CH-5, Advanced (Nano-traditional) Machining Process

The nontraditional processes are often classified according to principal form of energy used
to effect material removal. By this classification, there are four types
1. Mechanical. Mechanical energy in some form other than the action of a conventional
cutting tool is used in these non-traditional processes. Erosion of the work material by a
high velocity stream of abrasives or fluid (or both) is a typical form of mechanical action
in these processes.
2. Electrical. These non-traditional processes use electrochemical energy to remove
material; the mechanism is the reverse of electroplating.
3. Thermal. These processes use thermal energy to cut or shape the work part. The thermal
energy is generally applied to a very small portion of the work surface, causing that
portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization. The thermal energy is generated
by the conversion of electrical energy.
4. Chemical. Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to chemical attack by
certain acids or other etchants. In chemical machining, chemicals selectively remove
material from portions of the work part, whereas other portions of the surface are
protected by a mask
1. MECHANICAL ENERGY PROCESSES
1.1. Ultrasonic machining,
1.2. Water jet processes
1.1. Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a non-traditional machining process in which
abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at high velocity against the work by a tool
vibrating at low amplitude and high frequency.
 The amplitudes are around 0.075 mm (0.003 in), and the frequencies are
approximately 20,000 Hz.
 The tool oscillates in a direction perpendicular to the work surface, and is fed slowly
into the work, so that the shape of the tool is formed in the part.

Ultrasonic machining
 Common tool materials used in USM include soft steel and stainless steel.
 Abrasive materials in USM include boron nitride, boron carbide, aluminium oxide,
silicon carbide and diamond.
 The development of ultrasonic machining was motivated by the need to machine
hard, brittle work materials, such as ceramics, glass, and carbides. It is also
successfully used on certain metals, such as stainless steel and titanium.

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 Shapes obtained by USM include non-round holes, holes along a curved axis, and
coining operations, in which an image pattern on the tool is imparted to a flat work
surface.
 Grit size ranges between 100 and 2000. The vibration amplitude should be set
approximately equal to the grit size, and the gap size should be maintained at about
two times grit size.
 To a significant degree, grit size determines the surface finish on the new work
surface and removal rate in USM increases with increasing frequency and amplitude
of vibration.
 the abrasive particles erode the work surface, they also erode the tool, thus affecting
its shape.
 It is therefore important to know the relative volumes of work material and tool
material removed during the process.
 This ratio of stock removed to tool wear varies for different work materials, ranging
from around 100:1 for cutting glass down to about 1:1 for cutting tool steel. The
slurry in USM consists of a mixture of water and abrasive particles.
 Concentration of abrasives in water ranges from 20% to 60%.
 The slurry must be continuously circulated to bring fresh grains into action at the
tool–work gap. It also washes away chips and worn grits created by the cutting
process
1.2. Water Jet Cutting (WJM) Water jet cutting (WJC) uses a fine, high-pressure, high-
velocity stream of water directed at the work surface to cause cutting of the work. To
obtain the fine stream of water a small nozzle opening of diameter 0.1 to 0.4 mm
(0.004 to 0.016 in) is used.
 To provide the stream with sufficient energy for cutting, pressures up to 400MPa
(60,000 lb/in2) are used, and the jet reaches velocities up to 900 m/s (3000 ft/sec).
 The fluid is pressurized to the desired level by a hydraulic pump

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Water jet cutting

 The nozzle unit consists of a holder made of stainless steel, and a jewel nozzle made
of sapphire, ruby diamond. Diamond lasts the longest but costs the most.
 Filtration systems must be used in WJC to separate the swarf produced during cutting.
Cutting fluids in WJC are polymer solutions, preferred because of their tendency to
produce a coherent stream.
 Important process parameters include standoff distance, nozzle opening diameter,
water pressure, and cutting feed rate.
 The cutting feed rate refers to the velocity at which the WJC nozzle is traversed along
the cutting path. Typical feed rates range from 5 mm/s (12 in/min) to more than 500
mm/s (1200 in/min), depending on work material and its thickness. It can be
automated using computer numerical control or industrial robots to manipulate
the nozzle unit along the desired trajectory.
 To cut narrow slits in flat stock such as plastic, textiles, composites, floor tile,
carpet, leather, and cardboard. Robotic cells have been installed with WJC nozzles
mounted as the robot’s tool to follow cutting patterns that are irregular in three
dimensions, such as cutting and trimming of automobile dashboards before assembly.
Advantages of WJC include:
a. No crushing or burning of the work surface typical in other mechanical or thermal
processes,
b. Minimum material loss because of the narrow cut slit,
c. no environmental pollution, and Ease of automating the process.
A limitation of WJC is that the process is not suitable for cutting brittle materials (e.g., glass)
because of their tendency to crack during cutting
1.2 b. Abrasive Water Jet Cutting (AWJ)
When WJC is used on metallic work parts, abrasive particles must usually be added to the jet
stream to facilitate cutting. This process is therefore called abrasive water jet cutting
(AWJC).
Introduction of abrasive particles into the stream complicates the process by adding to the
number of parameters that must be controlled. Among the additional parameters are abrasive
type, grit size, and flow rate.
Aluminium oxide, silicon dioxide, and garnet (a silicate mineral) are typical abrasive
materials, at grit sizes ranging between 60 and 120. The abrasive particles are added to the
water stream at approximately 0.25 kg/min (0.5 lb/min) after it has exited the WJC nozzle.
 The remaining process parameters include those that are common to WJC: nozzle
opening diameter, water pressure, and standoff distance.
 Nozzle orifice diameters are 0.25 to 0.63 mm (0.010 to 0.025 in)—somewhat larger
than in water jet cutting to permit higher flow rates and more energy to be contained
in the stream before injection of abrasives.

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 Water pressures are about the same as in WJC. Standoff distances are somewhat less
to minimize the effect of dispersion of the cutting fluid that now contains abrasive
particles.
 Typical standoff distances are between 1/4 and 1/2 of those in WJC.
1.2.c Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
 AJM is process called abrasive jet machining (AJM), a material removal process
caused by the action of a high-velocity stream of gas containing small abrasive
particles. The gas is dry, and pressures of 0.2 to 1.4 MPa (25 to 200 lb/in2) are used
to propel it through nozzle orifices of diameter 0.075 to 1.0mm(0.003 to 0.040 in) at
velocities of 2.5 to 5.0 m/s (500 to 1000 ft/ min). Gases include dry air, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, and helium.

Abrasive jet machining (AJM).

 The process is usually performed manually by an operator who directs the nozzle at
the work. Typical distances between nozzle tip and work surface range between 3 mm
and 75mm (0.125 in and 3 in). The workstation must be set up to provide proper
ventilation for the operator.
 AJM is normally used as a finishing process rather than a production cutting process.
 Applications include deburring, trimming and deflashing, cleaning, and polishing.
Cutting is accomplished successfully on hard, brittle materials (e.g., glass, silicon,
mica, and ceramics) that are in the form of thin flat stock.
 Typical abrasives used in AJM include aluminium oxide (for aluminium and brass),
silicon carbide (for stainless steel and ceramics), and glass beads (for polishing). Grit
sizes are small, 15 to 40 mm (0.0006 to 0.0016 in) in diameter, and must be uniform
in size for a given application.
 It is important not to recycle the abrasives because used grains become fractured (and
therefore smaller in size), worn, and contaminated
1.2.d Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM)
 to deburr and polish difficult-to-reach areas using abrasive particles mixed in a
viscoelastic polymer that is forced to flow through or around the part surfaces and
edges. The polymer has the consistency of putty. Silicon carbide is a typical abrasive.

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Abrasive flow machining (AFM) is particularly well-suited for internal passageways

that are often inaccessible by conventional methods
 The abrasive-polymer mixture, called the media, flows past the
 target regions of the part under pressures ranging between 0.7 and 20MPa (100 and
3000 lb/ in2).
 In addition to deburring and polishing, other AFM applications include forming radii
on sharp edges, removing rough surfaces on castings, and other finishing operations.
These applications are found in industries such as aerospace, automotive, and die-
making. The process can be automated.
2. Electrical.
2.1. Electrochemical machining (ECM)
 These non-traditional processes use electrochemical energy to remove material;
the mechanism is the reverse of electroplating. Electrochemical machining
removes metal from an electrically conductive workpiece by anodic dissolution, in
which the shape of the workpiece is obtained by a formed electrode tool in close
proximity to, but separated from, the work by a rapidly flowing electrolyte

•
Electrochemical machining (ECM).
 Material is deplated from the anode (the positive pole) and deposited onto the cathode
(the negative pole) in the presence of an electrolyte bath
 The electrode tool, usually made of copper, brass, or stainless steel, is designed to
possess approximately the inverse of the desired final shape of the part.
 To accomplish metal removal, the electrode is fed into the work at a rate equal to the
rate of metal removal from the work.
 Metal removal rate is determined by Faraday’s First Law, which states that the
amount of chemical change produced by an electric current (i.e., the amount of metal
dissolved) is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed (current x time)

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substituting this equation back into the equation defining Faraday’s law

It is convenient to convert this equation into an expression for feed rate, the rate at which the
electrode (tool) can be advanced into the work. This conversion can be accomplished in two
steps. First, let us divide At (area x time) to convert volume of metal removed into a linear
travel rate.

where fr = feed rate, mm/s (in/min).

By substituting I/A in place of E/(gr),
where A = the frontal area of the electrode, mm2 (in2).
This is the projected area of the tool in the direction of the feed into the work.
Typical values of specific removal rate C for selected work materials in electrochemical
machining

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Gap distance needs to be controlled closely, gab becomes too large, the electrochemical
process slows down. However, if the electrode touches the work, a short circuit occurs, which
stops the process altogether. As a practical matter, gap distance is usually maintained within a
range 0.075 to 0.75mm (0.003 to 0.030 in).
Water is used as the base for the electrolyte in ECM. To reduce electrolyte resistivity, salts
such as NaCl or NaNO3 are added in solution.
In addition to carrying off the material that has been removed from the workpiece, the
flowing electrolyte also serves the function of removing heat and hydrogen bubbles created in
the chemical reactions of the process.
The removed work material is in the form of microscopic particles that must be separated
from the electrolyte through centrifuge, sedimentation, or other means.
Large amounts of electrical power are required to perform ECM. As the equations indicate,
rate of metal removal is determined by electrical power, specifically the current density that
can be supplied to the operation. The voltage in ECM is kept relatively low to minimize
arcing across the gap
ECM is used when work metal is very hard or difficult to machine, or the workpart geometry
is difficult (or impossible) to accomplish by conventional machining methods. Work hardness
makes no difference in ECM, because the metal removal is not mechanical.
Applications
 die sinking, which involves the machining of irregular shapes and contours into
forging dies, plastic molds, and other shaping tools;
 multiple hole drilling, in which many holes can be drilled simultaneously with ECM
and conventional drilling would probably require the holes to be made sequentially;
 holes that are not round, because ECM does not use a rotating drill; and
 deburring, to remove burrs or to round sharp corners on metal work parts by anodic
dissolution
Advantages of ECM
 little surface damage to the work part,
 no burrs as in conventional machining,
 low tool wear (the only tool wear results from the flowing electrolyte),
 relatively high metal removal rates for hard and difficult-to machine metals.
Disadvantages of ECM
 significant cost of electrical power to drive the operation and
 problems of disposing of the electrolyte sludge

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1. THERMAL ENERGY PROCESSES

Material removal processes based on thermal energy are characterized by very high local
temperatures—hot enough to remove material by fusion or vaporization. Because of the high
temperatures, these processes cause physical and metallurgical damage to the new work
surface. In some cases, the resulting finish is so poor that subsequent processing is required to
smooth the surface.
3.1. Electric discharge machining and electric discharge wire cutting,
3.2 Electron beam machining,
3.3 Laser beam machining
3.1 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE PROCESSES
Electric discharge processes remove metal by a series of discrete electrical discharges
(sparks) that cause localized temperatures high enough to melt or vaporize the metal.
The two main processes in this category are:
1. Electric discharge machining (EDM) and
2. Wire electric discharge machining(WEDM)
Electric discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most widely used non-traditional
processes. The shape of the finished work surface is produced by a formed electrode tool.
 The sparks occur across a small gap between tool and work surface.
 The EDM process must take place in the presence of a dielectric fluid, which creates a
path for each discharge as the fluid becomes ionized in the gap.
 The discharges are generated by a pulsating direct current power supply connected to
the work and the tool

Electric discharge machining (EDM): (a) overall setup, and (b) close-up view of gap,
showing discharge and metal removal
The region in which discharge occurs is heated to extremely high temperatures, so that a
small portion of the work surface is suddenly melted and removed. The flowing dielectric

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then flushes away the small particle (chip). Because the surface of the work at the location of
the previous discharge is now separated from the tool by a greater distance, this location is
less likely to be the site of another spark until the surrounding regions have been reduced to
the same level or below
Two important process parameters in EDM are discharge current and frequency of
discharges. As either of these parameters is increased, metal removal rate increases. Surface
roughness is also affected by current and frequency.
The best surface finish is obtained in EDM by operating at high frequencies and low
discharge currents.
As the electrode tool penetrates into the work, overcutting occurs. Overcut in EDM is the
distance by which the machined cavity in the work part exceeds the size of the tool on each
side of the tool.

(a) Surface finish in EDM as a function of discharge current and frequency of discharges.
(b) Overcut in EDM as a function of discharge current and frequency of discharges
The high spark temperatures that melt the work also melt the tool, creating a small cavity in
the surface opposite the cavity produced in the work. Tool wear is usually measured as the
ratio of work material removed to tool material removed (similar to the grinding ratio).
This wear ratio ranges between 1.0 and 100 or slightly above, depending on the combination
of work and electrode materials.
Electrodes are made of graphite, copper, brass, copper tungsten, silver tungsten, and other
materials.
The selection depends on the type of power supply circuit available on the EDM machine, the
type of work material that is to be machined, and whether roughing or finishing is to be done.
Graphite is preferred for many applications because of its melting characteristics.
The hardness and strength of the work material are not factors in EDM, because the process
is not a contest of hardness between tool and work. The melting point of the work material is
an important property, and metal removal rate can be related to melting point approximately
by the following empirical formula, based on an equation described in Weller
The melting point of the work material is an important property, and metal removal rate can
be related to melting point approximately by the following empirical formula, based on an
equation described in Weller

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Copper is to be machined in an EDM operation. If discharge current = 25 amps, what is the

expected metal removal rate?
the melting point of copper is found to be 1083 oC. the anticipated metal removal rate is
Dielectric fluids used in EDM include hydrocarbon oils, kerosene, and distilled or deionized
water. The dielectric fluid serves as an insulator in the gap except when ionization occurs in
the presence of a spark. Its other functions are to flush debris out of the gap and remove heat
from tool and work part
2. Cutting Tools in EDM
 Electrodes are made of graphite, copper, brass, copper tungsten, silver tungsten,
and other materials.
 The selection depends on; type of power supply circuit available on the EDM
machine, the type of work material that is to be machined, and whether roughing or
finishing is to be done
 Graphite is preferred for many applications because of its melting characteristics. In
fact, graphite does not melt. It vaporizes at very high temperatures, and the cavity
created by the spark is generally smaller than for most other EDM electrode materials.
Consequently, a high ratio of work material removed to tool wear is usually obtained
with graphite tools.
 The hardness and strength of the work material are not factors in EDM, because the
process is not a contest of hardness between tool and work.
 The melting point of the work material is an important property, and metal removal
rate can be related to melting point approximately by the following empirical formula,
based on an equation described in Weller,

Tool material used in EDM and their characteristics

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3. Dielectric medium
 The dielectric is usually a low viscosity hydrocarbon oil. The workpiece and
electrode tool are separated by the dielectric.
 During operation the dielectric medium is ruptured when the tool and work gap is
about 0.03 mm and at about 70 V, when the dielectric is ionized to form a column or
path in the tool and work gap so that a surge of current takes place as the spark is
produced
 Dielectric is usually a low viscosity hydrocarbon oil., kerosene, and distilled or
deionized water. The dielectric fluid serves as an insulator in the gap except when
ionization occurs in the presence of a spark. Its other functions are to flush debris out
of the gap and remove heat from tool and work part
 The spark discharge will be in a micro small area at around 10,000°C and thousands
of atmospheric pressure and takes place in less than a micro second for each spark.
 A tiny part of work material vaporized due to the arc is expelled as the column of
ionized dielectric vapour collapses.
 The tiny metal particles are cooled into small spheres and are swept from the area by
the flow of dielectric fluid.
Functions of Dielectric fluid: Essential functions of a dielectric fluid used in EDM process
are:
1. Remain electrically non-conductive until the required breakdown voltage is attained,
i.e., it should possess high dielectric strength.
2. When once the breakdown voltage is reached it should breakdown electrically
instantly.
3. Deionize the spark gap, i.e., quench the spark rapidly after the discharge has occurred.
4.  Carry away the metal particles removed from the arc gap.
5.  Act as a good cooling medium
Desirable Properties of dielectric fluid
1) High electric strength for proper insulation.
2) High flash and fire point to prevent fire hazards.
3) Low viscosity and good wetting properties
4) Chemically neutral to prevent corrosion.
5) Non-toxic in nature.
6) Low decomposition rate for long life.
7) Low cost
8) Good quenching properties

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4. Flushing of dielectric
 Flushing refers to proper circulation of dielectric fluid at the gap between the work
and electrode tool in EDM.
 The efficiency of the cutting process to a great extent depends on the flushing of
dielectric fluid.
SELFY QUESTION
The contamination of the fluid reduces its insulation strength leading to early discharge of the
spark. How this is solved?
6. EDM Applications
 EDM is finding a lot of applications in machining difficult to machine materials used
in space industries, hard carbides, refractory metals and heat treated steels.
 It is also useful to cut workpieces that is too fragile to withstand the cutting force in
conventional machining
 Dies, fixtures, gauges
 Cutting tools
 Press tools, extrusion dies
 Die moulds for plastics
 Diecasting dies, mould inserts
 Remachining, repairing of worn dies for hot and cold forging
 Making forging dies like connecting rod forging dies, etc.
 Sintering dies
 Calibrating tools
 Shaping carbide tools, templates
3.1. B electric discharge wire cutting
Electric discharge wire cutting (EDWC), commonly called wire EDM, is a special form of
electric discharge machining that uses a small diameter wire as the electrode to cut a narrow
kerf in the work. The cutting action in wire EDM is achieved by thermal energy from electric
discharges between the electrode wire and the workpiece.

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The workpiece is fed past the wire to achieve the desired cutting path. Numerical control is
used to control the work part motions during cutting. As it cuts, the wire is slowly and
continuously advanced between a supply spool and a take-up spool to present a fresh
electrode of constant diameter to the work.
This helps to maintain a constant kerf width during cutting. As in EDM, wire EDM must be
carried out in the presence of a dielectric. This is applied by nozzles directed at the tool–work
interface or the work part is submerged in a dielectric bath
Wire diameters range from 0.076 to 0.30 mm (0.003 to 0.012 in), depending on required kerf
width. Materials used for the wire include brass, copper, tungsten, and molybdenum.
Dielectric fluids include deionized water or oil. An overcut exists in wire EDM that makes
the kerf larger than the wire diameter

This overcut is in the range 0.020 to 0.050mm (0.0008 to 0.002 in). Once cutting conditions
have been established for a given cut, the overcut remains fairly constant and predictable
WHEN TO USE EDM
 Where deep cutting is required
 In unattended cutting
 For high-expertise parts
 Where EDM finish is specified
 For hard materials
 For sharp inside corners
 For the most complex geometry

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SPARKS
 The phenomena “Breakdown” occurs
 Uses very powerful sparks (~3x106 V/m
 A path for the current through dielectric
 Locally 10-15.000 ºC
 Ionize the fluid
 Metal melts or vaporizes

TOOL EROSION (WEAR)

 Tool is also eroded
 It can be replaced (wire feed)
 Affects the shape of workpiece
 Can be proceed with negative-piece
 Reverse polarity electroplating
 Deposits the eroded graphite back
CHEMICAL MACHINING
1. Working Principles
Chemical machining (CHM) is a nontraditional process in which material is removed by
means of a strong chemical etchant. Applications as an industrial process began shortly after
World War II in the aircraft industry.
2. The Steps are implemented
1. Cleaning. The first step is a cleaning operation to ensure that material will be
removed uniformly from the surfaces to be etched.
2. Masking. A protective coating called a maskant is applied to certain portions of the
part surface. This maskant is made of a material that is chemically resistant to the etchant
(the term resist is used for this masking material). It is therefore applied to those portions
of the work surface that are not to be etched.

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3. Etching. This is the material removal step. The part is immersed in an etchant that
chemically attacks those portions of the part surface that are not masked.
 The usual method of attack is to convert the work material into a salt that
dissolves in the etchant and is thereby removed from the surface.
 When the desired amount of material has been removed, the part is withdrawn from
the etchant and washed to stop the process.
4. Demasking. The maskant is removed from the part

Sequence of processing steps in chemical milling: (1) clean raw part, (2) apply maskant, (3)
scribe, cut, and peel the maskant from areas to be etched, (4) etch, and (5) remove maskant
and clean to yield finished part
Maskant materials include neoprene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene, and other polymers
Masking can be accomplished by any of three methods:
a. cut and peel,
b. photographic resist, and
c. screen resist.
The cut and peel method applies the maskant over the entire part by dipping, painting, or
spraying. The resulting thickness of the maskant is 0.025 to 0.125 mm(0.001 to 0.005 in).
After the maskant has hardened, it is cut using a scribing knife and peeled away in the areas
of the work surface that are to be etched. The maskant cutting operation is performed by
hand, usually guiding the knife with a template.
The cut and peel method is generally used for large workparts, low production quantities,
and where accuracy is not a critical factor. This method cannot hold tolerances tighter than -
+ 0.125 mm (-+ 0.005 in) except with extreme care.
Photographic techniques to perform the masking step.
 The masking materials contain photosensitive chemicals.
 They are applied to the work surface and exposed to light through a negative image of
the desired areas to be etched.
 These areas of the maskant can then be removed from the surface using photographic
developing techniques

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 This procedure leaves the desired surfaces of the part protected by the maskant and
the remaining areas unprotected, vulnerable to chemical etching.
 Photoresist masking techniques are normally applied where small parts are produced
in high quantities, and close tolerances are required. Tolerances closer than -+0.0125
mm (-+0.0005 in)
 The screen resist method applies the maskant by means of silk screening methods.
 In this methods, the maskant is painted onto the workpart surface through a silk or
stainless steel mesh.
 Embedded in the mesh is a stencil that protects those areas to be etched from being
painted.
 Tolerances of -+0.075 mm (-+ 0.003 in) can be achieved with this masking method.
 Selection of the etchant depends on work material to be etched, desired depth and rate
of material removal, and surface finish requirements.
 The etchant must also be matched with the type of maskant that is used to ensure that the
maskant material is not chemically attacked by the etchant.
Common work materials and etchants in CHM, with typical penetration rates and etch
factors

 Depths of cut in chemical machining are as much as 12.5 mm (0.5 in) for aircraft
panels made out of metal plates.
 The effect is referred to as the undercut, and it must be accounted for in the design of
the mask for the resulting cut to have the specified dimensions.
 For a given work material, the undercut is directly related to the depth of cut.
 The constant of proportionality for the material is called the etch factor, defined as

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Different work materials have different etch factors in chemical machining

Common work materials and etchants in CHM, with typical penetration
rates and etch factors

SELF READING ASSIGNMENT

1. Chemical Milling
2. Chemical Blanking
3. Chemical Engraving
4. Photochemical Machining
ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)
The process of metal removal by electro chemical dissolution was known as long back as
1780 AD
It is also known as contactless electrochemical forming process. The noteworthy feature of
electrolysis is that electrical energy is used to produce a chemical reaction, therefore, the
machining process based on this principle is known as Electrochemical machining (ECM).
This process works on the principle of of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.

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 Michael Faraday discovered that if the two electrodes are placed in a bath containing
a conductive liquid and DC potential (5-25V) is applied across them, metal can be
depleted from the anode and plated on the cathode.
 ECM is the reverse of the electroplating.
 ECM can be thought of a controlled anodic dissolution at atomic level of the work
piece that is electrically conductive by a shaped tool due to flow of high current at
relatively low potential difference through an electrolyte which is quite often water
based neutral salt solution.

In ECM, Electrolyte is so chosen that there is no plating on tool and shape of tool remains
unchanged. If the close gap (0.1 to 0.2mm) is maintained between tool and work, the
machined surface takes the replica of tool shape.

During ECM, there will be reactions occurring at the electrodes i.e. at the anode or workpiece
and at the cathode or the tool along with within the electrolyte.
Machining of low carbon steel which is primarily a ferrous alloy mainly containing iron. For
electrochemical machining of steel, neutral salt solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) is taken as
the electrolyte. The electrolyte and water undergoes ionic dissociation as shown below as
potential difference is applied
As the potential difference is applied between the work piece (anode) and the tool (cathode),
the positive ions move towards the tool and negative ions move towards the workpiece.

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Thus the hydrogen ions will take away electrons from the cathode (tool) and from hydrogen
gas as

hydrogen ions will take away electrons from the cathode (tool) and from hydrogen gas

iron atoms will come out of the anode (work piece) as

Schematic representation of electro-chemical reactions

 The voltage is required to be applied for the electrochemical reaction to proceed at a
steady state. That voltage or potential difference is around 2 to 30 V.
 The applied potential difference, however, also overcomes the following resistances
or potential drops. They are:
1. The electrode potential 4. Concentration over potential
2. The activation over potential 5. Ohmic resistance of electrolyte
3. Ohmic potential drop

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 CH-5, Advanced (Nano-traditional) Machining Process

3. Equipment
1. Power supply
2. Electrolyte filtration and delivery system
3. Tool feed system
4. Working tank
Modelling of material removal rate
 In ECM, material removal takes place due to atomic dissolution of work material.
Electrochemical dissolution is governed by Faraday’s laws.
 The first law states that the amount of electrochemical dissolution or deposition is
proportional to amount of charge passed through the electrochemical cell, which may
be expressed as

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 CH-5, Advanced (Nano-traditional) Machining Process

The engineering materials are quite often alloys rather than element consisting of different
elements in a given proportion.
Let us assume there are ‘n’ elements in an alloy.
 The atomic weights are given as A1, A2, ………….., An with valency during
electrochemical dissolution as ν1, ν2, …………, νn.
 The weight percentages of different elements are α 1, α2, ………….., αn (in decimal
fraction)
Now for passing a current of I for a time t, the mass of material dissolved for any element ‘i’
is given by

where Γa is the total volume of alloy dissolved. Each element present in the alloy takes a
certain amount of charge to dissolve.
The total charge passed

Applications

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 CH-5, Advanced (Nano-traditional) Machining Process

ECM leads to atomic level dissolution, the surface finish is excellent with almost stress free
machined surface and without any thermal damage.
 Die sinking  Grinding
 Profiling and contouring  Drilling
 Trepanning  Micro-machining

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