Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908

www.elsevier.com/locate/mechmat

A continuum damage model for composite laminates:

Part I – Constitutive model
P. Maimı́ a, P.P. Camanho b,*
, J.A. Mayugo a, C.G. Dávila c

a
AMADE, Escola Politècnica Superior, Universitat de Girona, Girona, Spain
b
DEMEGI, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
c
NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA 23681, USA

Received 21 March 2006; received in revised form 9 December 2006

Abstract

A continuum damage model for the prediction of the onset and evolution of intralaminar failure mechanisms and the
collapse of structures manufactured in fiber-reinforced plastic laminates is proposed. The failure mechanisms occurring in
the longitudinal and transverse directions of a ply are represented by a set of scalar damage variables. Crack closure effects
under load reversal are taken into account by using damage variables that are established as a function of the sign of the
components of the stress tensor. Damage activation functions based on the LaRC04 failure criteria are used to predict the
different failure mechanisms occurring at the ply level.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fracture mechanics; Continuum damage mechanics; Composite materials

1. Introduction of steps known as the building block approach

The methodology for designing high-perfor-
mance structures of composite materials is still
evolving. The complexity of the response of com-
posite materials and the difficulty in predicting
structural modes of failure result in the need for a
well-planned test program. The recommended prac-
tice to mitigate the technological risks associated
with such materials is to substantiate the perfor-
mance and durability of the design in a sequence
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 225081753; fax: +351
225081315.
E-mail address: pcamanho@fe.up.pt (P.P. Camanho).
(BBA) (MIL-HDBK-17-3F, 2002). The BBA
ensures that cost and performance objectives are
met by testing greater numbers of smaller less
expensive specimens, assessing technology risks
early in the program, and building on the knowl-
edge acquired at a given level of structural complex-
ity before progressing to a level of more complexity.
Achieving substantiation of structural perfor-
mance by testing alone can be prohibitively expen-
sive because of the number of specimens and
components required to characterize all loading
conditions. BBA programs can achieve significant
cost reductions by seeking a synergy between testing
and analysis. The more the development relies on
analysis, the less expensive it becomes.

0167-6636/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mechmat.2007.03.005
898 P. Maimı́ et al. / Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908
The use of advanced analytical or numerical
models for the prediction of the mechanical behav-
ior of composite structures can replace some of
the mechanical tests and can significantly reduce
the cost of designing with composites while provid-
ing to the engineers the information necessary to
achieve an optimized design.
Strength-based failure criteria are commonly
used to predict failure in composite materials. A
large number of continuum-based criteria have been
derived to relate stresses and experimental measures
of material strength to the onset of failure (Soden
et al., 1998; Dávila et al., 2005; Pinho et al., 2004).
Failure criteria predict the onset of the different
damage mechanisms occurring in composites and,
depending on the material, the geometry and the
loading conditions, may also predict final structural
collapse.
For composite structures that can accumulate
damage before structural collapse, the use of failure
criteria is not sufficient to predict ultimate failure.
Simplified models, such as the ply discount method,
can be used to predict ultimate failure, but they can-
not represent with satisfactory accuracy the quasi-
brittle failure of laminates that results from the
accumulation of several failure mechanisms.
The study of the non-linear response of quasi-
brittle materials due to the accumulation of damage
is important because the rate and direction of dam-
age propagation defines the damage tolerance of a
structure and its eventual collapse. To model the
phenomena of damage propagation, non-linear con-
stitutive models defined in the context of the
mechanics of continuum mediums have been devel-
oped and implemented in finite elements codes in
recent years. The formalism of the thermodynamics
of irreversible processes is a rigorous framework
from which the constitutive models can be
developed.
The simplest way to describe damage is using a
single scalar damage variable, as proposed by
Kachanov (1958). Damage can be interpreted as
the creation of microcavities, and the damage vari-
ables as a measure of the effective surface density
of the microdefects. Such a mechanical interpreta-
tion of damage assumes that the loads are resisted
only by the undamaged ligaments in the material.
The stresses ð~rÞ in the ligaments, referred to as effec-
tive stresses, continue to increase until all ligaments
are severed and the material has failed.
The tensorial representation of damage is a for-
mal and general procedure to represent the direc-
tionality of microcracks, which can take any
direction in a medium depending on the load his-
tory, geometry, boundary conditions, and material
properties. After Kachanov’s pioneering work, sev-
eral damage models have been developed that
describe damage as a second order tensor (Chab-
oche, 1995; Carol et al., 2001a,b; Luccioni and
Oller, 2003) or as a fourth order tensor (Ortiz,
1985; Simo and Ju, 1987a,b). Second order tensors
describe an initially isotropic material as an ortho-
tropic one when damage evolves, whereas fourth
order tensor models can remove all material symme-
tries and provide a more general procedure to simu-
late damage (Cauvin and Testa, 1999).
The application of continuum damage models in
orthotropic or transversely isotropic materials, such
as fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP), results in addi-
tional difficulties. The nature and morphology of
the material induces some preferred directions for
crack growth, i.e., crack orientations are not only
induced by the loads, geometry and boundary con-
ditions, but also by the morphology of the material.
The interface between fiber and matrix is weaker
than the surrounding material and interfacial deb-
onding is normally the first damage mechanism to
occur. Furthermore, residual thermal stresses occur
in the composite plies due to different coefficients of
thermal expansion of the fiber and matrix (micro-
mechanical residual thermal stresses) and due to
the different coefficients of thermal expansion in
the longitudinal (fiber) and transverse (matrix)
directions (macromechanical residual thermal
stresses).
Multiscale models and mesomodeling are two
approaches used to evaluate the elastic and inelastic
response of a material. Using homogenization laws,
multiscale models define relations between a meso-
scale, normally the scale of the finite elements,
where material is considered homogeneous, and
the microscale, which is the scale of the fiber and
matrix constituents. The constitutive models are
defined at the microscale, and the strain and stress
fields at the microscale and the mesoscale are related
via transformation field tensors (Chaboche et al.,
2001; Fish and Yu, 2001; Fish et al., 1999; Voyiadjis
and Deliktas, 2000; Car et al., 2002), or solved using
finite elements (Car et al., 2002; Oller et al., 2005).
To reduce the amount of computations that need
to be performed, periodicity of the material is
invoked.
Mesomodeling is an alternative way to define
damage models for composite materials that is more
 P. Maimı́ et al. / Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908 899

appropriate for large scale computations. Meso- and the comparison between the model predictions
models treat the composite lamina (Ladevèze and experimental data.
et al., 2000; Barbero and Lonetti, 2001; Barbero
and Devivo, 2001; Matzenmiller et al., 1995; Oller
2. Mechanisms of damage and fracture in laminated
et al., 1995) or sub-laminate (Williams et al., 2003)
composites
as a homogeneous material. When diffuse damage
localizes in a narrow band and becomes a macro-
The model proposed in this work predicts
crack, the response is dominated by the crack tip
intralaminar failure mechanisms in laminated
and its ability to dissipate energy. On the other
composites: matrix cracking and fiber fracture.
hand, the material morphology, which is the main
Intralaminar failure mechanisms trigger structural
basis of homogenization techniques, loses impor-
collapse of unidirectional laminates almost immedi-
tance due to the loss of periodicity. Therefore, in
ately. In matrix-dominated failure modes, laminate
structures exhibiting stable crack propagation, i.e.,
collapse occurs as soon as a matrix crack is created.
when the macrocrack length does not increase under
Failure of unidirectional laminates loaded in the
constant load, mesomodeling is more appropriate to
longitudinal (fiber) direction results from the accu-
predict the structural collapse than multiscale
mulation of fiber fractures (Rosen, 1964).
models.
However, multidirectional laminates can sustain
The main objective of the present paper is to
increasing amounts of intralaminar failure mecha-
develop a continuum damage model able to repre-
nisms before structural collapse occurs. Considering
sent the quasi-brittle fracture of laminated compos-
the multidirectional laminate as a representative
ite structures, from the onset of non-critical failure
volume element, the intralaminar failure mecha-
mechanisms up to final structural collapse.
nisms can be regarded as damage mechanisms, i.e.
The majority of the material properties required
distributed microcracks in a laminate whose tangent
by the present model can be measured using stan-
stiffness tensor is positive definite. When the tangent
dard test methods. Most of these properties can be
stiffness tensor of the laminate ceases to be positive
obtained from ply-based test methods. The use of
definite, a macrocrack is formed and structural col-
ply properties, rather than laminate properties, is
lapse ensues.
an advantage because it avoids the need to test lam-
The main characteristics of the intralaminar fail-
inates every time the lay-up or stacking sequence is
ure mechanisms occurring in laminated composites
modified.
are briefly described in the following sections. These
The proposed constitutive model accounts for
characteristics are the basis for the definition of the
crack closure effects under load reversal, an impor-
failure criteria and damage variables used in this
tant phenomenon in cases where a composite struc-
work.
ture is subjected to multiaxial loading.
One important issue regarding the numerical
modeling of damage is that the convergence of the 2.1. Longitudinal failure
solution through successive mesh refinement must
be ensured. The objectivity of the numerical model In fiber-reinforced composites, the largest por-
is ensured by adjusting the energy dissipated by each tion of the loads is resisted by the fibers. When these
failure mechanism using a characteristic element fail under either tension or compression, the internal
length (Bažant and Oh, 1983). The constitutive loads must redistribute to other areas of the struc-
model proposed herein can be integrated explicitly, ture, and may cause a structural collapse.
making it computationally efficient and, therefore, In composites with high fiber volume fraction
suitable to be used in large scale computations. and those where the strain to failure of the resin
This paper is organized as follows: a brief matrix is higher than the one of the reinforcing fiber,
description of the failure mechanisms occurring in such as carbon–epoxy composites, longitudinal fail-
laminated composites is presented. Based on the ures start by isolated fiber fractures in weak zones.
mechanisms identified, a new constitutive model The localized fractures increase the normal and
which relates the failure mechanisms with a set of interfacial shear stresses in the adjoining fibers,
internal variables is proposed. An accompanying and the local stress concentrations promote matrix
paper (Maimı́ et al., in press) presents the details cracking, fiber matrix debonding and, for ductile
of the computational implementation of the model matrices, conical shear failures (Daniel and Ishai,
900 P. Maimı́ et al. / Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908

1994). When increasing the load further, additional
fiber fractures occur, leading to final collapse.
Failure under longitudinal tensile loading occurs
in both constituents, and fracture occurs along a
plane whose normal is parallel to the fiber direction.
A simple non-interacting failure criterion based on
maximum stress or maximum strain along the longi-
tudinal direction can usually provide an accurate
measure of longitudinal tensile failure (Dávila
et al., 2005).
Compressive failure of aligned fiber composites
occurs from the collapse of the fibers as a result of
shear kinking and damage of the supporting matrix
(Fleck and Liu, 2001; Schultheisz and Waas, 1996).
The analysis of the kinking phenomena is usually
based on the assumption of a local initial fiber mis-
alignment. Fiber misalignment causes shear stresses
between fibers that rotate the fibers, which in turn
increases the shear stress and leads to instability.
2.2. Transverse failure
Failure in the transverse direction encompasses
both matrix cracking and fiber–matrix debonding.
Under the presence of transverse tensile stresses
and in-plane shear stresses, the combined effect of
small defects present in a ply, such as small fiber–
resin debonds, resin-rich regions, and resin voids,
trigger a transverse crack that extends through-
the-thickness of the ply. The transverse cracks are
formed without disturbing the fibers: they occur at
the fiber–resin interface and in the resin.
When an unidirectional laminate is loaded
in shear, a non-linear shear stress-shear strain
response is observed before the laminate fails by
through-the-thickness transverse matrix cracking.
This non-linearity results from the visco-plastic
behavior of the matrix, and from the nucleation
and growth of microcracks. The non-linear shear
response which occurs before transverse matrix
cracking is not taken into account in the model
proposed here, and will be the subject of future
research. According to Chang et al. (1984), shear
non-linear effects should be taken into account in
the strength prediction of cross-ply and angle-ply
laminates.
A fundamental issue that needs to be considered
in the analysis models is the effect of ply thickness
on the ply strength, usually called the ‘in situ effect’.
As shown in Parvizi et al. (1978) and Chang and
Chen’s (1987) experiments, the constraints imposed
by the neighboring plies of different fiber orienta-
tions cause an apparent increase in the tensile and
shear strengths of a ply compared to those of an
unconstrained ply. The in situ effect is a determinis-
tic size effect that can be represented using fracture
mechanics models of plies containing defects (Dáv-
ila et al., 2005; Camanho et al., 2006; Dvorak and
Laws, 1987).
Experimental results have shown that moderate
values of transverse compression have a beneficial
effect on the strength of a ply (Soden et al., 1998):
when the in-plane shear stress is large compared
to the transverse compressive stress, the fracture
plane is perpendicular to the mid-plane of the ply.
However, increasing the compressive transverse
stress causes a change in the angle of the fracture
plane. Normally, for carbon–epoxy and glass–epoxy
composites loaded in pure transverse compression,
the fracture plane is at an angle (fracture angle,
a0) of 53° ± 3° with respect to the thickness direc-
tion (Puck and Schürmann, 1998). Therefore,
matrix cracking does not occur in the plane of the
maximum transverse shear stress (45°).

3 3

1 1
a) Longitudinal tensile fracture b) Longitudinal compressive fracture
3 3

2 2
c) Transverse fracture with α=0º d) Transverse fracture with α=53º

Fig. 1. Ply fracture planes considered in the model.

 P. Maimı́ et al. / Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908 901

Following the observations outlined above, four tensor over a representative volume that is assumed
possible fracture planes are considered in the model to be much larger than the diameter of a fiber.
proposed here, as schematically represented in The set of scalar damage variables d1,d2, and d6
Fig. 1. ensure that the composite ply maintains the original
The purpose of present work is to propose a planes of material symmetry, regardless of the dam-
model for the calculation of the initiation and prop- age state of the material. The damage variable d1 is
agation of intralaminar failure mechanisms. Conse- associated with longitudinal (fiber) failure, whereas
quently, delamination is not considered here. d2 is the damage variable associated with transverse
matrix cracking and d6 is a damage variable influ-
3. Constitutive damage model enced by longitudinal and transverse cracks.
To ensure the thermodynamically irreversibility
The thermodynamics of irreversible processes is a of the damage process, the rate of change of the
general framework that can be used to formulate complementary free energy G_ minus the externally
constitutive equations. It is a logical framework supplied work to the solid at constant strains,
for incorporating observations and experimental r_ : e, must not be negative:
results and a set of rules for avoiding incompatibil-
G_  r_ : e P 0 ð2Þ
ities. In this section, we present a constitutive dam-
age model for laminated composites that has its This inequality corresponds to the positiveness of
foundation in irreversible thermodynamics, and that the dissipated energy and has to be fulfilled by any
uses the LaRC04 criteria as damage activation constitutive model (Malvern, 1969). Expanding the
functions. inequality in terms of the stress tensor and damage
variables gives:
3.1. Complementary free energy and damage  
oG oG _ oG _ oG _
operator  e : r_ þ d1 þ d2 þ d6 P 0 ð3Þ
or od1 od2 od6
To establish a constitutive law, it is possible to Since the stresses are variables that can vary freely,
define a scalar function corresponding to the com- the expression in the parenthesis must be equal to
plementary free energy density in the material. This zero to ensure positive dissipation of mechanical en-
function must be positive definite, and it must be ergy. Therefore, the strain tensor is equal to the
zero at the origin with respect to the free variables derivative of the complementary free energy density
(the stresses) (Malvern, 1969). The proposed defini- with respect to the stress tensor:
tion for the ply complementary free energy density
oG
is e¼ ¼ H : r þ aDT þ bDM ð4Þ
or
r211 r222 m12
G¼ þ  r11 r22 The lamina compliance tensor can be represented in
2ð1  d1 ÞE1 2ð1  d2 ÞE2 E1
Voigt notation as:
r212 2 3
þ þ ða11 r11 þ a22 r22 ÞDT 1 m21
2ð1  d6 ÞG12 6 ð1  d1 ÞE1  0 7
6 E2 7
þ ðb11 r11 þ b22 r22 ÞDM ð1Þ 2
oG 6 6 m12 1 7
7
H¼ 2 ¼6  0 7
where E1, E2, m12 and G12 are the in-plane elastic or 6 E 1 ð1  d 2 ÞE 2 7
6 7
orthotropic properties of a unidirectional lamina. 4 1 5
The subscript 1 denotes the longitudinal (fiber) 0 0
ð1  d6 ÞG12
direction, and 2 denotes the transverse (matrix)
ð5Þ
direction. a11 and a22 are the coefficients of thermal
expansion in the longitudinal and transverse direc- The closure of transverse cracks under load reversal,
tions, respectively. b11 and b22 are the coefficients also known as the unilateral effect, is taken into ac-
of hygroscopic expansion in the longitudinal and count by defining four damage variables associated
transverse directions, respectively. DT and DM are with longitudinal and transverse damage. To deter-
the differences of temperature and moisture content mine the active damage variables, it is necessary to
with respect to the corresponding reference values. define the longitudinal and transverse damage
The stress tensor r corresponds to the average stress modes as follows:
902 P. Maimı́ et al. / Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908
hr11 i hr11 i
d1 ¼ d1þ þ d1
jr11 j jr11 j
ð6Þ
hr22 i hr22 i
d2 ¼ d2þ þ d2
jr22 j jr22 j
where hxi is the McCauley operator defined as
hxi := (x + jxj)/2.
The present model tracks damage caused by ten-
sion loads (d+) separately from damage caused by
compression loads (d). Depending on the sign of
the corresponding normal stress, a damage mode
can be either active or passive.
The model also assumes that the shear damage
variable, d6, is not affected by the closure effect.
Shear damage is caused mainly by transverse cracks
and these do not close under shear stresses (r12).
Transverse cracks are influenced by transverse stres-
ses (r22) producing the closure of cracks and a fric-
tion retention whereas longitudinal cracks produce
the same effect under longitudinal stresses (r11)
(Chaboche and Maire, 2002). The effect of friction
is neglected in the present model.
3.2. Damage activation functions
The determination of the domain of elastic
response under complex stress states is an essential
component of an accurate damage model. Based on
the previously described mechanisms of crack gen-
eration in advanced composites, a strain space is
considered where the material is linear elastic. In
the present model, it is assumed that the elastic
domain is enclosed by four surfaces, each of them
accounting for one failure mechanism: longitudinal
and transverse fracture under tension and compres-
sion. Those surfaces are formulated by the damage
activation functions based on the LaRC03 and
LaRC04 failure criteria. The LaRC03-04 failure
criteria have been shown to represent accurately
the physical process of failure onset in laminated
composites. The LaRC04 criteria represent an evo-
lution of the LaRC03 criteria: some criteria such as
the one for fiber kinking, are more accurate in
LaRC04. However, the improvement in accuracy
is associated with a significant increase in the com-
putational effort. The present damage model uses a
combination of both sets of criteria to achieve a
compromise between accuracy and computational
efficiency. The full details of the derivation and val-
idation of the LaRC04 failure criteria are presented
in references (Dávila et al., 2005; Pinho et al.,
2004).
The four damage activation functions, FN, asso-
ciated with failure mechanisms in the longitudinal
(N = 1+, 1) and transverse (N = 2+, 2) direc-
tions, shown in Fig. 1, are defined as
F 1þ ¼ /1þ  r1þ 6 0; F 1 ¼ /1  r1 6 0
ð7Þ
F 2þ ¼ /2þ  r2þ 6 0; F 2 ¼ /2  r2 6 0
where the loading functions /N (N = 1+, 1, 2+,
2) depend on the strain tensor and material con-
stants (elastic and strength properties). The elastic
domain thresholds rN (N = 1+, 1, 2+, 2) take
an initial value of 1 when the material is undam-
aged, and they increase with damage. The elastic do-
main thresholds are internal variables of the
constitutive model, and are related to the damage
variables dM (M = 1+, 1, 2+, 2, 6) by the dam-
age evolution laws. The elastic domain threshold de-
fines the level of elastic strains that can be attained
before the accumulation of additional damage.
3.2.1. Longitudinal tensile fracture
The LaRC04 criterion for fiber tensile failure,
Fig. 1a, is a non-interacting maximum allowable
strain criterion defined as
E1 ~11  m12 r
r ~22
/1þ ¼ e11 ¼ ð8Þ
XT XT
where the effective stress tensor r~ is computed as
~ ¼ H1
r 0 : e. H 0 is the undamaged compliance tensor
obtained from Eq. (5) using d1 = d2 = d6 = 0.
3.2.2. Longitudinal compressive fracture
The LaRC03 failure criterion for longitudinal
compressive fracture, Fig. 1b, postulates that a kink
band is triggered by the onset of damage in the sup-
porting matrix. Under this circumstance, the fibers
lose lateral support and fail under the effect of lon-
gitudinal compressive stresses. The initial fiber mis-
alignment and the rotation of the fibers as a
function of the applied stress state are the parame-
ters used in the damage activation function.
The damage activation function used to predict
damage under longitudinal compression ð~ r11 < 0Þ
and in-plane shear (fiber kinking) is established as
a function of the components of the stress tensor
~ðmÞ in a coordinate system (m) representing the fiber
r
misalignment:
~m12 j þgL r
hj r ~m22 i
/1 ¼ ð9Þ
SL
where the longitudinal friction coefficient can be
approximated as (Dávila et al., 2005).
 P. Maimı́ et al. / Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908 903
8 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S L cosð2a0 Þ >    
L
g  ð10Þ < ð1  gÞ r~22 þ g r~22 2 þ r~12 2 if r ~22 P 0
Y C cos2 a0 /2þ ¼ YT YT SL
>
: 1 hj r
SL
~12 j þgL r ~22 i if r
~22 < 0
The components of the effective stress tensor in the
coordinate system associated with the rotation of ð13Þ
the fibers are calculated as where g is the fracture toughness ratio defined as:
2 g ¼ GGIIc
Ic
.
~11 sin uC þ r
~m22 ¼ r
r ~22 cos2 uC  2j~
r12 j sin uC cos uC
3.2.4. Transverse fracture with a0 = 53°
~m12 ¼ ð~
r r22  r r12 jðcos2 uC  sin2 uC Þ
~11 Þ sin uC cos uC þ j~
The LaRC04 matrix failure criterion for high
ð11Þ transverse compressive stresses, Fig. 1d, consists of
a quadratic interaction between the effective shear
where the absolute value of the shear stress is taken stresses acting on the fracture plane:
because the misalignment angle can be positive or sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 T 2  L 2
negative. ~seff ~s
/2 ¼ þ eff if r
~22 < 0 ð14Þ
The misalignment angle (uC) is determined using ST SL
standard shear and longitudinal compression where the effective stresses ~sTeff and ~sLeff are computed
strengths, SL and XC (Dávila et al., 2005): as (Pinho et al., 2004)
0 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  ffi1 ~sTeff ¼ h~
r22 cosða0 Þ½sinða0 Þ  gT cosða0 Þ cosðhÞi
B1  1  4 XS LC þ gL XS LC C
~sLeff ¼ hcosða0 Þ½j~
r12 j þ gL r
~22 cosða0 Þ sinðhÞi
u ¼ arctan B
C
@   C
A ð12Þ
2 XS LC þ gL ð15Þ
The sliding angle h is calculated as (Pinho et al.,
2004)
It should be noted that the LaRC03 failure crite-  
rion, derived to predict the onset of damage in lam- j~r12 j
h ¼ arctan ð16Þ
inated composites, calculates the misalignment ~22 sinða0 Þ
r
angle as a function of the applied stress. The
The transverse shear strength and transverse friction
LaRC03 failure criterion is modified here assuming
coefficient can be approximated as
a constant misalignment angle, corresponding to the  
rotation of the fibers at failure under pure longitudi- cosða0 Þ
S T ¼ Y C cosða0 Þ sinða0 Þ þ
nal compression. This modification of LaRC03 fail- tanð2a0 Þ
ð17Þ
ure criterion ensures that /1 is a monotonic 1
gT ¼
increasing function under any state of proportional tanð2a0 Þ
loading. The fracture angle a0 is approximately 53° in uniax-
It should be pointed out that two criteria are used ial compression. With increasing amounts of in-
in LaRC03 for fiber kinking: Eq. (9) for r ~m22 6 0 and plane shear, the fracture angle diminishes up to
m
a second equation for r ~22 P 0. However, the omis- about 40° and then abruptly switches to 0°. To find
sion of the second equation results in a minor loss the correct angle of fracture, a maximization of the
of accuracy because the equation is the same as LaRC03-04 failure criteria as a function of a should
Eq. (13.a) with the stresses transformed into the be performed. However, in order to improve the
misaligned coordinate frame. computational efficiency of the present model, it is
assumed that the fracture angle can only take one
3.2.3. Transverse fracture perpendicular to the of two discrete values: 0° or 53°.
laminate mid-plane (a0 = 0°) The elastic domain in the r ~11 , r
~22 , r
~12 space rep-
Transverse matrix cracks perpendicular to the resented by the LaRC04 failure criteria is shown in
mid-plane of the ply, i.e. with a0 = 0° (Fig. 1c), Fig. 2.
are created by a combination of in-plane shear stres-
ses and transverse tensile stresses, or in-plane shear 3.3. Dissipation
stresses and small transverse compressive stresses.
These conditions are represented by the following The rate of energy dissipation per unit volume
LaRC04 failure criterion: resulting from the evolution of damage is given by
904 P. Maimı́ et al. / Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908

for the fulfillment of the second law of

thermodynamics.
It is important to note that the proposed model
does not generate spurious energy dissipation, i.e.,
the loss or gain of mechanical energy, under crack
closure or opening. At load reversal, the time deriv-
ative of the damage variable is non-zero ðd_ M 6¼ 0Þ.
Considering Eq. (18), the thermodynamical forces,
YM, associated with the damage variables, dM, must
be zero to avoid spurious energy dissipation at load
reversal (Carol and Willam, 1996). This condition is
trivially satisfied in the present model (Eq. (19)).
Damage evolution without energy dissipation is
physically inadmissible. Therefore, it is necessary
to avoid damage evolution when the corresponding
conjugated thermodynamic force is zero. Consider
Fig. 2. Elastic domain in the r
~11 , r
~22 , r
~12 space. the load history represented in Fig. 3: the material
is loaded in transverse tension and shear to t1 and
then loaded to t2. At time t2, the damage variable
oG _ oG _ oG _
N¼ d1 þ d2 þ d6 d2 evolves because the corresponding damage acti-
od1 od2 od6 vation function is activated. However, the corre-
¼ Y 1 d_ 1 þ Y 2 d_ 2 þ Y 6 d_ 6 P 0 ð18Þ sponding thermodynamic force is zero (r22 = 0,
Y2 = 0).
The form of the complementary free energy defined This non-physical response is avoided by modify-
in Eq. (1) ensures that the thermodynamic forces ing the longitudinal and transverse damage activa-
(YM) conjugated to their respective damage vari- tion functions. The transverse damage activation
ables (dM) are always positive: function is modified using the following equation:
oG r211 8sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 9
Y1 ¼ ¼ P0 < ~sT 2 ~sL 2 r =
od1 2ð1  d 1 Þ2 E1 eff ~ 22
/2 ¼ min þ eff ; ð20Þ
oG r222 : ST SL X;
Y2 ¼ ¼ P0 ð19Þ
od2 2ð1  d 2 Þ2 E2
oG r212 where the constant X is equal to r ~22 when
Y6 ¼ ¼ P0 /2 = /2+ (Fig. 3).
od6 2ð1  d 6 Þ2 G12
The longitudinal damage activation function is
Therefore, the condition of positive evolution of modified by taking into account that under shear
damage variables ðd_ M P 0Þ is a sufficient condition dominated loads, matrix cracking is the first form

Fig. 3. Evolution of elastic domain in the r

~22 –~
r12 space.
 P. Maimı́ et al. / Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908
of damage to occur. After matrix cracking, the
transverse and shear stresses are zero and the fiber
misalignment angle u tends to p/4. Under these cir-
cumstances, the kink band criteria, Eq. (9), reads
m
angle a0 = 53° caused by high compressive transverse
~12 j þgL r
hj r ~m22 i gL  1
/1 ¼ min ; r
~11 ð21Þ
SL 2S L
3.4. Damage evolution
The evolution of the damage threshold values rN
is expressed by the Kuhn–Tucker conditions:
r_ N P 0; F N 6 0; r_ N F N ¼ 0
Neglecting viscous effects, the damage activation
functions, Eqs. (7), always have to be non-positive.
While the damage activation function FN is nega-
tive, the material response is elastic. When the strain
state activates a criterion, FN = 0, it is necessary to
evaluate the gradient /_ N . If the gradient is not posi-
tive, the state is one of unloading or neutral loading.
If the gradient /_ N is positive, there is damage evolu-
tion, and the consistency condition has to be
satisfied:
ð24Þ
F_ N ¼ /_ N  r_ N ¼ 0
Two important characteristics of the model pro-
posed here are that the damage threshold values
are a function of the damage variables, and that
the loading functions depend on the strain tensor.
Under these conditions, it is possible to integrate
the constitutive model explicitly (Simo and Ju,
1987a,b).
In the definition of the constitutive model, it is
necessary to represent the relation between active
and inactive elastic domains. The evolution of an
active elastic domain is defined by the consistency
condition, i.e., it is defined with respect to the corre-
sponding damage activation function. However, it is
also necessary to specify how the inactive elastic
domain evolves if other damage modes are active.
It is assumed that the longitudinal and transverse
domains are not coupled. On the other hand, com-
pression damage is coupled with tension damage, as
explained in the next section.
3.4.1. Transverse loading
As described previously, transverse damage in
the form of matrix cracks can have different orienta-
tions as a result of tension, shear, or compression-
dominated loads. Under load reversal, transverse
cracks, which are perpendicular to the ply mid-
905
plane, do not affect the compression response: the
elastic domain and the compressive damage variable
(d2) are unaffected by r2+.
On the other hand, matrix cracks at a fracture
stresses have the same effect as cracks perpendicular
to the mid-plane (a = 0°) when the load is reversed
from compression to tension. Therefore, the evolu-
tion of the transverse tensile elastic domain threshold
(r2+) is governed by both damage mechanisms.
Based on the above considerations, the evolution
of the elastic domain in the transverse direction can
be represented by the following equations:
ð22Þ
Tension loading: r_ 2þ ¼ /_ 2þ
and r_ 2 ¼ 0
_
Compression loading: r_ 2 ¼ /2 and
(
/_ 2 if r2þ 6 r2
r_ 2þ ¼
0 if r2þ > r2
The integration of the previous expressions results in
s s
r2þ ¼ max 1; maxf/2 g; maxf/2þ g
s¼0;t s¼0;t
s
ð23Þ r2 ¼ max 1; maxf/2 g
s¼0;t
3.4.2. Longitudinal loading
Under longitudinal tensile stresses, the fracture
plane is perpendicular to the fiber direction. When
reversing the load, the cracks close and can still
transfer load. However, the broken and misaligned
fibers do not carry any additional load. Therefore,
the compressive stiffness is influenced by longitudi-
nal damage. However, the elastic domain is
assumed to remain unchanged.
Under longitudinal compression, damaged mate-
rial consisting of broken fibers and matrix cracks
forms a kink band, and there is not a unique orien-
tation for the damage planes. When the loads are
reversed, the cracks generated in compression open
and the elastic domain threshold increases.
Therefore, the evolution of damage thresholds
for longitudinal damage are defined as
Tension loading: r_ 1þ ¼ /_ 1þ and r_ 1 ¼ 0
Compression loading: r_ 1 ¼ /_ 1 and
(
/_ 1 if r1þ 6 r1
r_ 1þ ¼
0 if r1þ > r1
ð25Þ
906 P. Maimı́ et al. / Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908
The integration
of the previous expressions
results in case, the compressive stiffness can be approximated
r1þ ¼ max 1; maxf/s1þ g; maxf/s1 g
s¼0;t s¼0;t
ð26Þ of the above arguments for an intermediate damage
r1 ¼ max 1; maxf/s1 g
s¼0;t
3.5. Damage evolution laws
The internal variables rN define the threshold of
the elastic domains, and are related to the damage
state of each lamina, i.e., the damage variables
depend on the values of the internal variables. In
order to fully define the constitutive model, it is nec-
essary to define the relation between the internal
variables and the damage variables.
When the material is undamaged the internal
variables rN take the initial value of 1, and
dN(rN = 1) = 0. Eqs. (24) and (26) define the evolu-
tion of the internal variables ensuring that r_ N P 0.
As shown in Eqs. (18) and (19), the condition for
positive dissipation is satisfied if d_ N P 0. The condi-
tion for positive dissipation is automatically fulfilled
if the damage evolution law satisfies the condition
odN/orN P 0. When the material is completely dam-
aged, a fracture plane is created, the strains are
localized in a plane in which rN ! 1 and the related
components of the stiffness tensor are zero,
dN(rN ! 1) = 1.
Matrix cracks are related to the internal variables
r2+ and r2. The internal variable r2 accounts for
compressive damage only, whereas r2+ accounts
for both, compressive and tensile, failure mecha-
nisms. Therefore, for tensile transverse stresses dam-
age is a function of d2+(r2+) because both types of
cracks (a = 0° and a = 53°) are open. Under trans-
verse compressive loads, the damage is only influ-
enced by the inclined cracks, d2(r2).
Kink bands are related to the internal variable
r1. The internal variable r1+ accounts for kink
bands and fiber tensile fracture. For tensile longitu-
dinal stresses, the material loses stiffness as a result
of both damage modes because the cracks open.
Therefore, the damage variable can be expressed
as d1+(r1+).
When a lamina which is fully damaged in tension
(d1+ = 1) is subjected to load reversal and the crack
closes, some of the original stiffness is recovered
because the tractions can be transmitted through
the crack faces. However, the broken fibers lose
their alignment. Assuming that the fibers do not
carry any load, which can be considered as a limit
by the rule of mixtures applied for components in
parallel as: (1  d1)E1 = VmEm. The generalization
state can be expressed as d1 ¼ A1 d1þ , with
V f Ef E 1  E2
A
1  b b ð27Þ
V m Em þ V f Ef E1
where Ef and Em are the fiber and matrix Young
modulus, Vf and Vm the corresponding volume frac-
tions, and b is an adjustment parameter between 0
and 1. If b = 1, the stiffness recovery is due only
to matrix closure, and if b = 0, the stiffness recovery
is total and it is assumed that broken fibers do not
lose alignment under compressive loads, and the ini-
tial stiffness is recovered.
The damage law for longitudinal compression
can be expressed as a combination of the failure
mechanisms caused by tension loads, d1+(r1+), and
the failure mechanisms generated under compres-
sion, d1(r1):
d1 ¼ 1  ½1  d1 ðr1 Þ½1  A
1 d1þ ðr1þ Þ ð28Þ
Longitudinal failure (d1±) is not influenced by
matrix cracking (r2±) as shown in experimental
results carried by Carlsson and Pipes (1987) and in
micromechanical models (Dvorak et al., 1985; Laws
et al., 1983; Nuismer and Tan, 1988; Tan and
Nuismer, 1989) of cracked composites. Therefore,
the longitudinal stiffness is not function of trans-
verse matrix cracks.
The shear stiffness is reduced as a result of longi-
tudinal and transverse cracks. Under these circum-
stances, the damage variable d6 is given by
d6 ¼ 1  ½1  d6 ðr2þ Þð1  d1þ Þ ð29Þ
The damage evolution laws used force strain-
softening as soon as one damage activation criterion
is satisfied. Softening constitutive equations may
result in physically inadmissable responses: the
damage is localized in a plane and fracture occurs
without energy dissipation. The numerical imple-
mentation of softening constitutive equations using
the finite element method may result in mesh-depen-
dent results because the energy dissipated is a func-
tion of the element size.
The solution normally used to ensure the correct
computation of the energy dissipated regardless of
the refinement of the mesh is to adjust the damage
evolution laws using a characteristic dimension of
the finite element. The definition of the damage evo-
lution laws is therefore related to the computational
 P. Maimı́ et al. / Mechanics of Materials 39 (2007) 897–908
model, and it is described in the accompanying
paper (Maimı́ et al., in press).
4. Conclusions
A new constitutive model for the prediction of
the onset and growth of intralaminar failure mech-
anisms in composite laminates under plane stress
was proposed. The model is based on four possible
ply fracture planes related to fiber tensile fracture,
fiber kinking, and matrix cracking with fracture
planes oriented at 0° and 53° with respect to the
ply thickness direction.
The onset of the intralaminar failure mechanisms
related to the four fracture planes is predicted using
a simplification of the LaRC04 failure criteria. The
effect of ply thickness on the onset of transverse
matrix cracking is taken into account by replacing
the unidirectional strengths by the ‘in situ’ strengths
in the failure criteria.
The unilaterality of damage is taken into account
by the ability of the model to represent complex
load histories, including tension–compression load
reversals. The computational implementation of
the constitutive model and its validation are
described in part two of this work (Maimı́ et al.,
in press).
Acknowledgements
The research visits of the first author at the Uni-
versity of Porto, Portugal, were funded by the
University of Girona (BE-UdG-2004) and by the
Spanish government under ‘‘Acciones Integradas
Hispano-Portuguesas’’ (HIP2004-0031). The first
and third authors also acknowledge funding from
the Spanish government through DGICYT under
the contract MAT 2003-09768-C03-01.
The financial support of the Portuguese Founda-
tion for Science and Technology (FCT) under the
project PDCTE/50354/EME/2003 is acknowledged
by the second author.
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