2A Extrinsic semiconductor SS ¥ ” A semiconducting material in which the charge carriers originate from irapurity atoms added to the material is called impurity semiconductor or extrinsic semiconductor. The addition of impurity increases the carrier concentration and hence the conductivity of the conductor. There are two types of impurities possible: (i) N-type semiconductor Pentavalent elements such as phosphorous (P), arsenic (As) or antimony (Sb) have five electrons in their outermost orbits. When any one such impurity is added to the intrinsic semiconductor in small trace while the crystal is grown, four electrons are engaged in covalent bonding with four neighbouring pure semiconductor atoms. The fifth electron is weakly bound to the parent atom. Even for lesser thermal energy this fifth electron is released leaving the parent atom positively ionised. During this process no hole is generated. Since these pentavalent elements donate negative charges (electrons) they are called N-type impurities, and the semiconductors doped with pentavalent impurities are called N-type semiconductors. In the energy level diagram the energy level of the fifth electron is called donor level. The donor level is so close to the bottom of the conduction band (Fig. 9.6) most of the donor level electrons9.5 Carrier concentration in N-type semiconductors ‘The energy level diagram of a N-type semiconductor is shown in Fig..9.8(a). Nq is the donor concentration i.e., the number of donor atoms per unit volume of the material944 Solid State Physics and Ey is the donor energy level. At very low temperatiies all donor levels are filled with electrons. With increase of temperaturé more and more donor atoms getionised and the density of electrons in the conduction band increases. Density of electrons in conduction band is given by equation (9.9) 3/2 2nmskT. Er— :) (9.25) ee If we assume that Ef lies more than a few kT above the donor level then the density of ionised donors is given by (9.26) Eq — Er Na(l - FEa)] = Nae ( F } “ss. At very low temperatures, when electron - hole pairs are not generated due to breaking of covalent bonds, the number of electrons in the conduction band must be equal to the number of ionised donors. . QamtkT \3/? Ep -Ec Ea- Er ne ee an Taking logarithm and rearranging we get rs (6 = a) _ (# = ze) Se (eye, AT KT he 2Ep-— (Ea + Ec) = kT log —~4- ~ : ‘QnmskT \3/2 = 25) (Eq+ Ee), kT ; Epa ed ET og —— Na 9.27) 2g (2m 3/2. i) AtOK Eat Bp te (9.28) 2 ive. at OK, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of of the conduction band E. as shown in Fig, eee donor level Eg and the bottom SS 9.5.1 Density of electrons in the conduction band From equation (9.25) density of electrons in the conduction band is given by nerve E, —s FE, 2 exy c h o( iT )Semiconductors 9.15 Substituting for Ep from equation (9.27) and arranging Ep-Ee\_{(EanFe\ 1 Na oo ( kT ) = eof ( 2kT ) +2 a7] co 472 = Ea~ Ec Na ince L188 2s log x? wef (2%) seg | fate ns = bory"] = [oo (SS) Me since exp(a +b) ONE RT Dameer 3/2)" | = expla) -exp(b) pee) Hence 2 (2amit i » ui? (5%) = he aamekr 3/2]? OP \ ORT 2) 2am’ kT \3/4 Ea. = if: (eae dies Se: = (2Na) ( 5 ) ox ( oe ) (9.29) Thus we find that the density of electrons in the conduction band is proportional to the square root of the donor concentration at moderately low temperatures. As we have seen earlier, at higher temperatures intrinsic behaviour predominates and donor concentration becomes insignificant. 9.5.2 Variation of Fermi level with temperature To start with, with increase of temperature Er increases slightly as per the equa- tion (9.27). As the temperature is increased, more and more donor atoms are ionised. For a particular temperature all the donor-atoms are ionised. Further increase in temperature results in generation of electron - hole pairs due to breaking of covalent bonds and the material tends to behave in intrinsic manner. The Fermi level gradually moves towards the intrinsic Fermi level E; as shown in Fig. 9.8(a). 9.5.3 Variation of Fermi level with donor concentration Let us compare the behaviour of a N-type semiconductor of higher donor concen- tration with a lower one. We find that lowering of Fermi level from Ep where9.16 Solid State Physics Ep = £42 to intcinsie Fermi level Bj with rise of temperature is slow! : we i i case of higher donor concentration material than the fower one, Naturally TOT doped semiconductor will behave in intrinsic manner only after all the t ' different donor concentrations. are ionised. Fig. 9.8(a) explains this behavior for tw & Hi tion band {___cotctintd___g (@) (b) Fig. 9.8. Variation of Fermi level postion with temperature a) in n-type semiconductors; (b) in p-type semiconductors 9.6 Carrier concentration in P-type semiconductors ‘The energy level diagram of a’ P-type semicoductor is shown is Fig. 9.8(b). Na is the acceptor concentration i.e. the number of acceptor atoms per unit volume of the material and Eq is the acceptor energy level. At very low temperatures all the acceptor levels are empty. With increase of temperature acceptor atoms get ionised i.e., the electrons move from valence band and occupy the vacant sites in the acceptor energy level there by leaving holes in the valence band. Density of holes in the valence band is given by equation (9.14). (9.30) Since Er lies below acceptor level, the density of ionised acceptors is given by NaF (Ea) = Na xp (5)Semiconductors 9.17 Since the density of holes in the valence band is equal to the density of ionised acceptors, Qam* kT\3/? Ey = Bl Bp, eee v FY pr —- Ea ( WE ) cxr( i ) aX air ( iT ) te, ep (Eten?) «Me AT 2 (2208 one eo: ‘Taking logarithm (Ett) ; Na aut fa TAPE ) = tog ——* 5, kT : : (Zant 3/2 : a) Eyt+Eq kT ie Epa ete MF pg Me (031) 2( a sr) AtOK 2. jie. at OK, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor level and the top of | the valence band as shown in Fig. 9.8(b). 4 9.6.1 Density of holes in the valence band From equation (9.30) density of holes in the valence band is given by anmekT\3? (Ey —E, : ole hv rv F 2 ( 7 ) oe ( iT ) | Substituting for Er from equation (9.31) Ey— =) _ Ey Eyt+Ea 1 Na oo( er) =P er er 28 ag I 2() 1/2 + log. = xp a8) in sin } log x 2 5 | Pes)" [ log.x!/? eef 9.18 Solid State Physics i [ex Ex] a [ since expla + ) pew)"T” exp(a) - exp(6) QT Hence 1/2 2mm kT _—_“__, he Beng aT yy” /: 2 damp kT\4 (Ey - Ea p= (2Na)!/2. (=) exp (Ar 0.32) Thus we find that the density of holes in the valence band is proportional to the square root of the acceptor concentration at moderately low temperatures. As we have seen earlier, at higher temperatures intrinsic behaviour predominates and the contribution due toacceptor atoms becomes insignificant. 9.6.2 Variation of Fermi level with temperature To start with, with increase of temperature Ey decreases slightly as per the equa- tion (9.31). As the temperature is increased, more and more acceptor atoms are ionised. For a particular temperature all the acceptor atoms are ionised. Further increase in temperature results in generation of electron-hole pairs due to breaking of covalent bonds and the material tends to behave in intrinsic manner. The Fermi level gradually moves towards the intrinsic Fermi level E; as shown in Fig. 9.8(b). 9.6.3 Variation of Fermi level with acceptor concentration When we compare the behaviour of a P-type semiconductor of higher acceptor concentration with a lower one, we find that raising of Fermi level from Ej when EytEa,. . 7 Er = —.— \ointrinsic Fermi level E; with rise of temperature is slow in the case of highly doped one. This is because the highly doped semiconductor will behave in intrinsic manner only after all the acceptor atoms are ionised, Fig. 9.8(b) explains this behaviour for two different acceptor concentrations.Semiconductors 9.21 9.7 Variation of carrier concentration with temperature We have seen that the carrier concentration varies with temperature. In Fig. 9.5, variation of resistance with temperature in the case of intrinsic semiconductor-is shown. The resistance and hence the resistivity decreases with increase of tempera- ture linearly. In extrinsic semiconductors, the variation can be brought under three different regions corresponding to three different ranges of temperatures. For an n- type semiconductor the variation of n and p with temperature is shown in Fig. 9.9. At OK, both conduction band and valence band are free from any charge carriers and hence conductivity is zero. With increase of temperature donor atoms get ionised and hence electron concentration in conduction band increases with temperature until all the donor atoms are ionised. This range is called impurity range. During this process Fermi level shifts towards donor level Ey from the middle of E¢ and Eq (Fig. 9.8(a)). At about room temperature all the donor atoms are ionised and so the concentration of electrons in the conduction band remains constant over a certain temperature range. This region is called the exhaustion range and in this range Fermi level crosses the donor level. Though the concentration of electrons remains the same, due to decrease in-electron mobility with increase of temperature, the conductivity decreases slightly. As the temperature is increased further, when the thermal energy is sufficiently high, covalent bonds are broken and electron - hole pairs are generated. Electrons in the valence band are lifted across the forbidden gap thereby increasing the electron concentration in the conduction band considerably. With further increase of temperature, more and more electrons from the valence Intrinsic, |__Exhaustion__|__ Impurity range range range age : and ' los p ! | election ' concentration ' ' I\note fi concentration ' ' { Fig. 9.9 Variation of carrier concentration with temperature in N-type semiconductor i9.22 Solid State Physics band reach the conduction band and completely out number the donor electrons. ‘The Fermi level moves down gradually until it reaches. the middle of the forbidden gap. The material practically becomes intrinsic and so this range is called intrinsic range. All these ranges are illustrated in Fig. 9.9. The dotted curve indicates the hole concentration: Only in intrinsic range holes are generated due to generation of electron hole-pairs. As temperature increases the electron contribution due to the ionisation of donor atoms becomes insignificant and. both the electron and hole concentration curves overlap since they become almost equal in number. The flat region (exhaustion range) is observable only if Nu is small enough. For higher values of Ng the impurity region extends towards intrinsic region. 9.7.1 Conductivity of Extrinsic semiconductor At low temperature, near absolute zero, . only few of the impurity atoms are ionised and hence the con- ductivity is low. With increase of temperature more and more of the impurity atoms jonise and so conductivity (c) increases. The increase in log o is gradual due to ‘large impurity scatter- intrinsic Jexhaustion impurity yange *|* range *l*range L 1 ing and availability of less number of carriers. Once Fig. 9.10° Variation of electrical conductivity with impurity range is crossed, _ temperature in extrinsic semiconductor in'the exhaustion range due to decrease of mobility with : increase of temperature, the conductivity decreases slightly as shown in Fig. 9.10. At higher temperatures due to generation of electron ~ hole pairs, the conductivity increases steeply. Though the carrier mobility decreases with increase of temperature, its effect is overcome by the large number of carriers produced by thermal agitation. At high temperatures the material becomes practically intrinsic: