetic and natural
fibres. During recent years, both synthetic and natural fibres are being
widely used to obtain smart and intelligent properties, but the focus of
the current review paper is exclusive to the natural fibres. The fabri-
cation of fibre reinforced composites prerequisites the profound knowl-
edge of the fibres to achieve the specific properties. Fig. 1 depicts a
broad overview of the classification of fibres including a few notable
fibre examples.
1.1. Natural fibres
Natural fibres have been cultivated since 2800 BC for domestic ap-
plications with limited use, but the rising concern of global warming
and depletion of petroleum resources has boosted their utilisation for
industrial ventures [4]. The excellent specific properties with a nomi-
nal cost (per Kg) of natural fibres, especially jute, hemp, flax, and kenaf
fibres, have also engendered sizable interest in their usage for struc-
tural applications [5]. Furthermore, these fibres are also biodegradable,
lightweight and renewable [6,7]. The natural fibres can be further cat-
egorised based on their origins such as animal fibres, plant fibres and
mineral fibres. The fibres obtained from animal hairs or secreted from
animals are known as animal fibres, generally, are protein-based. The
wool and silk fibres are the leading examples of animal fibres [8]. The
plant fibres are obtained from various parts of the plants. Nature has

∗
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: hazizan@usm.my (H. Md Akil), aeshukur@usm.my (M.S. Zainol Abidin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2020.100082
Received 12 August 2020; Received in revised form 3 December 2020; Accepted 4 December 2020
2666-6820/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al.
Fig. 1. Classification of the fibres [2,3]
Fig. 2. The chemical structure of cellulose, reproduced from Springer [10] un-
der the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
induced the fibres as a skeleton in plants to provide strength. These fibre
strands are bound together with other naturally occurring substances
such as cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, pectin, waxes, and gums. The
fibres are present in various parts of a plant and generally classified
based on the part of the plant from which they are extracted, such as
seed, bast, leaf and fruit. Cellulose is the main constituent of all plant fi-
bres, which is the most abundant polymer in nature. The cellulose chain
(Fig. 2) consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms [9].
1.1.1. Wool fibre
Wool fibre is among the oldest animal fibres, obtained from the hair
of various mammals, such as goat, sheep and alpaca. The major produc-
ers of wool fibres are Australia, New Zealand and China [11]. The qual-
ity of wool fibre depends on the sheep’s breed, the location on the body
and contaminants. The wool obtained from the shoulders and sides of
sheep is considered as best and fine quality while wool originating from
the legs is the most inferior quality [12]. The properties of wool fibres
depend upon the length and diameter of fibres; therefore, the wool fibre
can be classified as fine, medium, and coarse fibre. The length of the
fibre typically varies from 3.6 cm to 35 cm, and fineness varies from 10
to 70 microns. The shape of wool fibre is generally circular to elliptical
with scales or crimps (Fig. 3) on the surface [12,13].
1.1.2. Silk fibre
Silk is also among the ancient fibres known to man, produced by
the secretion of certain insects during the formation of their cocoons
or webs. These cocoons generally consist of fibroin and sericin binders.
The fibroin is a natural protein that provides strength and stiffness to the
fibre, while the sericin helps to hold the fibre structure [15]. Over the
centuries, the silk fibre has sustained its supremacy as a highly valued
textile fibre owing to its high strength, high modulus, durability, feel
and lustre. The inherent properties, comfort during summer season and
2
Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082
Fig. 3. The cross-sectional view of wool fibre, reprinted from [14] with permis-
sion from Elsevier (licence No. 4891700465227).
warmth during the winters help to make silk fibre “the queen of tex-
tiles” [16]. Silk fibre was earlier produced exclusively in China through
a secretive process. Later, Japan and India unravelled the secrecy and
started the production of silk fibre [17]. There are various types of silk
fibre, but commercial silk originated from the main type, Mulberry silk.
Silk fibre is typically generated in continuous filament form by the silk-
worm (Bombyx mori). The shape of the silk fibre is triangular and non-
uniform (Fig. 4). The fabrics made with silk fibre are generally very hy-
gienic as silk fibre is dust-proof and does not assist in bacterial growth.
The silk fibres have a variety of application areas like apparel, uphol-
stery, dietary, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, construction, and automotive
[16,18].
1.1.3. Cotton fibre
Cotton belongs to the Gossypium hirsutum L. species cultivated in
more than 50 countries around the world, among which the majority of
growing areas are in developing countries [20]. Cotton fibre is a highly
renowned seed fibre for apparel, home furnishing, and industrial appli-
cations. Pakistan, China, the United States, India, and Brazil account for
more than 80 % of cotton production around the globe [21]. Cotton fi-
bres are considered as the purest form of cellulose, with around 90 %
cellulose content [22]. These fibres are also known as breathable and
absorbent fibres due to the hollow nature of the fibres [23]. The cross-
section of cotton fibre exhibit the shape akin to beans, which become
circular upon absorption of water (Fig. 5).
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al.
Fig. 4. Cross-section of silk fibre, reprinted from Open Journal Systems [19] un-
der the GNU General Public License.
Fig. 5. The shape of cotton fibre, reprinted from Hindawi [24] under the Cre-
ative Commons Attribution License.
Cotton fibres have the inherent capacity to hold water up to 24–27
times their weight [25]. The length of cotton fibres generally ranges
from 20 to 32 mm, with micronaire value of between 3.5 to 5.5 [26].
Nowadays, organic cotton is being cultivated without the use of chemi-
cals or fertilisers, to preserve soil fertility and the environment [27].
1.1.4. Jute fibre
Jute is the second most economical and important natural fibre after
cotton, obtained from the plants of the genus Corchorus diversified to
almost 100 species [28]. Jute fibre is a bast type fibre, with the high-
est production volume compared to other bast fibres. The leading pro-
ducers of jute fibre are Bangladesh, India, Myanmar and China due to
favourable growth conditions [29]. The height of the jute plant ranges
from 2.5–5 m, and the fibre length ranges from 1–3.5 m. Water retting
process is generally used to obtain the jute fibre from the stalk of the jute
plant [30]. A single jute fibre is generally polygonal shape with round
corners (Fig. 6).
Jute fibre is mainly used in the packaging industry to fabricate
clothes, bags and sacks for transportation and storage purposes of agri-
cultural products, fertilisers, cement and chemicals [32]. Jute fibre re-
quires almost 90–120 days from cultivation to retting. Jute is a strong
and stiff fibre, although lacking in extensibility [33].
1.1.5. Hemp fibre
Hemp fibre is derived from the Cannabis sativa plant species, grown
mainly for industrial uses. Hemp is an annual herbaceous fast-growing
3
Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082
Fig. 6. Morphology of jute fibre, reprinted from [31] with permission from
Elsevier (licence No. 4890581485784).
Fig. 7. Cross-section of hemp fibre, reprinted from Hindawi [36] under the
Creative Commons Attribution License.
plant, having cheap and strong natural bast fibres. Durable, stiff and
lightweight are the attributes of hemp fibres which make them attrac-
tive not only for composite materials and wool insulation but also as
chelating materials [34]. The major application areas of hemp fibres
are textiles, construction, paper, composites, and animal bedding. The
height of the hemp plant is generally more than 3 m. The main countries
growing hemp are China, Canada, the United States, and France. Hemp
is a coarser fibre with dark colour and therefore more challenging to
bleach compared to cotton. The length of hemp fibre is generally up to
2 m. The shape of the hemp fibre is cylindrical (Fig. 7), having joints
and cracks on the fibre surface [34,35].
1.1.6. Flax fibre
Flax was the first bast fibre used to produce textiles in the West-
ern hemisphere as flax specimens were found in Switzerland and an-
cient Egypt. Flax fabric; commonly known as Linen, has gained atten-
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082

Fig. 8. Cross-section of flax fibre, reprinted from MDPI [42] under the Creative
Common CC BY License Fig. 9. Cross-section of sisal fibre, reprinted from [52] with permission from
Elsevier (licence No. 4890590862810).

tion since the Stone Age, as linen fabric was found almost 4500 years
ago [12]. Flax fibre comes from the stem of Linum usitatissimum, which
naturally grow in many temperate and subtropical regions around the
globe [37,38]. Flax is being cultivated in France, Russia, Canada, Bel-
gium, and China for the fibres and oil. The fibre length of flax fibre is
generally 90 cm achieved after the retting of flax stalks. The average
production cycle of flax fibre is 100 days and the cultivation period is
March to July [39]. The shade of the fibre depends upon the conditions
of retting (yellowish-white, grey). The pure flax fibre is soft and has a
lustrous appearance. The microscopic image (Fig. 8) of flax fibre has
revealed the cylindrical shape of cells [40,41].

1.1.7. Bamboo fibre

Bamboo is a fast-growing bast fibre in the world which can grow up
to 3 cm per hour and up to 40 m. The properties of bamboo fibres de-
pend upon the habitat, size, moisture conditions of soil and temperature.
Abundance in nature with almost 1000 species renders the bamboo fibre
as an ideal fibre for composite reinforcement [43]. Bamboo fibre is also
called as natural glass fibre owing to its high specific strength and often
deployed as an alternative of steel for tensile applications [44]. A few
species of bamboo fibre can become mature within three years, but most
of the species take almost 6 to 7 years for the maturity of the fibres [43].
The fibres are longitudinally aligned to the length of the plant, which
provides them better strength. Mechanical, chemical or combination of
both methods is often used for the extraction of the fibres. Steam explo-
sion method is considered as the best choice to achieve high strength
fibres. Bamboo fibre reinforced composites are commonly used for au-
tomotive, aerospace, protection and leisure applications [45].
1.1.8. Kenaf fibre
Kenaf is a herbaceous plant that belongs to the genus “Hibiscus” and
among the old crops in the world (4000 years old). Kenaf is also known
as wild dicotyledons plant owing to three layers of its stalk, which can
grow in ambient conditions [46]. The kenaf plant can grow with a mea-
gre amount of water, pesticides or fertilizers, and its growth cycle can be
completed within 150–189 days. The kenaf plant grows up to 1.5–4.5 m
in 4–5 months with an average fibre diameter of 67.6 μm and can yield
up to 10000 kg/acre of the kenaf fibre [47]. The absorption property of
phosphorous and nitrogen from the soil and a high rate accumulation
of CO2 has magnified the kenaf cultivation around the globe [47]. The
fibres are removed from the stalk manually or by the retting process.
India, Bangladesh, China, and Thailand are the major producer of kenaf
fibre [48]. Kenaf fibre was earlier used for papermaking but now makes
its way in FRP composites due to better mechanical properties and eco-
logical issues. The automotive, construction and furniture industries are
the leading consumer of kenaf fibre reinforced composites [47].
Fig. 10. Morphology of coir fibre, reprinted from [52] with permission from
Elsevier (licence No. 4890590862810).
1.1.9. Sisal fibre
Sisal fibres have originated in Mexico from the leaves of the Agave
sisalana plant. Sisal fibre is a coarser leave fibre and categorised as stiff
fibre [49]. Sisal plant can grow in hot and arid conditions which is of-
ten unsuitable for other crops. Sisal fibre can be harvested after two
years of cultivation, and the life span is up to a maximum of twelve
years. Most sisal fibres originated from East Africa, Haiti, Brazil, and
India. The weight of an average sisal leaf is generally 600 g, containing
around 1000 fibres [50]. The extraction of sisal fibres from the leaves
is carried out by retting, scraping, or by mechanical decortication. The
cross-section of sisal fibres (Fig. 9) depends upon plantation location
and rainfall, which vary from circular to elliptical. The length of fibre
ranges from 1–1.5 m, being extensively used for making baler, binder
twine, sacks, paper filters, marine ropes, roof tiles, carpets, automotive,
and construction materials [51].
1.1.10. Coir fibre
Coir is a fruit fibre, obtained from the outer covering or husks of the
coconuts. This fibre is commonly available in tropical areas of Indone-
sia, Philippines, Brazil, and India. The coir or coconut fibre is generally
of two colours, brown or white, depending upon the fruit maturity. Coir
fibre is coarser compared to leaf and bast fibres which limit its use for
more delicate and substantial products. The fibre surface has air-filled
cavities (Fig. 10) that hinder the water penetration, thus helps to be-

4
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al.
Fig. 11. Morphology of asbestos fibre, reprinted from [56] under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International CC BY License.
come a practical fibre for outdoor applications [53]. The coir fibre finds
its application in carpets, ropes, mats, building materials, and FRP com-
posites [54].
1.1.11. Asbestos fibre
Asbestos is a mineral fibre which is obtained from rocks. These
rocks undergo unique treatments to produce heat resistant and non-
inflammable asbestos fibre. Various silicate minerals are known as as-
bestos due to their fibrous crystalline nature. Among which; anthophyl-
lite, amphibole, and serpentine are most commonly used. Canada is the
largest producer of asbestos. Commercial asbestos is usually available in
12–300 mm length, having a smooth shape similar to glass fibre [40].
The cross-section shape of the asbestos fibre is circular or polygonal
(Fig. 11). Asbestos fibre can be obtained of any fineness as the crystals
can be subdivided further to an extent where it becomes invisible even
through an optical microscope. Asbestos is also corrosion resistant as
well as resistant to alkalies and acids, therefore, used in conveyor belts,
industrial packing materials, electrical windings and theatre curtains
[40]. However, continuous exposure to pure asbestos can cause cancer,
which has limited its use in various countries [55].
1.2. Properties of plant fibres
The mechanical properties of natural, especially plant fibres, are in-
fluenced by the chemical composition, microfibrillar angle, degree of
polymerisation, fibre surface morphology and defects. The chemical
composition differs from plant to plant, and even in different parts of the
same plant. The major components of plant fibres are cellulose, hemicel-
lulose, and lignin, along with pectin and wax as the minor constituents.
The properties of the plant fibres mainly depend upon the content of
each component. Cellulose is a natural polymer and the structural ele-
ment of plant fibres that consists of glucose units. The hydrogen bonding
among these units regulates cellulose’s crystallinity, which ultimately
contributes to the physical properties of the fibre, such as strength, sta-
bility, and stiffness. Hemicellulose is generally bounded by short chains
and embedded the cellulose as a matrix while lignin is an aromatic hy-
drocarbon that imparts rigidity. The hemicellulose content determines
the thermal properties and biodegradability of fibres, while the capacity
of moisture absorption of fibres depicts by lignin and cellulosic content
[57–59]. Table 1 shows the chemical composition of a few renowned
plant fibres.
The selection of fibres mainly depends on the inherent physical and
mechanical properties of the fibres. A significant variation was observed
5
Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082
in the properties of plant fibres among the published literature, owing to
the influence of various factors starting from production up to the pro-
cessing stage. The main elements are environmental conditions during
growth, processing techniques, fibre maturity level, and testing meth-
ods applied to measure these properties. Table 2 shows the significant
physical and mechanical characteristics of the plant fibres, along with
their world production and cost, to reach their highest potential [61].
2. Reinforcement forms for composites
Fibres in various forms (chopped or continuous) are combined with
the matrix for the fabrication of composites to provide flexibility in cost,
strength, and process requirements. The architecture generally refers to
the position of the fibres relative to a coordinate system [63]. Compos-
ites in terms of fibre alignment can be classified as 1D, 2D and 3D fibre-
reinforced composites. Conventional textile technologies, i.e. weaving,
knitting, non-woven and braiding, are commonly used to design unique
fabric architectures to serve a wide range of fabrication processes and
end-product requirements. Woven, knitted and braided fabrics are man-
ufactured using continuous fibres in the form of yarns while the non-
woven fabrics are manufactured using short fibres [64].
2.1. Woven fabrics
Weaving is the oldest and most commonly used fabric formation
technique [65]. Woven fabrics are manufactured by the interlacement
of two sets of yarns perpendicular to each other, i.e. warp yarns (length-
wise) and weft yarns (widthwise) using the conventional weaving ma-
chines. Woven fabrics have different properties depending upon the in-
terlacement pattern termed as the weave design. There is an endless
number of ways to interlace the warp and weft yarns, but plain, twill
and satin are the three basic weave designs (Fig. 12) to develop a woven
fabric [66].
The properties of the woven fabric are governed by the weave de-
sign, fabric density (number of warp and weft yarns per unit distance)
and fibre content used as raw material [65]. The basic building block
for weaving is the yarn, but the condition of the yarns obtained from
spinning is not always sufficiently good for direct weaving. Both warp
and weft yarns need to undergo different processes (termed preparatory
process) before being used on the weaving machines. The warp yarns
required extra preparation compared to weft yarns as the warp yarns
are subjected to higher stresses during the fabric formation. The weft
yarns are easier to prepare as they do not have to bear the same type
of stresses (Fig. 13). Winding is used for transferring one type of pack-
age into another which is suitable for further processes and to remove
or clear the yarn defects. Warping process converts yarns of single-end
packages from creel into a parallel sheet of yarns on a beam. Warping
also assists in attaining the required number of ends for fabric. Weaving
process requires strong, smooth and extensible yarns for fabric forma-
tion to bear the various loads of weaving machine. A polymeric pro-
tective coating is applied to the warp yarns through a sizing process to
achieve these characteristics. The main objectives of sizing are to im-
prove the strength of the yarn, to reduce the yarn hairiness, to improve
the abrasion resistance and to get the required length of yarn on the
weaver beam. After sizing, the weaver beam is prepared to be placed on
the weaving machine.
The individual warp yarns are entered (manually or automatically)
into weaving elements, i.e. droppers, heald wires (harness) and reed
(Fig. 14) termed as the drawing-in process. After drawing-in, the com-
plete set up is installed on the weaving machine. The weft yarn is in-
serted after the separation of the warp sheet by harness frames into two
layers (shedding) according to the weave design for fabric formation.
The newly inserted weft is pushed back to the woven fabric by the reed
at the fell of the cloth. Finally, the woven fabric is collected on the cloth
beam [66].
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082

Table 1
Chemical composition of plant fibres [4,29,60].

Fibre Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Pectin (%) Wax (%) Microfibrillar Angle (o )

Cotton 82–96 2–6.3 0.5–1 5–7 0.4 20–30

Jute 61–72 12–21 5–26 0.2 0.5–2 8
Hemp 68–70 22 6 0.9 0.8 6
Flax 70–73 18–20 2 0.9 6 5
Sisal 73 14 11 1.2 2 10–22
Coir 31–42 10–20 40–46 4 4 30–49

Table 2
Properties of plant fibres with their production and cost [4,7,8,61,62].

Fibre Production (103 tons) Cost ($/kg) Density (g/cm3 ) Moisture absorption (%) Tensile strength (MPa) Elongation at break (%) Young’s Modulus (GPa)

Cotton 18500 1.5–2 1.5–1.6 8.5 287–700 3–8 6–10

Jute 2500 0.8–0.9 1.3–1.5 12–17 200–800 1.5–1.8 20–55
Hemp 215 0.7–0.8 1.48–1.5 8–12 310–1100 1.6 30–60
Flax 830 0.6–0.8 1.4–1.5 7–12 345–1500 2.7–3.2 50–70
Sisal 380 0.7–0.8 1.33–1.5 11–14 80–855 2–14 9–22
Coir 100 0.5–0.8 1.2–1.25 10–13 106–220 15–30 6

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of (a) plain, (b) twill and

(c) satin.

2.2. Knitted fabrics
The second-largest and growing technique of fabric formation is knit-
ting [68] in which the continuous length of yarns is converted into a
knitted fabric (thick yet flexible) by interloping method [69,70]. Knit-
ted fabric can be produced by interconnecting the loops made by the
bending of a minimum one yarn or one set of yarn. The loops provide
comfort [71], stretchability and shape retention properties to the knitted
fabrics. Knitting technique is superior to the weaving in terms of cost,
processability, design flexibility [72] and other performance properties;
however, woven fabrics are more durable than knitted fabrics [65,69].
Knitting can generally be categorised as weft knitting or warp knitting
depending upon the direction of yarn feeding and fabric formation. In
weft knitting, the direction of yarn feeding is perpendicular to the di-

Fig. 14. Schematic representation of the weaving process,

reprinted from [67] with permission from Elsevier (licence No.
4891751458794).

6
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al.
Fig. 13. Preparation steps of yarns for weaving [66].
rection of fabric formation while in warp knitting, the direction of yarn
feeding is parallel to the direction of fabric formation (Fig. 15). Weft
knitting is a more common and diverse technique as compared to the
warp knitting due to low capital cost, less space requirement, versatil-
ity, high production, low stock requirements of yarns and quick pattern
changing facilities [65]. In general, the weft-knitted fabric can be made
using a single yarn while multiple yarns in the form of beams are re-
quired to manufacture a warp-knitted fabric.
Plain/single jersey, rib, interlock and purl are the four basic struc-
tures from which all other weft knitted structures are derived. Knit, tuck
and miss stitches (Fig. 16) are used to create various weft knitted struc-
tures [74]. Tubular and flat type of fabrics can be produced depending
upon the type of knitting machine [73,75].
2.3. Braided fabrics
Braided fabrics are produced by the interlacement of three or more
yarns diagonally to the product axis (Fig. 17). The yarns make an an-
gle of 30o –80o with the product axis during braiding, and this angle is
known as the braiding angle. The braided fabrics are developed in closed
and open structures with constant or variable cross-section depending
upon the braiding machine.
Various type of braids can be formed by varying the number of yarn
carriers (even, odd) and horn gears. Braids are used for a wide range of
applications, i.e. medical, marine, electrical and composites [78].
2.4. Non-woven fabrics
The non-woven term, according to ASTM, is defined as a textile struc-
ture made by the bonding, interlocking or both, consolidated with me-
chanical, thermal, chemical or solvent means with the exception of pa-
pers and fabrics made by weaving, knitting and tufting. Non-woven are
web or sheets (flat and porous) made directly from the fibres without
converting fibres into the yarns. There are generally two stages for the
development of non-woven fabrics; fibre preparation in a suitable form
(web or batt) and bonding to provide strength. There are enormous ways
for fibres processing and fibre bonding, which impart different proper-
ties to the final product [79,80]. Most of the non-wovens are anisotropic
owing to the random orientation of the fibres. Drylaid, wetlaid or spun-
melt techniques are commonly used to convert the fibre or polymer into
a web. Drylaid is a mechanical web formation process which consists of
the opening and carding of the fibres in the dry state through the air.
Fibres are suspended in water during the wetlaid techniques to form a
web, while continuous filaments or polymers are melted, accumulated
on a conveyor for uniform web formation during spunmelt approach.
7
Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082
Table 3
Physical and mechanical properties of polyethylene resin
[91,93].
Property Polyethylene (HDPE)
Density (g/cm3 ) 0.95–0.97
Tensile strength (MPa) 20–30
Tensile modulus (GPa) 0.9–1.1
Notched Impact strength (kJ/m2 ) 5–20
Rupture Strain (%) 100–1300
Maximum service temperature (°C) 100–120
Bonding of the fibres is considered as a primary factor to determine
the non-woven properties [81]. There are numerous ways exist for the
bonding of fibres. Mechanical bonding (needle punching, hydroentan-
glement, stitch bonding), chemical bonding and thermal bonding are the
most common methods for bonding of webs [82]. Although the strength
and stiffness of non-woven fabrics are lower compared to the woven
fabrics, they present higher deformability and energy absorption capa-
bility with low cost [78]. The fibres in woven fabrics are systematically
aligned while in non-woven, the fibres are randomly arranged. There-
fore, the prediction of properties can be relatively easy in woven fabrics.
Fibre sliding, orientation, bond failure mainly non-linear are the criti-
cal challenges encountered during non-woven fabric analysis [83]. The
major market of non-woven fabrics is wipes, hygiene and filtration.
3. Thermoplastic polymer-matrix composites
Thermoplastic polymer-matrix composites are fabricated using fully
reacted high molecular weight resins. The thermoplastic resins after
melting by heat can flow through the reinforcement during the pro-
cessing without cross-linking. Weak secondary bonds keep the molecu-
lar chains together. Thermoplastics can be processed repeatedly by re-
heating to the processing temperature and recycled directly into new
structural shapes since thermoplastics do not cross-link during process-
ing [84]. Thermoplastic composites offer better elongation and fracture
toughness, less processing time, the possibility for rapid, clean and au-
tomated production and infinite shelf life compared to thermoset com-
posites [85–87]. Various welding techniques can be deployed to join
thermoplastics quickly. However, the viscosity of thermoplastic resins
is relatively higher compared to thermosets due to the high molecular
weight of resins which provides a challenging task during the fabrica-
tion of long fibre-reinforced composites [88]. The advancements in the
field of fibres by new types of fibre developments in the last decades of
the 20th century increase the commercial availability of thermoplastic
composites. Fabrication techniques, eco-sustainability and final perfor-
mance, are the compelling reasons for the success of thermoplastic com-
posites [89]. Thermoplastic resins are further classified as commodity
plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS), and engineering plastics such as polyamide
(PA), polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and polyetherimide (PEI) [88,90].
The most widely used global plastic available today is the semi-
crystalline polyethylene (PE) produced by the polymerisation and con-
densation reactions of ethylene [91]. Polyethylene (PE) is a wax-like
thermoplastic having a density less than water and softens at about 80
°C–130 °C. The tensile strength of PE is moderate, but it is a tough ma-
terial. Typically, PE resins are translucent or opaque but can be trans-
parent in case of thin films [92]. The selection of PE resins is generally
depended upon the required physical properties (Table 3) for a specific
application.
Low cost, ease of processability, excellent electrical insulation prop-
erties, better chemical resistance, odourless and non-toxicity of PE made
them ideal candidate material for manufacturing of blow moulded prod-
ucts, packaging materials, wires, cables, sheets, films and pipes [94].
However, low softening temperature, vulnerability to oxidation and
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al.
poor scratch resistance hinders in the way of full prospective use of PE
[92].
Polypropylene (PP) is a versatile and fastest-growing class of com-
modity thermoplastics due to its compatibility with various processing
techniques. The favourable properties (Table 4) in moderate cost ren-
der them attractive for automotive, packaging, home appliances and
medical applications. Polypropylene is one of the lightest thermoplas-
tics having a density of 0.9 g/cm3 . The high strength-to-weight ratio
8
Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082
Fig. 15. Graphical representation of (a) weft knitting (b) warp knit-
ting, reproduced from [73] with permission from Elsevier (licence
No. 4892290727546).
Fig. 16. Basic types of knitted stitches (a) Knit,
(b) tuck and (c) Miss stitch, reproduced from
[76] with permission from Elsevier (licence No.
4891780246721).
Fig. 17. The basic principle of a 2D maypole braiding
machine, reproduced from [77] with permission from
Elsevier (licence No. 4940051408315).
makes PP more rigid than other polyolefins. Besides, polypropylene has
the highest melting temperature (160 °C -170 °C) and better heat resis-
tance than other low-cost thermoplastic resins [95]. PP is available in
the market in different shapes, tubes, moulded shapes, sheets, filament
yarns and fabrics. PP is resistant to the majority of organic solvents and
highly resistant to alkalies and acids up to a specific temperature. Typ-
ically, the colour of PP is opaque but can be dyed in different colours
[96].
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al.
Table 4
Physical and mechanical properties of polypropylene resin
[97,98].
Property Polypropylene (PP)
Density (g/cm3 ) 0.89–0.93
Tensile strength (MPa) 21–40
Tensile modulus (GPa) 0.1–1.6
Hardness (MPa) 60–100
Failure Strain (%) 100–300
Maximum service temperature (°C) 100–140
Table 5
Physical and mechanical properties of
PLA polymer [99–103].
Property PLA
Density (g/cm3 ) 1.25–1.36
Tensile strength (MPa) 21–70
Tensile modulus (GPa) 3.5–4.1
Hardness (MPa) 82–88
Failure Strain (%) 4–7
Melting temperature (°C) 150–175
Polypropylene and polyethylene can be processed by compression
moulding, injection moulding, blow moulding extrusion and thermo-
forming techniques to fabricate the thermoplastic composites [97,98].
Envoinmrmental safety concerns associated with petrochemical
polymers provoked the researchers to develop alternative biodegrad-
able polymers using natural resources. Poly(lactic acid) has evolved as
the most broadly used bio-polymer due to its high mechanical prop-
erties, biodegradability, better clarity and versatility compared to the
available conventional polymers [99]. PLA was synthesised in 1932 by
the heating of lactic acid under a vacuum. But low molecular weight hin-
ders its cross-sectoral adoption. Direct polymerisation and ring-opening
polymerisation are the PLA synthesis techniques that enable to achieve
high molecular weight PLA. Processing temperature, time, isomers, crys-
tallinity, and molecular weight are the primary factors that govern the
PLA polymer properties (Table 5). The physical, mechanical, and rheo-
logical properties of PLA [100] depends on its glass transition tempera-
ture (Tg).
4. Fabrication techniques for thermoplastic composites
The conversion of raw polymers into substances of preferred shape
and size is termed as the fabrication process. The softening tempera-
ture, size and shape of the product are the main attributes for the se-
lection of composite fabrication technique [104]. The flowing, shaping
and hardening of resin are the three primary phases, entail during the
fabrication of thermoplastic composites. Injection moulding, compres-
sion moulding, resin transfer moulding, extrusion, melt electrospinning,
filament winding, vacuum infusion and pultrusion are among the fab-
rication techniques used to manufacture thermoplastic composites, but
continuous fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites are mainly fabri-
cated using the compression moulding, resin transfer moulding, filament
winding, pultrusion and vacuum infusion techniques.
4.1. Compression moulding
Compression moulding is among the oldest materials processing
techniques compatible with producing small as well as large and com-
plex parts. The basic principle of the compression moulding is the heat-
ing of thermoplastic resin under pressure within a closed mould cavity
until curing (Fig. 18). By the compression moulding, a variety of com-
posite products are manufactured by placing the raw materials in pallets
form or composite compounds in a closed mould cavity and applying the
heat and pressure. Temperature, pressure and duration (holding time)
9
Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082
are the critical parameters during compression moulding, which prevail
in the performance of the fabricated products. The selection of moulding
temperature depends upon the melting temperature of the polymer ma-
trix with concomitant consideration of fibre degradation temperature.
If the selected temperature is less than the desired value, the wetting of
the fibres will not be adequate, and in contrast, high temperature may
affect the fibre properties by degradation.
The pressure is also a crucial parameter during the compression
moulding as it helps to improve the interfacial bonding of the matrix
and fibres [106]. However, the hollow fibre structure may be damaged
by the high pressure resulting in inferior mechanical properties [107].
Another critical parameter during the compression moulding is the time
of application for the temperature and pressure. Compression mould-
ing leads the other moulding techniques in terms of cost, material con-
sumption and production rate [108,109]. The main advantages of the
compression moulding technique are the high production, product con-
sistency, less post-production scrap and better dimensional control but
expensive equipment requirements and the design restrictions are a few
shortcomings of this technique [97,110].
4.2. Resin transfer moulding
Resin transfer moulding (RTM) is a well developed liquid injection
process and viable alternative to the autoclave process, which is com-
mercially deployed in the 1970s [111]. A low viscosity pre-heated resin
is injected into the dry reinforcement preform placed inside a closed
mould [112]. Usually, the injection pressure is kept in the range of 0.4
to 1 MPa to achieve better impregnation of the matrix into the reinforce-
ment. The resin is cured under pressure to achieve the desired shape of
the preform [113]. The components fabricated using the RTM process
have an excellent finish on both surfaces, a lesser amount of defects, and
governable dimensions owing to closed mould. RTM requires low tool-
ing cost and clamping arrangements compared to compression mould-
ing. Door pillars, rudder tips, ribs, and stiffed panels of aeroplanes are
being manufactured using the RTM method [114].
4.3. Filament winding
Filament winding is one of the potential composite fabrication tech-
niques due to high accuracy in fibre positioning, high fibre volume frac-
tion, low void content and process automation. The resin-impregnated
fibres are consolidated around a rotating mandrel shape with a geomet-
ric path and tension during the filament winding that creates a struc-
tural solid of revolution. Filament winding is commonly used to fabri-
cate the pressure vessels, aircraft fuselage, and rocket engines for aero-
nautical, marine and automotive industries. Winding angle, wall thick-
ness and filament winding pattern are among the key parameters during
the filament winding process [115,116]. High repeatability, low process
and material cost compared to pre-peg materials and the possibility to
achieve high fibre volume fractions are the main advantages of filament
winding. However, the fabrication of complex shapes needs additional
cost of mandrel designing as the mandrel is an indispensable and ex-
pensive part for filament winding. The surface quality is also inferior
compared to autoclave parts [117].
4.4. Pultrusion
The pultrusion is a highly automated continuous and cost-effective
process [116] for engineering composite solid or hollow profiles like flat
bars, channels, pipes, tubing, rods, etc. The preheated fibres are hauled
through the impregnated apparatus for wetting and passed through a
cooling die by a puller to achieve the required shape, size and finish
[118]. At the end, a pelletising system is used to cut the composites
into final products. Although good dimensional tolerance, high fibre
volume fractions, excellent reinforcement alignment, precise control of
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al.
resin and fibre and low scrap rates make the pultrusion as an ideal pro-
cess for composite manufacturing, it requires a high initial investment
and skilled labour [97].
4.5. Vacuum infusion
Vacuum infusion is a composite fabrication technique which used
vacuum pressure to drive the resin into a laminate. The resin in liquid
form is firstly injected into a mould cavity, and then vacuum pressure is
applied to assist the resin flow into the reinforcement [119]. The high
melt viscosity of thermoplastic resin hiders their use in vacuum infusion
technique but nowadays the engineered polymers such as polyamide-
12 (PA-12 using the laurolactam monomer system), polyamide-6 (PA-6
using the caprolactam system and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT us-
ing cyclic oligomer precursors, known as CBT) have made it possible to
fabricate thermoplastics by vacuum infusion process at elevated mould
temperatures. However, the recent development of novel reactive TP
resins such as Arkema’s acrylic-based Elium® also provides a way to de-
velop thermoplastic composites at room temperature [120]. The main
attributes of vacuum infusion are better fibre-resin ratio, lower capi-
tal investment, less resin utilisation, superior quality products owing to
fewer voids and consistency in resin utilisation [121]. Slow cycle time,
high consumable costs, surface finish, gelation of resin before impregna-
tion for large structures, difficulty in achieving the vacuum and limited
vacuum pressure possibilities are the major challenges of vacuum infu-
sion technique [122].
The high-quality composite components, mainly for aerospace ap-
plications, are also fabricated using the autoclave moulding process. Al-
though the autoclave process provides consistent materials with high
fibre loads, the high cost of the autoclave process hinders its use for
the fabrication of natural fibre reinforced composite parts having low
or medium strength [123,124].
5. Mechanical properties of NFR thermoplastic composites
Mechanical properties are one of the major concerns of natural fibre
reinforced (NFR) thermoplastic composites. The mechanical properties
mainly depend on the fibre properties [125], matrix properties, ratio
of fibre and matrix in composite, fibre matrix adhesion, geometry and
orientation of fibre in the composite [126]. The adhesion of fibre and
matrix plays a vital role in the mechanical properties of NFR composites.
The better impregnation of the matrix into the fibres can improve the
adhesion. The impregnation of the matrix is usually achieved by using a
low viscosity matrix or lessening the matrix melt flow distance [86,127].
Tensile, flexural, impact and short beam shear strength are among the
significantly important mechanical properties for such composites.
10
Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082
Fig. 18. The basic principle of the compression moulding tech-
nique, reprinted from [105] with permission from Elsevier (li-
cence No. 4934691410841).
5.1. Tensile properties
Tensile properties are among the most critical mechanical properties
for the structural design of composites. Tensile properties show the be-
haviour of composites when a load is applied in tension. Tensile tests
are conducted to check the ability of materials to withstand or deform
under tensile loads. Tensile tests are crucial to determine the tensile
strength, modulus, elongation at yield and break of the tested materi-
als. These parameters assist in assessing the suitability of a material for
specific applications [126]. The addition of fibres generally improves
the properties of the polymer matrices owing to the reinforcing effect
of the fibres; therefore, the impact of fibre content on composite tensile
properties is gaining the significant interest of the researchers [128–
131].
The literature has provided various techniques such as chemical
treatments, post-curing, sandwitching and additive or fillers addition, to
enhance the tensile properties of NFR thermoplastics [155]. Moreover,
the improvement of tensile properties of composites by the addition of
micro and nanofillers has been well documented [166–169]. Various or-
ganic and inorganic fillers are often incorporated to FRP composites to
ameliorate their properties [154,170,171]. Hollow glass microspheres
(HGM) have emerged as preferable fillers for fabricating lightweight
composites along with other natural fibres to improve the performance
of composites [172–174].
Process parameters such as heating temperature, compressive pres-
sure, and curing time are the key parameters during the fabrication of
thermoplastic composites using compression moulding technique and
should be optimised to attain better tensile properties [175]. The direc-
tion of fibres to the applied stress also plays a vital role during the tensile
testing. The unidirectional (UD) structures are considered as preferable
structures for uniaxial load-bearing applications [176]. Yarn twist also
influences the tensile properties as a higher yarn twist diminishes the
tensile properties of the thermoplastic composite due to the obliquity
effect and restricting the penetration of resin into the yarns [177].
Fabric architecture is also a compelling factor for the performance
properties of composites. Researchers have studied the tensile proper-
ties of the woven and knitted laminates and found that woven laminates
offer better tensile strength but less elongation compared to the knit-
ted laminates. Among woven laminates, the laminates with weave pat-
tern having fewer undulations, such as twill and satin, provided higher
strength [178,179].
The reported tensile properties of natural fibre reinforced thermo-
plastic laminates are listed in Table 6.
The major shortcoming of the thermoplastic composites is the high
melt viscosity of the thermoplastic resins (100 Pa.s to 1000 Pa.s) which
impedes their performance properties. Commingling techniques are the
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082

Table 6
Tensile properties of natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites

Reinforcement Matrix Reinforcement architecture Fabrication technique Tensile strength (MPa) Tensile modulus (GPa) Reference

Flax PP UD fabric Compression moulding 26 1.6 [132]

Jute PP Woven Compression moulding 45.4 4.8 [133]
Sisal PP Woven Compression moulding 52.7 6.5 [133]
Sugar palm Polyurethane Short fibres Compression moulding 9.89–18.42 0.9–1.3 [134]
Sugar palm Polyurethane Short fibres Compression moulding 6–9 0.3–0.9 [135]
Jute PLA Woven Compression moulding 69.3 9 [133]
Sisal PLA Woven Compression moulding 64.1 9.9 [133]
Jute PLA Short fibres Compression moulding 42.6 - [136]
Flax Polyamide 11 UD fabric Compression moulding 45 1.1 [132]
Flax Elium RT 150 UD fibres Compression moulding 243.8 27.6 [137]
Flax PP Short fibres Injection moulding 30.3–38.9 3.5–5.1 [138,139]
Jute PP UD fibres Comression moulding 145 23.1 [140]
Flax PP UD fibres Compression moulding 23.05–26.7 30.9 [141]
Flax PP Friction spun hybrid yarn Compression moulding 80–128 8–15 [142]
Hemp Polyurethane Short fibres Compression moulding 15–30 0.4–0.65 [143]
Hemp PP Short fibres Injection moulding 25.5–46 1.5–5.7 [144,145]
Flax PP Short fibres Injection moulding 40.1–44.1 5.1–5.7 [144]
Sisal PP Short fibres Injection moulding 38–40.8 4.7–5.2 [144]
Hemp PP Short fibres Compression moulding 16–24.2 0.7–2.23 [146]
Hemp HDPE Short fibres Compression moulding 18.7–60.2 0.3–2.3 [147]
Hemp PP Non-woven commingled fabric Compression moulding 40.7-51.7 6.6-7.8 [148]
Flax PP Non-woven commingled fabric Compression moulding 11.6–143.4 1.82–8.7 [148,149]
Jute PP Commingled yarn Compression moulding 53.06–68.2 2.55–3.27 [150]
Flax PP Woven commingled fabric Compression moulding 20–30 2.3–3.8 [151]
Flax PLA Woven commingled fabric Compression moulding 8–11 3.1–3.5 [151]
Jute PLA Short fibres Compression moulding 151–205 5.2–8 [152]
Hemp PLA Short fibres Compression moulding 51–75.5 3.5–8.2 [153]
Kenaf/MWCNT PP Short fibres Injection moulding 23.44 1.86 [154]
Flax/TSP Elium® Short fibres/particles VARTM 42.5–45.8 3.9–4.3 [155]
Bamboo/HGM PP Short fibres/particles Injection moulding 42.4–48.6 0.9–1.49 [156]
Hemp/ silver nanoparticles PLA Particles/particles Injection moulding 50–65 3.2–4.3 [157]
HGM PP Particles Injection moulding 8.7–10.2 1.03–1.3 [158]
Piassava/HGM PP Short fibres/particles Injection moulding 18.2–33.2 1.04–2.05 [159]
Flax PP Non-woven fabric Compression moulding 21.3–56.4 2.9–6.5 [160]
Flax PP Interwoven fabric Compression moulding 7.6–71.2 0.88–5.8 [161]
Flax PP Non-woven fabric Compression moulding 32–80 1.2–1.7 [162]
Flax PP Woven fabric/commingled yarns Compression moulding 46.3–92.42 4.3–10.71 [163]
Flax PP Non-woven commingled fabric Compression moulding 27–62 1.2–5.5 [164]
Bamboo PLA Woven fabric Compression moulding 56.51–83.09 3.72–6.1 [165]

practical solution to overcome the viscosity issue [180]. Reinforcement
and matrix constituents are mixed at fibre, yarn or fabric level to reduce
the flow distance and to improve the wetting or impregnation of the
reinforcing fibres, which significantly improved the tensile properties.
The mixing is generally carried out by spinning, twisting, weaving, non-
woven, braiding techniques [181,182,191,183–190].
5.2. Flexural properties
Three-point bending test is commonly used to determine the flexural
properties of the laminates. During this test, a loading nose bends the
specimen at a set span and crosshead speed until fracture. The lower sur-
face of the specimen is under tension while the upper surface is subjected
to the compression during this test method [192]. The fibre orienta-
tion, stacking sequence, fibres waviness and mould temperature are the
significant factors that control the flexural behaviour of the laminates
[193,194]. The magnitude of fibre loading also affects the flexural prop-
erties of laminates [195,196]. The void content also adversely affect the
flexural properties of laminates [197].
The addition of fillers has improved the flexural strength and modu-
lus, depending upon the adhesion between the fillers and matrices [198–
200]. By the addition of fillers, the stiffness and the interfacial area
of contact of the composites increased, which ultimately improved the
flexural properties (Table 7). The addition of HGM has significantly im-
proved the bending strength by the addition of 10 % HGM by weight, but
the further increment in HGM loading decreases the bending strength
characteristics [201,202].
The manufacturing technology of reinforcement plays a crucial role
in the flexural properties of the laminates. The commingled twill fabric
cross-ply laminates have improved (25 %) the flexural strength [206].
5.3. Impact properties
The material’s ability to absorb energy under a sudden load of var-
ious velocities is known as materials impact strength [207]. The com-
posite materials are subjected to different types of impact solicitation
during their service life. Therefore, the behaviour of composites under
various loads needs to be perceived. Depending upon the velocity, the
impact is generally classified as low (˂10 m/s), medium (50-200 m/s)
and high-velocity (200-5000 m/s) impact [208].
The thermoplastic composites’ capacity to absorb energy makes them
attractive to many applications, especially the automotive industry.
However, the internal damage caused by specific loads such as crash
strikes, tool drop, stone and bird strikes, renders them extremely weak
[209]. The impacts of low velocity on composite materials are consid-
ered a severe threat as a visual surface assessment cannot detect such im-
pacts. The low-velocity impacts may lead to internal damage by break-
age of fibres or by cracking of matrices and acutely reduce composite
materials’ load-bearing capability [210]. Thus, the behaviour of compos-
ite after these impacts (LVI) need to be understood to avoid catastrophic
failure [211,212].
The impact properties of natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic lam-
inates are summarised in Table 8.
Fabric architecture and resin system are the primary factors for im-
proving the impact resistance of composites [224] whereas, hygrother-

11
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082

Table 7
Flexural properties of natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites

Reinforcement Matrix Reinforcement architecture Fabrication technique Flexural strength (MPa) Flexural modulus (GPa) Reference

Flax PP Short fibres Injection moulding 50.4–57 3.5–4.4 [139]

Flax PLA Knitted fabric Compression moulding 3.29–10.9 - [203]
Flax PP Friction spun hybrid yarn Compression moulding 95–145 9–17 [142]
Hemp Polyurethane Short fibres Compression moulding 26.76 0.77 [143]
Hemp PLA Woven fabric Compression moulding 77.9–118.7 6.1–7.6 [204,205]
Hemp PP Short fibres Compression moulding 28–50 0.8–1.9 [146]
Hemp HDPE Short fibres Compression moulding 32.6–44.6 1.05–2.4 [147]
Jute PP Commingled yarn Compression moulding 53.34–75.28 2.7–4.5 [150]
Jute PLA Short fibres Compression moulding 180–225 10.5–15 [152]
HGM PP Particles Injection moulding - 0.96–1.3 [158]
Piassava/HGM PP Short fibres/particles Injection moulding 28.3–59.2 1.0–2.1 [159]
Flax PP Inter-woven fabric Compression moulding 15.99–40.06 0.62–8.4 [161]
Flax PP Non-woven fabric Compression moulding 30–75 1.5–6.2 [162]
Flax PP Non-woven Commingled Compression moulding 29.3–138.9 1.46–8.38 [149]
Flax PP Non-woven commingled fabric Compression moulding 20–72 1.9–9.25 [164]
Bamboo PLA Woven fabric Compression moulding 113–131 3.73–4.55 [165]

Table 8
Impact properties of natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites

Reinforcement Matrix Reinforcement architecture Fabrication technique Impact strength (kJ/m2 ) Absorbed energy (J) Reference

Flax PP Non-woven fabric Compression moulding 27–55 2.45 [162,213]

Flax PP Short fibres Injection moulding 3.19–7.53 - [139]
Flax PP Woven fabric Compression moulding - 2.04–2.45 [213]
Flax PP UD fabric Compression moulding 3–29 2.08–2.21 [213,214]
Hemp PLA Woven fabric Compression moulding 16–29.3 [215,204]
Hemp HDPE Short fibres Compression moulding 27.3–51.1 - [147]
Jute PP Commingled yarn Compression moulding 2–24 - [150]
Flax PP Short fibres Injection moulding 7.1–8.1 - [144]
Sisal PP Short fibres Injection moulding 5.6–7.3 - [144]
Hemp PP Short fibres Injection moulding 6.9–10.0 - [144]
Jute PLA Short fibres Compression moulding 36.5–60 - [152]
Hemp PLA Short fibres Compression moulding 1.5–2.64 - [153]
Sugar Palm Polyurethane Short fibres Compression moulding 7–16 - [216]
Flax PLA UD fabric Compression moulding 3.8–20.4 - [214]
Flax Polyoxymethylene UD fabric Compression moulding 8–186 - [214]
Flax PLLA Woven fabric Compression moulding - 2.5–8 [217]
Jute PP Short fibres Injection moulding 2.25–22.7 - [218]
Jute PP Woven fabric Compression moulding 7.3–14.5 - [130]
Jute PP Non-woven commingled Compression moulding 7.5–17.5 15–32.5 [219]
Jute PLLA Woven fabric Compression moulding 14.3–18.1 - [220]
Jute PLLA Non-woven fabric Compression moulding 12.98 - [220]
Piassava/HGM PP Short fibres/particles Injection moulding 1.2–110 - [159]
Bamboo/HGM PP Short fibres/particles Injection moulding 2.98–6.05 - [221,156]
CaCO3 PP Particles Injection moulding 7.7–11.5 - [222]
HGM PP Particles Injection moulding 6.05–6.61 - [222]
Cotton PP Commingled yarn Compression moulding 8.2–23.5 - [223]

mal conditions, stacking sequence [225], fibre hybridisation, matrix hy-
bridisation, impactor geometry (size, shape, and mass) [226] and re-
peated impact are secondary factors. UD structures have exhibited poor
impact properties compared to woven laminates [215,227]. Weave pat-
tern has also influenced the impact strength as twill fabric laminates
have absorbed more energy compared to plain fabric laminates owing
to less fibre pull out [178]. Commingled non-woven structures have ex-
hibited the highest absorbed energy, with 30 % fibre volume fraction
[228].
The improvement in impact properties of laminates is witnessed by
the incorporation of nano [154] and micro fillers [167,171] if interfacial
adhesion is excellent between the fillers and matrices. Laminates with
10 % HGM by weight have shown a decrement in impact strength due
to weak bonding [156].
tions. Thus, the short-beam shear (SBS) test is often conducted by the
research community to thoroughly examine the delamination, owing
to lower required material, no pre-requisite obligation and ease of em-
ployment [229]. The effect of mould temperature on interlaminar shear
strength of woven fabrics has been studied, revealing that the mould
temperature of 180 °C has witnessed the highest interlaminar shear
strength [230]. Similarly, the cooling rate also affects the ILSS as slow
cooling is beneficial for getting better ILSS values in laminates [231].
The reported ILSS strength of natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic
laminate is listed in Table 9.
The treatment of fibres can significantly improve the ILSS of lam-
inates. The plasma treatment of fibres has enhanced the ILSS up to a
certain limit by increasing the surface roughness [239]. Another study
revealed that ILSS of composites has significantly reduced after quench-
ing treatment, but hardly improved after annealing [240].

5.4. Interlaminar shear properties

6. Applications of natural fibre thermoplastics
The interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) is a matrix dominated prop-
erty and mainly characterised to determine the delamination behaviour The automotive, marine, aerospace, sporting goods and electronic in-
of composite structures as delamination is one of the critical solicita- dustries are the main areas in which natural fibre-reinforced composites

12
H. Awais, Y. Nawab, A. Amjad et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 4 (2021) 100082

Table 9
ILSS strength of natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites

Reinforcement Matrix Reinforcement architecture Fabrication technique ILSS (MPa) Reference

Hemp Polyurethane Short fibres Compression moulding 4–6.59 [143]

Lyocell PP Short fibres Compression moulding 9–15 [232]
Lyocell PLA Short fibres Compression moulding 7–18 [232]
Jute LDPE Woven fabric Compression moulding 5.1–11.1 [233]
Jute HDPE Woven fabric Compression moulding 5.8–16.8 [234]
Flax PP Woven fabric Compression moulding 8.5–10.5 [235]
Lyocell/lignin PLA Short fibres/particles Compression moulding 10.4–114 [236]
Flax Polyurethane Woven fabric RTM 22–27 [237]
Flax PP Non-woven fabric Compression moulding 23–43.5 [238]

are evolving very rapidly as a replacement for metal or ceramic-based
materials. Although natural fibres have witnessed better specific prop-
erties, a large extent of variation is witnessed in the properties. Many
automotive parts are already being manufactured using natural fibre
(hemp, flax, jute and sisal fibres) composites along with polypropylene
matrix. The use of natural fibres in the industry is motivated not by
technological criteria but by size, lightweight and marketing. Germany
is the leading producer of composites of natural fibres. For interior and
exterior applications, natural composites are used by German automo-
tive manufacturers such as Audi, Mercedes Benz or Volkswagen. The
main drivers of using natural fibre composites in automotive industry
are low weight, low cost, high specific strength and stiffness. The low
weight of composites helps to improve the fuel efficiency and to reduce
the carbon footprint. Furthermore, natural fibres also assist to achieve
better comfort by absorbing the moisture and maintaining the humidity
inside the automotive. Composite based on jute fibres are currently used
as indoor components in housing but can be used for structural applica-
tions as well. Nonabrasive nature of these fibres also makes them safer
for the tooling equipment and for the passengers during the collision
or crash compared to the glass fibres [241,242]. The composites made
by coir fibres are utilised for making casings of mirrors, roof, helmets,
voltage stabilisers and projector covers. Natural fibre composites for in-
terior panelling are also used by the aircraft industry [243,244]. Despite
the potential and promise alternative of synthetic fibres, natural fibres
have certain challenges which limit their applications. Low moisture
resistance, large properties variation and low thermal stability along
with susceptibility of microorganisms and environmental degradation
hinder their utilisation as viable composites. The hydrophilic nature of
these fibres also creates problem for adhesion between fibres and ma-
trices. Further, the distinct gap between fibre degradation temperature
and composite fabrication temperature is also a critical challenge for the
researchers [245,246].
7. Perspectives
Lightweight, low cost, less density and abundant availability in na-
ture make the natural fibres an ideal candidate for the automotive and
aerospace industry. Biodegradability and sustainability further enhance
the use of these fibres to save the ecosystem from the harmful effects
of synthetic materials. The research, so far, demonstrates the utilisation
of natural fibres as a suitable reinforcement for thermoplastic composite
materials for the sustainable and ecological perspective. However, some
fundamental and technological problems must be dealt with to make full
use of these fibres.
The natural fibre-reinforced thermoplastics currently available are
based primarily on short fibres since most thermoplastic resins have a
high melt viscosity which hinders the proper impregnation of the ma-
trix with the fibres. Therefore, new methods using continuous fibre are
required to grow the proportion of thermoplastic composites in struc-
tural applications. The flow distance during impregnation must be min-
imised to overcome this problem. Partially impregnated materials such
as commingled yarns, thermoplastic film stacking and fibre bundles with
thermoplastic powder, has enable significant reduction of the flow dis-
tance. Very limited studies have explored the use of these partially im-
pregnated materials probably owing to limited developments of such
systems. The use of commercially viable methods such as weaving and
knitting may provide a promising route to fabricate such intermediate
materials. The knitting process may be an effective way to produce such
intermediate materials more efficiently.
The other critical issue in developing continuous fibre reinforced
thermoplastic composites is the chemical nature of reinforcing fibres
and matrices, which hinders the proper adhesion. Specific chemical
treatments are mandatory to maintain proper adhesion between fibres
and resin, but the treatments adversely affect the mechanical proper-
ties. Therefore, the optimised level needs to be maintained to achieve
specific properties.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to National Textile University, Pakistan,
for providing financial assistance under “faculty development program”
and Universiti Sains Malaysia under FRGS 203/PAERO/6071410.
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.jcomc.2020.100082.
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