2. Casting design Chapter 2 CASTING DESIGN ‘* Introduction to casting design ‘* Design considerations = design for economy & low pattem cost ~ design for metal flow ~ design for directional solidification - design for minimum casting stresses - design for functional properties ~ safety considerations ‘+ Model making ~ ‘a tool for casting design’ 2.1 INTRODUCTION The purpose of casting design is to achieve functional performance of structures at minimum cost in materials and manufacture. Thus, casting design is basically a compromise between the two factors of function and cost; and their relative importance depending upon the service requirements, An adequate knowledge of foundry practice is essential for casting design but many castings are nevertheless designed without foundry advice. The designer should be associated with foundry superintendent, sales engineer and the pattem maker for an economical and satisfactory end results, The advantage of modernization can be utilized in a casting design by preparing a computerized ‘model and simulating the same for complicated castings to find if the conventional moulding and casting methods are feasible to obtain sound casting. The various steps involved in the production of casting are as shown in figure (2.1). SELECTION OF CASTING PROCESS u DESIGN OF CASTING u TRIAL CASTING, INSPECTION & TESTING u Pruthvi Loy Serrao SIEC, Mangalore2. Casting design o CASTING REDESIGN u TESTING OF MODIFIED CASTING APPROVE FOR MASS PRODUCTION. Figure 2.1: Steps involved inthe production of casting There are various casting techniques and the selection of casting techniques depends on the following factors: i. Alloy composition ii, Accuracy and surface finish iii, Shape, size and quantity iv. Cost of production Upon selection of a suitable casting technique a detailed casting design has to be prepared considering various factors; these design factors are discussed below. 2.2 CASTING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The following important factors should be kept in mind while designing to obtain a sound casting with appreciable properties. Design for economy & pattern cost Design for metal flow Design for directional solidification Design for minimum casting stresses Design for functional properties Safety considerations aay 2.2.1 Design for economy (cost of casting) The major factors affecting cost of easting are: i) The casting process selected: there are various casting techniques and the cost factor predominates in the selection of casting techniques. Nevertheless any casting technique must follow a good casting design; because a well-designed part is less costly to produce than a poorly designed part. Pruthvi Loy Serrao, SEC, MangaloreCasting design ‘A good casting design also takes into consideration as how castings will be held for machining and other subsequent operations in order to obtain a desired surface finish and maintain close dimensional tolerances. For a given component there is an optimum point on the cost curve (machining cost vs. casting cost) which represents the best design. cost ~~ Machining cost Figure 2.2: Cost curve Pattern cost: the pattem and the tooling cost affects to a larger proportion in the cost of casting. Only a good pattem can produce a sound casting: and hence the following pattern design aspects must be considered. a. A pattern must be dimensionally accurate and possess good surface finish. b, It must incorporate the allowances to impart accurate dimensions and good surface finish such as solidification contraction, machining, draft allowances, ete. ¢. All sharp edges and comers should be rounded. Changes in section thickness must be smooth, gradual and uniform. €. Pattern material must be suitably selected; metallic pattems last longer as compared to wooden ones but are expensive. The type of pattern can be selected based on size, quantity and complexity of the casting The pattem must be simple, offering easy positioning of rmmers and gates. Thus making the moulding operation simpler h. The patterns must offer easy handling and must be stored properly when not in use. In general the following economic factors may be considered for a better casting design: 1. Modify the casting design for a simple pattem constmuetion and withdrawal from sand mould. Reduce the number of operations required to make mould, cores and to assemble them. Deep pockets in the surface of a casting inerease moulding cost. ‘Use cast-weld construction if itis difficult to produce a one piece casting. be Pruthvi Loy Serrao. SUEC, MangaloreCasting design Dry sand cores add considerably to the cost of casting. 6. Economical operation among cored holes versus drilled holes should be considered; larger holes are produced with the help of cores. 7. Multiple mould casting reduces considerably the moulding and handling cost. 8, A good casting design aims at reducing the weight of the casting. 2.2.2. Design for metal flow Here thin section metal flow will be studied; although in certain cases thickness may be locally increased to provide conditions for directional solidification, ‘The minimum feasible section thickness for metal flow depends on ‘Metal composition Fluidity of the molten metal Molten metal temperature ‘Moulding process and material + Too thin a casting section or a relatively thin casting section extending too far will develop defects such as misnun or cold shut. Appropriate recommended minimum section thickness for a sand casting of different metals and alloys are as given below: 1. Steel castings ~ small > 6mm - large 2 12 mm 2. AL Mg, Gray CI - small > 3 mm large = 6 mm Pure metals and eutectic composition will give maximum fluid flow and very thin section can be cast, whereas the alloys have low fluid flow due to coexistence of solid and liquid phase. 2.2.3 Design for directional solidification Measures adopted for feeding of casting use the principle of directional solidification. The cooling is controlled by designing the mould so that freezing begins in the mould parts furthest from feeder heads and continues towards it; feeder should be the last to solidify, Pruthvi Loy Serrao. SUEC, MangaloreMethods available to induce feeding through directional solidification are Choice of orientation of the casting to exploit the natural features of its design, Design of the gating system. Selection of casting temperature and pouring speed. Design and location of feeder heads. Design modification and padding, Differential cooling by local chilling, insulation and exothermic padding whee 2 In order to achieve directional solidification following factors have to be considered while designing the casting: a) Bring the minimum number of sections together: more number of sections coming at a jnnction may lead to hotspot and shrinkage defect hence it is advised to avoid them but if it is not possible to limit them, a casting may be made in segments and these segments should be joined together by welding. b) Proper feeding for heavy sections: heavy sections should not be fed through light sections as light sections would solidify first and cause shrinkage defects in heavy sections. ©) Position risers suitably: risers should be placed suitably to ensure soundness of the casting. Moreover a tapered riser will be advantageous; an additional riser for feeding the thick sections can be used. 4) Avoid horizontal flat surfaces: horizontal flat surfaces should be avoided as they are prone to centerline shrinkage and other defects: rather they can be placed vertical or inclined. €) Avoid hot spots: design modifications and use of chills to avoid hot spots and eliminate shrinkage cavities in sections, HOTSPOT Figure 2.3: Shrinkage cavity ina T-section due to hotspot Pruthvi Loy Serrao SIEC, Mangalore2. Casting design 1) Methods to avoid hotspot: (a) Use of riser (b) Use of chills (c) Design modification -RNAL CHILLS EDUCEDAREA | ii) Effect of design modification and the use of chills in sections L-section T-section ‘X-section + Plain intersection +> a Modified intersection cto Effect of chills L P 4 Figure 2.4:1) Methods to avold hot spots, andl Effect of design modification and chil in sections 1) Parting line placement: properly place the gate and feeder: preferably at the parting line. The heavier sections must be located near parting line so they can be fed easily by the riser. Pruthvi Loy Serrao. 'SIEC, Mangalore2. Casting design 2.2.4 Design for minimum casting stresses Residual stresses in casting may be originated due to volume change resulting from change of phase, phase precipitation or due to thermal contraction on cooling. A stressed casting exhibits elastic distortion and is dimensionally nustable and may also develop cracks, Thus for minimizing the casting stresses following design rules must be applied. i. Radii for section corners: External comers should be rounded with radii that are 10-20% of the section thickness. ii. Radii for joining sections of unequal size: The radins plays an important role while joining the sections of unequal size. Thus, a fillet radius can be used to change the section thickness gradually; thereby, resistance to fatigue stresses can be enhanced. sTReS (CONCENTRATION iii, Radii for sharp angles and corners: The inside corner of the casting is heated to higher temperature. Due to this overheating the metal at inside comer solidifies slowly forming shrinkage defects. seve svnmace mes sees a => Yo XQ Stress concentration develops in the sharp inside comer during cooling, if these stresses exceed the strength of metal, a hot crack or a tear may form. srress CONCENTRATION / x > DY Hor tear (govery Pruthvi Loy Serrao. 'SIEC, Mangalore2. Casting design The sharp angles and comers may be replaced with suitable radii to minimize stress concentration and high temperature zones. : TRESS Os / iv. Use tubular and reinforced C-seetions rather than the standard I, Hand channel sections to obtain improved load bearing capabilities. TUBULAR SECTION Reieforeed C- SECTION v. Simplify the complex sections with cormugated design for better stifliness, Complex designs (Bad) Simplified designs (Better) fa 47 vi, Stiffness can also be obtained by the use of ribs with considerable weight reduction. The ribs should neither be too shallow nor too widely spaced. vii, Tapered or irregular sections are preferred instead of parallel sections Pruthvi Loy Serrao. SSIEC, Mangalore2._ Casting design 2.2.8 Design for functional properties (property criteria) ‘The required cast metal properties must also be considered while designing a casting which may be restrained by cost, production requirements (foundry characteristics such as. fluidity. solidification characteristics, ete.) or subsequent operations (machinability, weldability, etc.) The design of castings may be based upon a wide range of cast metal properties. Table 2.1: Cast metal properties ‘Mechanical properties Physical properties a. Strength a, Thermal conductivity b. Ductility b.. Specific heat c. Hardness c. Coefficient of thermal expansion 4d. Toughness 4. Dimensional stability e. Corrosion resistance e. Damping capacity £ Creep and fatigue £. Electrical conductivity The selection of the desired properties depends upon the service conditions of stress, temperature and environment, Thus, it is essential to define these conditions and select the right design atiteria Service requirements are most commonly defined in terms of mechanical properties as most of them are structure sensitive. The physical properties are not markedly structure sensitive, being influenced mainly by composition, especially that of the alloy base. Table 2.2: Selection cri ia based on alloy characteristics. Characteristics Suitable alloys High temperature strength high alloy austenitic steels, nickel and cobalt based alloys Wear resistance ‘Martensitic steels and cast irons Corrosion resistance Stainless steels, alloys based on copper and nickel Low thermal expansion Damping capacity Grey cast irons High electrical condnetivity Pure copper and alumininm Weldability Low carbon and austenitic steels Pruthvi Loy Serrao) SIEC, Mangalore2. Casting design The design criterion should also consider how castings will be held for subsequent operations: i Machinabitity determines the rate of stock removal attainable in machining operations and the costs incurred in power consumption and tool wear. ii, Weldability is the capacity of an alloy to give mechanically strong, defect free welded joints, a valuable property in many castings, especially where cast-welded construction is envisaged, i. Response to heat treatment carried out to relieve the residual stresses induced in the castings. 2.2.6 Safety considerations The human safety is a primary concer in a foundry floor; the hazardous waste produced, handling of heavy equipment, working on elevated platforms, noisy machine operations, handling of hot molten metals, ete. necessitates certain safety measures and safety training for the foundry personnel. Safety measures: ‘As per the occupational safety norms an employee needs to be trained on the right-to-know program prior to work and be given safety accessories to protect him against the hazardous or ‘occupational risks. i. Safety training The safety training involves following aspects Induction programs: are given to the new employees to prepare them for their new role before permitting to enter the work site, It may constitute the following aspects = work floor tour = training on handling and operating of equipment (specific job role training) + conditions for safe use of equipment and substances = awareness about hazardous substances and agents = potential for flammability, explosion or reactivity = procedures for cleanup of leaks and spills ~ personal safety measures - emergency procedures Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) program: a trained employee is required to maintain a MSDS for every operation that is to be carried out detailing the use of equipment and substances, the risk factors involved in it, and the possible safety measures adopted in the operation, Pruthvi Loy Serrao. SSIEC, MangaloreCasting design c. Labeling and recordkeeping program: for the safe handling of hazardous materials it is essential to train an employee on labeling the materials for their safe handling and keeping their records for reference Protective equipment ‘A trained employee needs to be equipped with safety essentials for personal safety before starting to work on a foundry floor. Following are the few possible risk areas with suitable safety measures. Table 2.3: Safety measures Protection Hazard Safety measures Head protection Falling objects Safety helmets Eye and Face protection _| Flying objects, glares, liquids, ete Spectacles, face shields ‘Hearing protection Noise above 854B for more than Shrs_| Ear plugs, mutts Hand protection Heat, splash, chips, abrasion, etc. Gloves Foot protection Falling of heavy and sharp objects | Safety hard toe shoes Protective clothing Flames, spark, heat, splash, ete. ‘Aprons, leggings Respiratory protections |airbome contaminants such as ash, | Air purifying masks dust, fumes, gases (SO:, CO, HCN) 2.3 MODEL MAKING The applications of computers have led to a remarkable development in the casting technology. The use of computers in modeling and simulating the various operations and processes involved offers a number of advantages for castings. These include: ‘© Increased production and yield ‘© Improved easting quality ‘© Reduced cost of production ‘© Flexibility in implementing design changes ‘© Faster production ‘The keen areas where the computerized deign, modeling aud simulation can be applied are: ‘© Pattern and gating design ‘© Pattern withdrawal simulation © Casting weight calculation ‘© Stress analysis ‘© Parting line analysis, ‘© Modeling of fluid flow and mould filling © Feeder head design ‘© Modeling of Solidification Heat Transfer © Cost estimation Pruthvi Loy Serra SUEC, Mangalore2, Casting design The modeling and simulation requires certain inputs on thermal and physical conditions in a casting in order to analyze and predict satisfactory outcomes for selecting the most suitable design criteria, Few thermo physical data that can be considered are listed in table 2.4 Table 2.4: Thermo physical data required for modeling Casting Analysis | Thermo physical data required | Modeling used for prediction Solidification heat | Density vs. Temperature Hot spots, transfer Specific heat vs, Temperature Direction of solidification Conductivity vs. Temperature Solidification shrinkage Latent heat of fusion Effectiveness of riser and chills Interface heat transfer coefficient | Microporosity metal-mould mould-envizonment Microstructure Chemical composition Microstructure morpholo; Phase diagrams Grain size Solute diffusivity Grain orientation Nucleation and growth conditions Fluid flow Viscosity vs. Temperature Pouring rate and temperature Surface Tension Mould filling time Coefficient of friction Effectiveness of gating system Stress Stress/strain vs, Temperature Internal stress Thermal expansion coefficient Casting distortion Hot tear References: A text book of Foundry Technology ~ O.P. Khanna 1 2. Castings - ASM Handbook, Volume 15 3. Foundry Technology — Peter Beeley Pruthvi Loy Serrao. SSIEC, Mangalore