Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Aff K Toolbox 2 - Michigan7 2013
Aff K Toolbox 2 - Michigan7 2013
Perm
Generic
Permutation solves- Problems of discourse can be resolved within the limits of
postructuralism- enacting the alternative fails to influence main stream politics
Newman 05- a Research Fellow at UWA and a Lecturer in Politics at Edith Cowan University,
Western Australia. (“Power and Politics in¶ Poststructuralist Thought: New theories of the
political,” Taylor and Francis Group, First Published 2005, http://zinelibrary.info/files/Newman
%20-%20Power%20and%20Politics%20in%20Poststructuralist%20Thought%20-%20New
%20Theories%20of%20the%20Political.pdf)
Therefore the third, and more implicit, aim in this book is to suggest ¶ that, contrary to prevailing
criticism, poststructuralism does not amount to¶ an apolitical and amoral nihilism. Rather, a
poststructuralist approach is¶ ethically and politically engaged. However, this engagement or
commitment is not always obvious – it needs to be teased out, emphasized, and ¶ this is precisely
my aim here. Moreover, there are certain conceptual blind ¶ spots or ‘aporias’ – to use Derrida’s
term – in poststructuralist theory,¶ which present obstacles to its political efficacy, and which I
seek to redress¶ here. These include the need for a more consistent place for the subject, as ¶
well as the need for an ‘outside’ to structures of power, discourse and language. These, and
other, problems emerge in different ways throughout¶ the essays in this book. My contention
here is that they can be resolved¶ within the discursive limits of poststructuralism itself – that is,
they can be¶ resolved without falling back onto essential foundations, such as a universal
conception of the subject or absolute moral and rational positions.¶ Poststructuralism’s
rejection of these metaphysical foundations has¶ perhaps accounted for its rather frosty
reception in the mainstream discipline of political theory, where it is usually regarded with
suspicion, if not¶ outright hostility. Instead, poststructuralist ideas tend to find a home in¶
disciplines outside politics, such as cultural studies, literary criticism and¶ film theory. Indeed,
there seems to be a dissonance between usually AngloAmerican dominated or ‘analytical’
political theory, and ‘continental’ poststructuralist thought. The former seems more concerned
with devising¶ watertight moral and rational bases for political decisions – decisions ¶ which
usually revolve around questions concerning the public sphere, such ¶ as rights or the distribution
of ‘goods’. The latter, on the other hand, is ¶ more interested in how things work or how things
come to be: how might¶ we come to be asking these questions about politics, and not others;
what¶ are the investments of power and the relations of exclusion that are ¶ involved with asking
these questions and limiting ourselves to certain ¶ political institutions and discourses? For
instance, in mainstream political¶ theory, liberalism functions as a kind of meta-ideology or
‘metanarrative’;¶ it has become an embedded, universal discourse that determines the
conceptual limits of the practice of politics and defines its very terms of¶ enquiry. However, a
poststructuralist approach might be more interested ¶ in interrogating or deconstructing the
discourse of liberalism itself, questioning its assumed ‘neutrality’ and universality, and unveiling
the moral¶ and rational assumptions and particular modes of subjectivity that it is ¶ based on.
Therefore, this book shows how poststructuralism might intervene in debates in political theory,
not by conforming to terms of reference¶ that are dominant in this discipline, but by redefining
them.
Perm solves- poststructuralist politics don’t have individual agencies- hidden
power relations, essentialist identities, and discursive and epistemological
frameworks prove.
Newman 12- a Research Fellow at UWA and a Lecturer in Politics at Edith Cowan University,
Western Australia. (“The Politics of Post Anarchism,” The Anarchist Library, May 21, 2012,
http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/saul-newman-the-politics-of-postanarchism.pdf)
The impetus for this postanarchist intervention came from my sense that not ¶ only was anarchist
theory in nuce poststructuralist; but also that postructuralism ¶ itself was in nuce anarchist. That
is to say, anarchism allowed, as I have suggested, ¶ the theorization of the autonomy of the
political with its multiple sites of power¶ and domination, as well as its multiple identities and
sites of resistance (state,¶ church, family, patriarchy, etc) beyond the economic reductionist
framework¶ of Marxism. However, as I have also argued, the implications of these theoretical
innovations were restricted by the epistemological conditions of the time¶ — essentialist ideas
about subjectivity, the determinist view of history, and the¶ rational discourses of the
Enlightenment. Poststructuralism is, in turn, at least in ¶ its political orientation, fundamentally
anarchist — particularly its deconstructive ¶ project of unmasking and destabilizing the authority
of institutions, and contesting practices of power that are dominating and exclusionary. The
problem with¶ poststructuralism was that, while it implied a commitment to anti-authoritarian¶
politics, it lacked not only an explicit politico-ethico content, but also an adequate¶ account of
individual agency. The central problem with Foucault, for instance,¶ was that if the subject is
constructed through the discourses and relations of¶ power that dominate him, how exactly
does he resist this domination? Therefore,¶ the premise for bringing together anarchism and
poststructuralism was to explore ¶ the ways in which each might highlight and address the
theoretical problems¶ in the other. For instance, the poststructuralist intervention in anarchist
theory¶ showed that anarchism had a theoretical blindspot — it did not recognize the¶ hidden
power relations and potential authoritarianism in the essentialist identities, and discursive and
epistemological frameworks, that formed the basis of its¶ critique of authority. The anarchist
intervention in poststructural theory, on the ¶ other hand, exposed its political and ethical
shortcomings, and, in particular, the¶ ambiguities of explaining agency and resistance in the
context of all-pervasive¶ power relations.¶ These theoretical problems centered around the
question of power, place and¶ the outside: it was found that while classical anarchism was able
to theorize, in¶ the essential revolutionary subject, an identity or place of resistance outside the
Methods shouldn’t come first – they are a means to an end. Treating method as
an exclusive endpoint legitimizes mass suffering.
Fearon and Wendt, Professor of Poli Sci at Stanford and Professor of IR at Ohio State,2002
(James and Alexander, Handbook of International Relations, ed. Carlsnaes, p.68)
It should be stressed that in advocating a pragmatic view we are not endorsing method-driven
social science. Too much research in international relations chooses problems of things to be
explained with a view to whether the analysis will provide support for one or another
methodological ‘ism’. But the point of IR scholarship should be to answer questions
about international politics that are of great normative concern, not to validate methods.
Methods are means, not ends in themselves . As a matter of personal scholarly choice it may be
reasonable to stick with one method and see how far it takes us. But since we do not
know how far that is, if the goal of the discipline is insight into world politics then it makes
little sense to rule out one or the other approach on a priori grounds. In that case a
method indeed becomes a tacit ontology, which may lead to neglect of whatever
problems it is poorly suited to address. Being conscious about those choices is why it is important to
distinguish between the ontological, empirical, and pragmatic levels of the rationalist-constructivist debate. We favor the
pragmatic approach on heuristic grounds, but we certainly believe a conversation should continue on all three levels.
Policy good
We also control uniqueness - Academia is becoming dominated by those who
don’t want to engage in policymaking now – we need to engage policy
relevance instead of intellectual window dressing
Mahnken 10
Thomas G. Mahnken (Visiting Scholar at the Merrill Center for Strategic Studies at The Johns Hopkins University’s Paul H. Nitze
School of Advanced International Studies served as the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Policy Planning) Winter
2010 “ Bridging the Gap Between the Worlds of Ideas and Action” Orbis Vol. 54 No. 1 Science Direct Pages 4-13
Some calls for greater collaboration between the government and the academy have emerged from professors. Among
international relations scholars, arguably among
the most engaged of social scientists, there is
modest support for engagement in policy. A recent survey of scholars found that 49
percent of respondents believed they should contribute to the policymaking process
as informal advisors but only 29 percent believed they should be formal participants.8 Among those who choose to engage in
policy-relevant research, one frequently heard complaint is that practitioners do not use their theories. Michael C. Desch, for
one, has lamented that ‘‘Policymakers
need to be willing to really listen to us as they
formulate policy, rather than just using us as intellectual window dressing .’’9
These are the kinds of questions that call for the exercise of practical reason, a form of thought
that draws concurrently from theory and practice, from values and experience, and from
critical thinking and human empathy. None of these attributes is likely to be thought of no value
and thus able to be ignored. Our schools, however, are unlikely to take on all of them as goals of
the educational process. The goal of education is not to render practical arguments more
theoretical; nor is it to diminish the role of values in practical reason. Indeed, all three sources—
theoretical knowledge, practical knowhow and experience, and deeply held values and identity
—have legitimate places in practical arguments. An educated person, argue philosophers
Thomas Green (1971) and Gary Fenstermacher (1986), is someone who has transformed the
premises of her or his practical arguments from being less objectively reasonable to being more
objectively reasonable. That is, to the extent that they employ probabilistic reasoning or interpret
data from various sources, those judgments and interpretations conform more accurately to
well-understood principles and are less susceptible to biases and distortions. To the extent that
values, cultural or religious norms, or matters of personal preference or taste are at work, they
have been rendered more explicit, conscious, intentional, and reflective. In his essay for this
volume, Jerome Kagan reflects the interactions among these positions by arguing: We are more
likely to solve our current problem, however, if teachers accept the responsibility of
guaranteeing that all adolescents, regardless of class or ethnicity, can read and comprehend the
science section of newspapers, solve basic mathematical problems, detect the logical coherence
in non-technical verbal arguments or narratives, and insist that all acts of maliciousness,
deception, and unregulated self-aggrandizement are morally unacceptable. Whether choosing
between a Prius and a Hummer, an Obama or a McCain, installing solar panels or planting taller
trees, a well-educated person has learned to combine their values, experience,
understandings, and evidence in a thoughtful and responsible manner. Thus do habits of mind,
practice, and heart all play a significant role in the lives of citizens.
Having traced a major strand in the development of CRT, we turn now to the strands' effect on
the relationships of CRATs with each other and with outsiders. As the foregoing material
suggests, the central CRT message is not simply that minorities are being treated unfairly, or
even that individuals out there are in pain - assertions for which there are data to serve as grist
for the academic mill - but that the minority scholar himself or herself hurts and hurts badly.
An important problem that concerns the very definition of the scholarly enterprise now comes
into focus. What can an academic trained to [*694] question and to doubt n72 possibly say to
Patricia Williams when effectively she announces, "I hurt bad"? n73 "No, you don't hurt"?
"You shouldn't hurt"? "Other people hurt too"? Or, most dangerously - and perhaps most
tellingly - "What do you expect when you keep shooting yourself in the foot?" If the majority
were perceived as having the well- being of minority groups in mind, these responses might be
acceptable, even welcomed. And they might lead to real conversation. But, writes Williams, the
failure by those "cushioned within the invisible privileges of race and power... to incorporate a
sense of precarious connection as a part of our lives is... ultimately obliterating." n74
"Precarious." "Obliterating." These words will clearly invite responses only from fools and
sociopaths; they will, by effectively precluding objection, disconcert and disunite others. "I
hurt," in academic discourse, has three broad though interrelated effects. First, it demands
priority from the reader's conscience. It is for this reason that law review editors, waiving
usual standards, have privileged a long trail of undisciplined - even silly n75 - destructive and,
above all, self-destructive arti [*695] cles. n76 Second, by emphasizing the emotional bond
between those who hurt in a similar way, "I hurt" discourages fellow sufferers from
abstracting themselves from their pain in order to gain perspective on their condition. n77
[*696] Last, as we have seen, it precludes the possibility of open and structured conversation
with others. n78
[*697] It is because of this conversation-stopping effect of what they insensitively call "first-
person agony stories" that Farber and Sherry deplore their use. "The norms of academic civility
hamper readers from challenging the accuracy of the researcher's account; it would be rather
difficult, for example, to criticize a law review article by questioning the author's emotional
stability or veracity." n79 Perhaps, a better practice would be to put the scholar's experience on
the table, along with other relevant material, but to subject that experience to the same level of
scrutiny.
If through the foregoing rhetorical strategies CRATs succeeded in limiting academic debate,
why do they not have greater influence on public policy? Discouraging white legal scholars from
entering the national conversation about race, n80 I suggest, has generated a kind of cynicism
in white audiences which, in turn, has had precisely the reverse effect of that ostensibly desired
by CRATs. It drives the American public to the right and ensures that anything CRT offers is
reflexively rejected.
In the absence of scholarly work by white males in the area of race, of course, it is difficult to be
sure what reasons they would give for not having rallied behind CRT. Two things, however, are
certain. First, the kinds of issues raised by Williams are too important in their implications
[*698] for American life to be confined to communities of color. If the lives of minorities are
heavily constrained, if not fully defined, by the thoughts and actions of the majority elements in
society, it would seem to be of great importance that white thinkers and doers participate in
open discourse to bring about change. Second, given the lack of engagement of CRT by the
community of legal scholars as a whole, the discourse that should be taking place at the highest
scholarly levels has, by default, been displaced to faculty offices and, more generally, the streets
and the airwaves.
Thus, debate games require teachers to balance the centripetal/centrifugal forces of gaming and
teaching, to be able to reconfigure their discursive authority, and to orchestrate the multiple
voices of a dialogical game space in relation to particular goals. These Bakhtinian perspectives
provide a valuable analytical framework for describing the discursive interplay between
different practices and knowledge aspects when enacting (debate) game scenarios. In addition
to this, Bakhtin’s dialogical philosophy also offers an explanation of why debate games (and other
game types) may be valuable within an educational context. One of the central features of
multi-player games is that players are expected to experience a simultaneously real and
imagined scenario both in relation to an insider’s (participant) perspective and to an outsider’s
(co-participant) perspective. According to Bakhtin, the outsider’s perspective reflects a
fundamental aspect of human understanding: In order to understand, it is immensely important
for the person who understands to be located outside the object of his or her creative
understanding – in time, in space, in culture. For one cannot even really see one's own exterior
and comprehend it as a whole, and no mirrors or photographs can help; our real exterior can be
seen and understood only by other people, because they are located outside us in space, and
because they are others (Bakhtin, 1986: 7). As the quote suggests, every person is influenced by
others in an inescapably intertwined way, and consequently no voice can be said to be isolated.
Thus, it is in the interaction with other voices that individuals are able to reach understanding
and find their own voice. Bakhtin also refers to the ontological process of finding a voice as
“ideological becoming”, which represents “the process of selectively assimilating the words of
others” (Bakhtin, 1981: 341). Thus, by teaching and playing debate scenarios, it is possible to
support students in their process of becoming not only themselves, but also in becoming
articulate and responsive citizens in a democratic society.
Warming
Our debate about ecological change will cause a real-world paradigm shift –
eventually spurring political action
Ophuls (William, Professor of Political Science @ Northwestern, Politics of Scarcity
Revisited) 1992
Even more encouraging is the change in perspectives among young people.
In schools across the United States, environmental education courses are
springing up. Among the objectives of these courses is to teach youngsters such
concepts as the “web of life” to show them that “you can’t do just one
thing,” and to involve them personally in planting, recycling, and cleaning
up debris in their communities. The fact that these courses are being
taught from elementary schools “on up” itself suggest changing attitudes
among today’s educational elites. Moreover, those who teach these
concepts are often surprised at how readily children accept ecological
concepts – how, indeed children will encourage their parents to launch
recycling programs or will educate their parents about other
environmental issues. One observer has suggested that this should come
as no surprise at all. Just as today’s 40- and 50-year-old grew up with a
vague fear of the bomb and worried at times that their elders would blow
up the world, he suggests that 10-year-olds today are vaguely fearful of
environmental deterioration and worry that their elders are polluting the
world. If this is so and these children are adopting a change in paradigm,
suggestions dismissed today as politically unrealistic will, in some
modified form, become tomorrow’s political imperatives. Environmental
impact will no longer be the nuisance of generating required paperwork
but will be an important underpinning for political decisions.
Getting to 350 parts per million CO2 in the atmosphere will require massive investments in
clean-energy infrastructure—investments that can too often be foiled by a combination of
special interests and political sclerosis. Take the recent approval of the Cape Wind project by the
U.S. Department of the Interior. In some ways, this was great news for clean-energy advocates:
the project’s 130 turbines will produce, on average, 170 megawatts of electricity, almost 75
percent of the average electricity demand for Cape Cod and the islands of Martha’s Vineyard
and Nantucket.1 But, because of local opposition by well-organized opponents, the approval
process was lengthy, costly, and grueling —and all for a project that will produce only 0.04
percent of the total (forecasted) U.S. electricity demand in 2010.2,3 Over the next few decades,
the world will need thousands of large-scale, low-carbon electricity projects—wind, solar, and
nuclear power will certainly be in the mix. But if each faces Cape Wind–like opposition, getting
to 350 is unlikely. How can the decision-making process about such projects be streamlined so
that public policy reflects the view of a well-informed majority, provides opportunities for
legitimate critiques, but does not permit the opposition to retard the process indefinitely? One
answer is found in a set of innovative policy-making tools founded on the principle of deliberative
democracy, defined as “decision making by discussion among free and equal citizens.”4 Such
approaches, which have been developed and led by the Center for Deliberative Democracy
(cdd.stanford.edu), America Speaks (www.americaspeaks.org), and the Consensus Building
Institute (cbuilding.org), among others, are gaining popularity by promising a new foothold for
effective citizen participation in the drive for a clean-energy future. Deliberative democracy
stems from the belief that democratic leadership should involve educating constituents about
issues at hand, and that citizens may significantly alter their opinions when faced with
information about these issues. Advocates of the approach state that democracy should shift
away from fixed notions toward a learning process in which people develop defensible positions.5
While the approaches of the Center for Deliberative Democracy, America Speaks, and the
Consensus Building Institute do differ, all of these deliberative methodologies involve unbiased
sharing of information and public-policy alternatives with a representative set of citizens; a
moderated process of deliberation among the selected citizens; and the collection and
dissemination of data resulting from this process. For example, in the deliberative polling
approach used by the Center for Deliberative Democracy, a random selection of citizens is first
polled on a particular issue. Then, members of the poll are invited to gather at a single place to
discuss the issue. Participants receive balanced briefing materials to review before the
gathering, and at the gathering they engage in dialogue with competing experts and political
leaders based on questions they develop in small group discussions. After deliberations, the
sample is asked the original poll questions, and the resulting changes in opinion represent the
conclusions that the public would reach if everyone were given the opportunity to become more
informed on pressing issues.6 If policymakers look at deliberative polls rather than traditional
polls, they will be able to utilize results that originate from an informed group of citizens. As
with traditional polls, deliberative polls choose people at random to represent U.S.
demographics of age, education, gender, and so on. But traditional polls stop there, asking the
random sample some brief, simple questions, typically online or over the phone. However,
participants of deliberative polls have the opportunity to access expert information and then talk
with one another before voting on policy recommendations. The power of this approach is
illustrated by the results of a global deliberative process organized by World Wide Views on
Global Warming (www.wwviews.org), a citizen’s deliberation organization based in Denmark.7
On September 26, 2009, approximately 4,000 people gathered in 38 countries to consider what
should happen at the UN climate change negotiations in Copenhagen (338 Americans met in five
major cities). The results derived from this day of deliberation were dramatic and significantly
different from results of traditional polls. Overall, citizens showed strong concern about global
warming and support for climate-change legislation, contrary to the outcomes of many standard
climate-change polls. Based on the polling results from these gatherings, 90 percent of global
citizens believe that it is urgent for the UN negotiations to produce a new climate change
agreement; 88 percent of global citizens (82 percent of U.S. citizens) favor holding global
warming to within 2 degrees Celsius of pre-industrial levels; and 74 percent of global citizens (69
percent of U.S. citizens) favor increasing fossil-fuel prices in developed countries. However, a
typical news poll that was conducted two days before 350.org’s International Day of Climate
Action on October 24, 2009, found that Americans had an overall declining concern about global
warming.7 How can deliberative democracy help to create solutions for the climate-change
policy process, to accelerate the kinds of policies and public investments that are so crucial to
getting the world on a path to 350? Take again the example of wind in the United States. In the
mid-1990s, the Texas Public Utilities Commission (PUC) launched an “integrated resource plan”
to develop long-term strategies for energy production, particularly electricity.8 Upon learning
about the deliberative polling approach of James Fishkin (then at the University of Texas at
Austin), the PUC set up deliberative sessions for several hundred customers in the vicinity of
every major utility provider in the state. The results were a surprise: it turned out that
participants ranked reliability and stability of electricity supply as more important characteristics
than price. In addition, they were open to supporting renewable energy, even if the costs
slightly exceeded fossil-fuel sources. Observers considered this a breakthrough: based on these
public deliberations, the PUC went on to champion an aggressive renewable portfolio standard,
and the state has subsequently experienced little of the opposition to wind-tower siting that has
slowed development in other states.8 By 2009, Texas had 9,500 megawatts of installed wind
capacity, as much as the next six states (ranked by wind capacity) in the windy lower and upper
Midwest (Iowa, Minnesota, Colorado, North Dakota, Kansas, and New Mexico).9 Deliberative
democracy has proven effective in a wide range of countries and settings. In the Chinese
township of Zeguo, a series of deliberative polls has helped the Local People’s Congress (LPC) to
become a more effective decision-making body.10 In February 2008, 175 citizens were randomly
selected to scrutinize the town’s budget—and 60 deputies from the LPC observed the process.
After the deliberations, support decreased for budgeting for national defense projects, while
support rose for infrastructure (e.g., rural road construction) and environmental protection.
Subsequently, the LPC increased support for environmental projects by 9 percent.10 In decades
to come, China must be at the forefront of the world’s investments in clean-energy
infrastructure. The experience of Zeguo, if scaled up and fully supported by Chinese leaders, can
help to play an important role. Deliberative democracy offers one solution for determining
citizen opinions, including those on pressing issues related to climate change and clean energy.
The key role of the state In all of these challenges, states remain the key actors, as they hold the key
to both domestic and international policymaking. The implementation of international
agreements will be up to individual states, emissions trading and carbon pricing will require
domestic legislation, and technological advance will need state support to get off the ground
(Giddens, 2008). However, state strategies at the domestic level should involve the creation of
incentives, not overly tight regulation. Governments have an important role in “editing” choice,
but not in a way that precludes it altogether. This approach is represented in the form of what
Giddens (2008) calls “the ensuring state,” whose primary role is help energise a diversity of
groups to reach solutions to collective action problems. The state, so conceived, acts as a
facilitator and an enabler, rather than as a top-down agency. An ensuring state is one that has
the capacity to produce definite outcomes. The principle goes even further; it also means a state
that is responsible for monitoring public goals and for trying to make sure they are realised in a
visible and legitimate fashion. This will require a return to planning – not in the old sense of top
down hierarchies of control, but in a new sense of flexible regulation. This will require finding
ways to introduce regulation without undermining the entrepreneurialism and innovation upon
which successful responses will depend. It will not be a straightforward process, because
planning must be reconciled with democratic freedoms. There will be push and pull between the
political centre, regions and localities, which can only be resolved through deliberation and
consultation. Most importantly, states will require a long term vision that transcends the normal
push and pull of partisan politics. This will not be easy to achieve. All this takes place in the
context of a changing world order. The power structure on which the 1945 multilateral
settlement was based is no longer intact, and the relative decline of the west and the rise of Asia
raises fundamental questions about the premises of the 1945 multilateral order. Democracy and
the international community now face a critical test. However, addressing the issue of climate
change successfully holds out the prospect of reforging a rule-based politics , from the nation-state
to the global level. Table 1 highlights what we consider to be the necessary steps to be taken
along this road. By contrast, failure to meet the challenge could have deep and profound
consequences, both for what people make of modern democratic politics and for the idea of rule-
governed international politics. Under these conditions, the structural flaws of democracy could be
said to have tragically trumped democratic agency and deliberative capacity.
LA Edu Good/Key
Criticism alone does nothing – engagement of Latin studies is key to change
Hoffnung-Garskof 12 (Jesse Hoffnung-Garskof is Associate Professor of History and American
Culture and Director of the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies at the University of Michigan,
“Latin American Studies and United States Foreign Policy,” Fall 2012,
http://www.lsa.umich.edu/UMICH/ii/Home/II%20Journal/Documents/Fall-2012-IIJournal-
LatinAmerica.pdf)//AS
Such effects are neither simple nor purely instrumental, nor are they uncontested. Faculty at the
University of Michigan did finally create a Latin American and Caribbean Studies Program in 1984. This program later evolved into
the present, Title VI funded, Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (LACS). In 1984 the Reagan administration funneled
growing resources to Contra insurgents in Nicaragua and to military regimes in El Salvador and Guatemala. These governments, with
U.S. complicity, murdered more than 120,000 of their citizens. The creation of LACS at Michigan certainly did not stem from
enthusiasm for such policies among area experts. To the contrary, at least some of the founders of our program, and many who
have participated in it since, approached their scholarship and teaching from an explicitly dissident position with respect to the wars
in Central America (and other policies). In fact, nationally,
Latin American Studies, despite its frequent
dependence on government funding, has become a key site for criticizing and exposing the
exercise of U.S. power in the region, for challenging established foreign policy expertise, and for
working to unravel the knot of our relative privilege with respect to colleagues in Latin America.
Criticism of United States foreign policy does not, in and of itself, guarantee careful or
considered scholarship. Nor do dissenting policy views necessarily escape the epistemological
traps set by power relations in the hemisphere . But the emergence of informed dissent within the
structure of federally funded area studies is a mark of just how potentially transformative
serious scholarly engagement with foreign languages, literature, culture, and politics can be.
Criticism of U.S. foreign policy and its intellectual apparatus, and criticism of the neat division of the hemisphere into United States
and Latin America (which can be traced back to Bolton himself) are, to my mind, two of the most valuable, if unintended,
consequences of the area studies model. Members of the political establishment will not necessarily agree, which may be part of the
reason for our present funding predicaments.
The lesson seems clear. Even at the danger of “fuzzy boundaries”, when we deal with “practice ”
( just as with the “pragmatic turn”), we would be well advised to rely on the use of the term rather
than on its reference (pointing to some property of the object under study), in order to draw the bounds of
sense and understand the meaning of the concept. My argument for the fruitful character of
a pragmatic approach in IR, therefore, does not depend on a comprehensive mapping of the
varieties of research in this area, nor on an arbitrary appropriation or exegesis of any
specific and self-absorbed theoretical orientation . For this reason, in what follows, I will not provide a
rigidly specified definition, nor will I refer exclusively to some prepackaged theoretical approach. Instead, I will sketch
out the reasons for which a prag- matic orientation in social analysis seems to hold
particular promise. These reasons pertain both to the more general area of knowledge appropriate for praxis and to the
more specific types of investigation in the field. The follow- ing ten points are – without a claim to completeness – intended to
engender some critical reflection on both areas.
Firstly, a
pragmatic approach does not begin with objects or “things” (ontology), or with
reason and method (epistemology), but with “acting” (prattein), thereby preventing some false
starts. Since, as historical beings placed in a specific situations, we do not have the luxury of
deferring decisions until we have found the “truth”, we have to act and must do so always
under time pressures and in the face of incomplete information. Pre- cisely because the social
world is characterised by strategic interactions, what a situation “is”, is hardly ever clear ex
ante, because it is being “produced” by the actors and their interactions , and the multiple
possibilities are rife with incentives for (dis)information. This puts a premium on quick diagnostic and
cognitive shortcuts informing actors about the relevant features of the situ- ation, and on leaving an alternative open
(“plan B”) in case of unexpected difficulties. Instead of relying on certainty and universal validity gained
through abstraction and controlled experiments, we know that completeness and attentiveness to
detail, rather than to generality, matter. To that extent, likening practical choices to simple “discoveries” of an already
independently existing “reality” which discloses itself to an “observer” – or relying on optimal strategies – is somewhat heroic.
These points have been made vividly by “realists” such as Clausewitz in his controversy with von Bü low, in which he criticised
the latter’s obsession with a strategic “science” (Paret et al. 1986). While Clausewitz has become an icon for realists, only a few
of them (usually dubbed “old” realists) have taken seriously his warnings against the misplaced belief in the reliability and
use- fulness of a “scientific” study of strategy. Instead, most of them, especially “neorealists” of various stripes, have embraced
the “theory”-building based on the epistemological project as the via regia to the creation of knowledge. A pragmatist
orientation would most certainly not endorse such a position.
Secondly, since
acting in the social world often involves acting “for” some- one, special
responsibilities arise that aggravate both the incompleteness of knowledge as well as its
generality problem. Since we owe special care to those entrusted to us, for example, as teachers, doctors or lawyers,
we cannot just rely on what is generally true, but have to pay special attention to the
particular case. Aside from avoiding the foreclosure of options, we cannot refuse to act on the basis of
incomplete information or insufficient know- ledge, and the necessary diagnostic will involve typification
and comparison, reasoning by analogy rather than generalization or deduction. Leaving out the particularities of a case, be it a
legal or medical one, in a mistaken effort to become “scientific” would be a fatal flaw. Moreover, there
still remains the
crucial element of “timing” – of knowing when to act. Students of crises have always pointed out the
importance of this factor but, in attempts at building a general “theory” of international politics analogously to the natural sci-
ences, such elements are neglected on the basis of the “continuity of nature” and the “large number” assumptions. Besides,
“timing” seems to be quite recalcitrant to analytical treatment.
Extinction outweighs ontology. Scratch Zimmerman, reverse it.
Jonas ’96 (Hans, Former Alvin Johnson Prof. Phil. – New School for Social Research and Former Eric
Voegelin Visiting Prof. – U. Munich, “Morality and Mortality: A Search for the Good After Auschwitz”,
p. 111-112)
With this look ahead at an ethics for the future, we are touching at the same time upon the question of the future of freedom.
The unavoidable discussion of this question seems to give rise to misunderstandings. My dire prognosis that not only our
material standard of living but also our democratic freedoms would fall victim to the growing pressure of a worldwide
ecological crisis, until finally there would remain only some form of tyranny that would try to save the situation, has led to the
accusation that I am defending dictatorship as a solution to our problems. I shall ignore here what is a confusion between
warning and recommendation. But I have indeed said that such a tyranny would still be better than total
ruin; thus, I have ethically accepted it as an alternative. I must now defend this standpoint, which I continue to support,
before the court that I myself have created with the main argument of this essay. For are we not contradicting
ourselves in prizing physical survival at the price of freedom ? Did we not say that freedom was
the condition of our capacity for responsibility—and that this capacity was a reason for the survival of humankind?; By
tolerating tyranny as an alternative to physical annihilation are we not violating the
principle we established: that the How of existence must not take precedence over its
Why? Yet we can make a terrible concession to the primacy of physical survival in the
conviction that the ontological capacity for freedom, inseparable as it is from man's
being, cannot really be extinguished, only temporarily banished from the public
realm. This conviction can be supported by experience we are all familiar with. We
have seen that even in the most totalitarian societies the urge for freedom on the part
of some individuals cannot be extinguished, and this renews our faith in human
beings. Given this faith, we have reason to hope that, as long as there are human beings who survive ,
the image of God will continue to exist along with them and will wait in concealment
for its new hour. With that hope—which in this particular case takes precedence over fear—it is
permissible , for the sake of physical survival, to accept if need be a temporary
absence of freedom in the external affairs of humanity. This is, I want to emphasize, a worst-case
scenario, and it is the foremost task of responsibility at this particular moment in world history to prevent it from happening.
This is in fact one of the noblest of duties (and at the same time one concerning self-preservation), on the part of the
imperative of responsibility to avert future coercion that would lead to lack of freedom by acting freely in the present, thus
preserving as much as possible the ability of future generations to assume responsibility. But more than that is involved. At
stake is the preservation of Earth's entire miracle of creation, of which our human
existence is a part and before which man reverently bows, even without
philosophical "grounding." Here too faith may precede and reason follow; it is faith that longs for this
preservation of the Earth (fides quaerens intellectum), and reason comes as best it can to faith's aid with arguments, not
knowing or even asking how much depends on its success or failure in determining what action to take. With this confession of
faith we come to the end of our essay on ontology.
Method
As a community, we in the academic study of international politics spend too much time worrying about the kind of issues
addressed in this essay. The
central point of IR scholarship is to increase our knowledge of how
the world works, not to worry about how (or whether) we can know how the world works. What
matters for IR is ontology, not epistemology. This doesn’t mean that there are no interesting epistemological questions in IR,
and even less does it mean that there are no important political or sociological aspects to those questions. Indeed there are, as
I have suggested above, and as a discipline IR should have more awareness of these aspects. At the same time, however, these
are questions best addressed by philosophers and sociologists of knowledge, not political scientists. Let’s
face it: most
IR scholars, including this one, have little or no proper training in epistemology, and as such the
attempt to solve epistemological problems anyway will inevitably lead to confusion (after all,
after 2000 years, even the specialists are still having a hard time). Moreover, as long as we let
our research be driven in an open-minded fashion by substantive questions and problems
rather than by epistemologies and methods, there is little need to answer epistemological
questions either. It is simply not the case that we have to undertake an epistemological
analysis of how we can know something before we can know it, a fact amply attested to by
the success of the natural sciences, whose practitioners are only rarely forced by the results
of their inquiries to consider epistemological questions. In important respects we do know
how international politics works, and it doesn’t much matter how we came to that
knowledge. In that light, going into the epistemology business will distract us from the real
business of IR, which is international politics. Our great debates should be about first-order
issues of substance, like the ‘first debate’ between Realists and Idealists, not second-order issues of method.
Unfortunately, it is no longer a simple matter for IR scholars to ‘just say no’ to epistemological
discourse. The
problem is that this discourse has already contamin- ated our thinking about international politics,
helping to polarize the discipline into ‘paradigm wars’. Although the resurgence of these wars in the 1980s
and 90s is due in large part to the rise of post-positivism, its roots lie in the epistemological anxiety of positivists, who since
the 1950s have been very concerned to establish the authority of their work as Science. This is an important goal, one that I
share, but its implementation has been marred by an overly narrow conception of science as being concerned only with causal
questions that can be answered using the methods of natural science. The effect has been to marginalize historical and
interpretive work that does not fit this mould, and to encourage scholars interested in that kind of work to see themselves as
somehow not engaged in science. One has to wonder whether the two sides should be happy with the result. Do positivists
really mean to suggest that it is not part of science to ask questions about how things are constituted, questions which if those
things happen to be made of ideas might only be answerable by interpretive methods? If so, then they seem to be saying that
the double-helix model of DNA, and perhaps much of rational choice theory, is not science. And do post-positivists
really mean to suggest that students of social life should not ask causal questions or attempt to test
their claims against empirical evidence? If so, then it is not clear by what criteria their work
should be judged, or how it differs from art or revelation. On both sides, in other words, the result of the
Third Debate’s sparring over epistemology is often one-sided, intolerant caricatures of science.
Reps
Policy analysis should precede discourse – most effective way to challenge
power
Taft-Kaufman ’95
Jill Taft-Kaufman, Speech prof @ CMU, 1995, Southern Comm. Journal, Spring, v. 60, Iss. 3,
“Other Ways”, p pq
Reps don’t come first and placing them first shatters real world change
Dewsbury ‘3 (John-David Dewsbury -- School of Geographical Studies, University of Bristol
-- Environment and Planning A 2003, volume 35, pages 1907-1932 --
http://www.sages.unimelb.edu.au/news/mhgr/dewsbury.pdf)
That someone includes us -- the social scientists, the researchers, and the writers. In some way we are all false witnesses to
what is there.(2) So, even
though the philosophical drive moves against the apparently
sterile setup of totalizing representations, the presentation of ideas is trapped within
the structure it is trying to critique. In my opinion, this sterility is only apparent. Significantly, this appearance
is valid from both sides: from the side of representational theory because of the belief in the representational structure as
being able to give an account of everything; and from the side of nonrepresentational theory because of the danger
of getting carried away with an absolute critique of representations. The apparent
sterility comes from this last point: that in getting carried away with critique you fail
to appreciate that the building blocks of representation are not sterile in themselves --
only when they are used as part of a system. The representational system, its structure and
regulation of meaning, is not complete -- it needs constant maintenance, loyalty, and faith from those who practice it. In
this regard, its power is in its pragmatic functions: easy communication of ideas (that restricts their potential
extension), and sustainable, defensible, and consensual agreement on understanding (a certain kind of understanding, and
hence a certain type of knowledge). The nonrepresentational argument comes into its own in asking us to revisit the
performative space of representation in a manner that is more attuned to its fragile constitution. The point being that
representation left critically unattended only allows for conceptual difference and not for a concept
of difference as such. The former maintains existing ideological markers whilst the latter challenges us to invent new ones. For
me, the project of nonrepresentational theory then, is to excavate the empty space between the lines of representational
meaning in order to see what is also possible. The representational
system is not wrong: rather, it is
the belief that it offers complete understanding -- and that only it offers any sensible
understanding at all -- that is critically flawed.
Impacts
Root cause
No root cause of war – complexity dooms monocausal explnalations
Jabri 96
Vivienne, Lecturer in International Relations at the University of Kent, Introduction: Conflict
Analysis Reconsidered,” Discourses on Violence: Conflict Analysis Reconsidered, Published by
Manchester University Press ND, ISBN 0719039592, p. 3
The study of war has produced a number of often conflicting answers to
Quincy Wright’s question, “Why is war thought? Why is war fought?”1 The
history of human political violence has shown that we cannot produce
monocausal explanations of war. Studies which concentrate on assumed innate
human characteristics fail to account for the societal factors which are implicated in
what is essentially an interactive and dynamic process. Similarly, investigations
which link attributes of the international system, such as balances of power,
not only produce contradictory findings, but seem to negate human decision-
making and psychological processes in the onset of war in specific
conditions. Studies of violent conflict aspire to uncover, through empirical
investigation, patterns of behaviour which lead to war. As indicated by Holsti, studies
of war may be divided into those which emphasise structural or “ecological” variables,
such as the distribution of power capabilities within the system, and those which
emphasise “decision-making, values, and perceptions of policy-makers” in attempts to
isolate common features leading up to the decision for war.2
there is too great a degree of complexity of social relationships (which comprise ‘open systems’) to allow any prediction whatsoever. Two very simple examples may circumscribe and help to refute a radical variety of scepticism. First, we all
make reliable social predictions and do so with great frequency. We can predict with high probability that a spouse, child or
parent will react to certain well-known stimuli that we might supply, based on extensive past experience. More to the point of IR prediction – scepticism, we can imagine a young child in the UK who (perhaps at the cinema) (1) picks up a bit of 19th-
century British imperial lore thus gaining a sense of the power of the crown, without knowing anything of current balances of power, (2) hears some stories about the US–UK invasion of Iraq in the context of the aim of advancing democracy, and (3) hears
a bit about communist China and democratic Taiwan. Although the specific term ‘preventative strike’ might not enter into her lexicon, it is possible to imagine the child, whose knowledge is thus limited, thinking that if democratic Taiwan were threatened
prediction the former sort of statement, which is of a type that is often of great value to policy-makers.
With the help of these ‘non-point predictions’ coming from the natural and the social sciences, leaders are able to
choose the courses of action (e.g. more stringent earthquake-safety building codes, or procuring an additional
carrier battle group) that are most likely to accomplish the leaders’ desired ends . So while ‘point
predictions’ are not what political leaders require in most decision-making situations, critics of IR predictiveness often attack
the predictive capacity of IR theory for its inability to deliver them. The critics
thus commit the straw man
fallacy by requiring a sort of prediction in IR (1) that few, if any, theorists claim to be
able to offer, (2) that are not required by policy-makers for theory-based predictions
to be valuable, and (3) that are not possible even in some natural sciences.15 The range of
theorists included in ‘reflexivists’ here is very wide and it is possible to dissent from some of the general descriptions. From
the point of view of the central argument of this article, there are two important features that should be rendered accurately.
One is that reflexivists
reject explanation–prediction symmetry, which allows them to
pursue causal (or constitutive) explanation without any commitment to prediction . The second
is that almost all share clear opposition to predictive social science .16 The reflexivist
commitment to both of these conclusions should be evident from the foregoing discussion.
No link and turn- your critical approach to terrorism can never refound the
political, lacks any form of empirical validity and serves a hegemonic agenda.
This divisive form of scholarship retreats to scholarly enclaves at the expense of
producing action and research that can reduce ongoing violence
Michel and Richards, 2k9 (Torsten University of St. Andrews and Anthony University of
East London, False dawns or new horizons? Further issues and challenges for Critical
Terrorism Studies, Critical Studies on Terrorism 2.3, 399-413)
Critical Terrorism Studies (CTS)
is not a completely new theoretical and conceptual
way of approaching problems or issues in international politics, but rather it draws
heavily from the wider body of critical thought in the field of International
Relations. This relationship, however, also implies an onus upon CTS
scholars to take on board some of the problems within critical scholarship
if they are serious about their theoretical and practical aims . Particularly
important in relation to this point seems the almost complete absence of any
meaningful and substantial engagement with the epistemological
implications of Critical Theory and its close - but again partly problematic -
relation to the normative-ethical agenda of emancipation . In order to present a
coherent and conceptually sound argument, CTS scholars need a much closer treatment of these issues than is currently
the case. This is not only due to the need for theoretical and conceptual rigour, but also, as has been argued above, it is
related to the demands of Critical Theory itself which stipulates an inextricable link between social and political
philosophy and the practical tasks for the application of any critique of reason. Furthermore, it
also seems
necessary to develop the notion of emancipation beyond the mere aim of
liberating people from different kinds of violence , be it physical or structural. The last thing
CTS needs is a political agenda that drives its research. Emancipation as a practical task of
Critical Theory is a perpetual endeavour necessitated by the inevitable
fusion of instrumental and emancipatory reason; any stipulation that this
process of a self-reflective critique by and of reason can come to an end
through realising a specific political and/or social setting is not only naive,
but also would entail a crude and almost banal understanding of Critical
Theory itself- something that CTS surely intends to avoid. In the same vein, it
seems necessary to elaborate more clearly on the value of the scholarly
output of CTS studies. It is one thing to criticise the ongoing practice of
episte-mological and methodological reification in pursuit of a hegemonic
agenda, but quite another to present a valid alternative that answers the
conceptual and theoretical shortcomings of such an approach . The question of truth
in its widest meaning arises since the spectre of historicism opens the door to the charge of relativism. To be sure,
historicist conceptions of knowledge do not necessarily lead to a relativistic position, but the
challenge of how
to avoid falling into relativism needs to be addressed and stated clearly .
Critical Theory itself addresses this problematique and provides an answer to this challenge (which itself entails certain
problems that need to be discussed) and so must CTS if its scholarly validity and rigour is to be taken seriously. A
further challenge for CTS is to convince that it has something significantly
new to offer terrorism studies. It is not a revelation to discover that states
have been responsible for committing the worst acts of 'terror' or indeed
that democratic states are culpable when it comes to sponsoring terrorism .
We are all engaged in trying to understand the phenomenon of terrorism and its causes. But, (admittedly) like much of
terrorism studies in general, CTS
scholarship is empirically flawed and, like the
broader critical project, draws on a number of assumed relationships . Two
of these assumed relationships are: between the state and individual
insecurity, and between that individual insecurity and motivation for
terrorism. The question then logically follows (if these relationships do exist): what part of individual insecurity is
attributable to 'the state* and what part of individual insecurity motivates terrorism, and therefore, most importantly, is
there an overlap between the two? In other words to what extent is 'the state' culpable for any of the individual insecurity
that is causally linked to the occurrence of terrorism? Not
only are the answers to these
questions difficult to validate but so are the assumptions that lie beneath
them. In what context arc these questions being posed in the first place? Is it really to underpin a rigorous
understanding as to why terrorism occurs or is it actually to provide a convenient explanation for terrorism that serves
the wider critical project? Finally, it is important to emphasise that CTS perspectives should certainly be part of any
curriculum on the subject of terrorism. It
is also therefore a little unfortunate that some of its
proponents have adopted an adversarial approach towards what has been
called 'traditional terrorism studies' - that somehow critical theorists have
seen the light while the 'orthodox' researchers have for a long time been
walking along a skewed and discredited path. This does a great disservice
to some of the eminent scholars in the field who have contributed so much
to the study of terrorism. We therefore suggest that while CTS should certainly be part
of terrorism studies, the field should remain as just that - terrorism studies,
it would a shame if a separate 'Critical Terrorism Studies' field emerged as
a manifestation of a 'separate camps' mentality, at the expense of a more
integrated and fruitful debate within terrorism studies as a whole.
Managerialism
General
Domination of the physical universe is key to solve poverty, promote nanotech
and space control
Zey 1 – Professor of Business
Michael, professor at Montclair State University School of Business and executive director of the
Expansionary Institute, a research and consulting organization focusing on future trends in
technology, society, the economy, politics, “MAN'S EVOLUTIONARY PATH INTO THE UNIVERSE”
The Futurist, Vol. 35, May 2001
We must examine the many ways such developments impact the individual, society,
and the economy. And we must explore the underlying reasons why our species is
feverishly working to advance the planet and ourselves and transform all we
encounter. When we truly understand the depth and strength of man's overwhelming
imperative to grow and progress, we can more clearly anticipate the future. At first
blush, it would seem that there is little mystery about the impulses driving the human
species in this quest: We engage in such productive activities merely to enhance our
material condition. We invent technologies that will improve our standard of living
and make our lives more pleasant and comfortable. Our species from the earliest
periods of prehistory seems compelled not just to survive, but to grow, progress, and
enhance itself and its environment. At each new level of our development, we
endeavor to master our environment as well as the physical dynamics governing our
universe. Humanity's activities, including the entire scientific and technological
enterprise, represent a unified attempt by the species to spread "humanness" to
everything we encounter. Over the centuries, we have labored to improve planet
Earth, and we are now preparing to transform the universe into a dynamic entity
filled with life. We will accomplish this by extending our consciousness, skills,
intellect, and our very selves to other spheres. I label the sum total of our species'
endeavors to improve and change our planetary environment--and ultimately the
universe itself-vitalization. Vitalization is a force that is conditioning human behavior.
The drive to vitalize--to imbue our planet and eventually the cosmos with a
consciousness and intelligence--is a primary motivation behind all human productive
activity. Vitalization is the primary force shaping human behavior. However, in order
to pursue vitalization successfully, the human species must master four other forces,
what I label the "building blocks of vitalization." These four processes encompass the
extraordinary advances in areas such as space, medicine, biogenetics, engineering,
cybernetics, and energy. The four supporting forces are: * Dominionization: control
over physical forces, such as energy. * Species coalescence: unity through built
systems, such as transportation and communications. * Biogenesis: improvement of
the physical shell, such as through bioengineering. * Cybergenesis: interconnection
with machines to advance human evolution. Each of these forces plays a critical
catalytic role in the achievement of vitalization. Dominionization: Controlling Nature
The term dominionization refers to the process whereby humankind establishes
control over several key aspects of its physical universe. With each passing decade, we
enhance our ability to manipulate matter, reshape the planet, develop innovative
energy sources, and control fundamental aspects of the physical universe, such as the
atom and electromagnetism. Someday, we will learn to influence weather patterns
and climate. In a host of ways, dominionization helps humanity vitalize the planet
and eventually the universe. As we master the basic dynamics of nature, we are more
able to shepherd the evolution of our planet as well as others. As we develop novel
and powerful forms of energy, we can rocket from one sphere to another. Moreover,
by improving our already formidable skills in moving mountains and creating lakes,
we will be better able to change both the topography and the geography of other
planets. Examples of dominionization abound. Major macroengineering projects
attest to man's ability to transform the very surface of the earth. By constructing man-
made lakes, we will be able to live in previously uninhabitable areas such as intenor
Australia. Shimizu Corporation envisions a subterranean development called Urban
Geo Grid--a series of cities linked by tunnels--accommodating half a million people.
In the emerging Macro-industrial Era, whose framework was established in the 1970s
and 1980s, we will redefine the concept of "bigness" as we dot Earth's landscape with
immense architectural structures. Takenaka, a Japanese construction firm, has
proposed "Sky City 1000," a 3,000-foot tower, to be built in Tokyo. Another firm,
Ohbayashi, plans to erect a 500-story high-rise building featuring apartments, offices,
shopping centers, and service facilities. We will establish dominion over the very
heart of physical matter itself. Through nanotechnology, our species will attain
control over the atom and its tiniest components. Such control will enable us to
effortlessly "macromanufacture" from the bottom up, one atom at a time, any
material object. This will enable us to permanently eradicate age-old problems such
as scarcity and poverty.
Only foresighted management can solve global warming – the impact is the
case
Berg 8 – Advisor @ World Federation of United Nations
Robert, Senior Advisor World Federation of United Nations Associations, 2008, Governing in a
World of Climate Change, http://www.wfuna.org/atf/cf/%7B84F00800-D85E-4952-9E61-
D991E657A458%7D/BobBerg'sNewPaper.doc
If, as Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen states, humanity is now in the
Anthropocene Epoch where forever more humanity must manage the
environment, the scientific community for centuries to come must take a
leading social and institutional role. This places a completely new
responsibility on national and global scientific academies. It implies a
constructive, serious and sustained dialogue with the public as well as with
political leadership. Frankly, few scientific academies are yet up to this task. Building
the capacity of scientists to respond If governments and foundations are far-
sighted, they will help ensure that national scientific academies are
strengthened so that they can become responsible partners in forming public
policies in response to climate change. Each ecological setting will need
specific responses calling for national academies and academic centers to
partner with national policy makers. The Open Society Institute and others are
working to strengthen scientific communities, but it is important that scientific
communities take even greater leading roles.
A2 Luke
Luke concludes that institutional change is necessary to stop extinction – their
alternative fails
Luke, 97 – professor of political science at Virginia polytechnic
Timothy, “Ecocritique: Contesting the Politics of Nature, Economy, and Culture”, pg 126-127
It may be true that “the actions of those now living will determine the future and
possibly the very survival of the species”, but it is, in fact, mostly a mystification. Only
the actions of a very small handful of the humans who are now living, namely, those
in significant positions of decisive managerial power in business or central executive
authority in government, can truly do something to determine the future. Hollander’s
belief that thousands of his readers, who will replace their light bulbs, water heaters,
automobiles, or toilets with ecologically improved alternatives, can decisively affect
the survival of the species is pure ideology. It may sell new kinds of toilets, cars,
appliances, and light bulbs, but it does not guarantee planetary survival. Hollander
does not stop here. He even asserts that everyone on the planet, not merely the
average consumers in affluent societies, is to blame for the ecological crisis.
Therefore, he maintains, rightly and wrongly, that “no attempt to protect the
environment will be successful in the long run unless ordinary people—the California
executive, the Mexican peasant, the Soviet [sic] factory worker, the Chinese farmer—
are willing to adjust their life-styles and values. Our wasteful, careless ways must
become a thing of the past.” The wasteful, careless ways of the California executive
plainly must be ecologically reconstituted, but the impoverished practices of Mexican
peasants and Chinese farmers, short of what many others would see as their
presumed contributions to “overpopulation,” are probably already at levels of
consumption that Hollander happily would ratify as ecologically sustainable if the
California executive could only attain and abide by them. As Hollander asserts, “every
aspect of our lives has some environmental impact,” and, in some sense, everyone he
claims, “must acknowledge the responsibility we were all given as citizens of the
planet and act on the hundreds of opportunities to save our planet that present
themselves every day.” Nevertheless, the typical consumer does not control the
critical aspects of his or her existence in ways that have any major environmental
impact. Nor do we all encounter hundreds of opportunities every day to do much to
save the planet. The absurd claim that average consumers only need to shop, bicycle,
or garden their way to an ecological failure merely moves most of the responsibility
and much of the blame away from the institutional center of power whose decisions
actually maintain the wasteful, careless ways of material exchange that Hollander
would end by having everyone recycle all their soda cans.
No single root cause – their emphasis on root cause dooms the alternative –
permutation solves best
Ellis 96 – MS in Civil Engineering
Jeffrey Ellis, Chief, Environmental, Safety and Health Engineering at United States Air Force, MS
in Civil Engineering, 1996, Uncommon ground: rethinking the human place in nature, pg. 260
Because of the complexity and seeming intransigence of environmental problems, it is
clearly time for radical environmentalists to focus less on defining their differences
and more on determining the common ground that might provide the basis for a more
coherent and unified ecology movement. As I hope this essay illustrates, if they
hope to achieve a working consensus, radicals must strive to resist the well-
established tendency in environmental discourse to identify the single most important
and fundamental cause of the many environmental problems that have become
increasingly apparent in recent decades. The desire to essentialize environmental
problems and trace them all to one root cause is obviously a powerful one. If a root
cause can be identified, then priorities can be clearly established and a definite
agenda determined. Although the intention behind this silver bullet approach to
understanding the global environmental crisis has been to provide the environmental
movement with a dear focus and agenda, its impact has been very nearly just the
opposite. It has repeatedly proven to be more divisive than productive in
galvanizing a united front against environmental destruction. This is not surprising. It
would indeed be convenient if all ecological problems sprang from the same source,
but this is far from likely. If nothing else, during the last forty years it has become
abundantly clear that environmental problems arc deeply complex. Not only have
they proven extremely difficult to unravel scientifically, but they have social and
political aspects that further compound their complexity. Global warming, species
extinction, pollution human population growth, depletion of resources, and increased
rates of life-threatening disease are just some of the many problems that confront us.
The idea that there is a single root cause to any one of these problems, let alone to
all of them taken together, is, to put it mildly, absurd. Because environmental
problems arc each the result of a multiplicity of causal factors, there can be no one
comprehensive solution to all of them. And yet radical environmental thinkers are
correct in rejecting the piecemeal approach to environmental problems that has
become institutionalized in American society. Thus far, reform environmentalism has
proven itself inadequate to the task of halting the deterioration of the earth's
ecological systems. But an alternative to that approach will not emerge until radicals
reject the quixotic and divisive search for a root cause to the spectrum of
environmental problems that have been subsumed under the umbrella of the
ecological crisis. Instead of arguing with one another about who is most right, radicals
must begin to consider the insights each perspective has generated and work toward a
more comprehensive rather than a confrontational understanding of problems that
have multiple, complex, and interconnected causes.
Security
Heg turn
Securitization key to hegemony
Noorani 5
Yaseen, Assistant Professor in Near Eastern Studies at the University of Arizona, The Rhetoric of
Security" CR: The New Centennial Review 5.1 (2005) 13-41 Muse
Any threat to the existence of the United States is therefore a threat to the
existence of the world order, which is to say, the values that make this order
possible. It is not merely that the United States, as the most powerful
nation of the free world, is the most capable of defending it. It is rather
that the United States is the supreme agency advancing the underlying
principle of the free order. The United States is the world order's fulcrum,
and therefore the key to its existence and perpetuation. Without the United
States, freedom, peace, civil relations among nations, the possibility of
civil society are all under threat of extinction. This is why the most
abominable terrorists and tyrants single out the United States for their
schemes and attacks. They know that the United States is the guardian of liberal
values. In the rhetoric of security, therefore, the survival of the United States, its
sheer existence, becomes the content of liberal values. In other words, what
does it mean to espouse liberal values in the context of the present state of world
affairs? It means to desire fervently and promote energetically the survival of the
United States of America. When the world order struggles to preserve its "self," the
self that it seeks to preserve, the primary location of its being, is the United States.
Conferring;this status upon the United States allows the rhetoric of security to insist
upon a threat to the existence of the world order as a whole while confining the non-
normative status that arises from this threat to the United States alone. The United
States-as the self under threat-remains external to the normative relations by which
the rest of the world continues to be bound. The United States is both a specific
national existence struggling for its life and normativity itself, which
makes it coextensive with the world order as a whole. For this reason, any
challenge to U.S. world dominance would be a challenge to world peace
and is thus impermissible. W e read in The National Security Strategy that the
United States [End Page 321 will "promote a balance of power that favors freedom"
(National Security 2002, 1).And later, we find out what is meant by such a balance of
power.
priorities of a survival machine, and of the brain that takes the decisions
for it, are individual survival and reproduction. … Animals therefore go to
elaborate lengths to find and catch food; to avoid being caught and eaten
themselves; to avoid disease and accident; to protect themselves from
unfavourable climatic conditions; to find members of the opposite sex and persuade them to mate; and to confer on their children
advantages similar to those they enjoy themselves. (pp. 62–63) All that is really essential to TMT is the proposition that humans fear death. Somewhat ironically, in the early days of the
theory,we felt compelled to explain this fear by positing a very basic desire for life, because many critics adamantly insisted, for reasons that were never clear to us, that most people do not
fear death. Our explanation for the fear of death is that knowledge of the inevitability of death is frightening because people know they are alive and because they want to continue
desire to stay alive, and a fear of anything that threatens to end one’s life,
are likely emergent properties of these many discrete mechanisms that
result from the evolution of sophisticated cognitive abilities for symbolic, future- oriented, and self-
reflective thought. As Batson and Stocks (2004) have noted, it is because we are so intelligent, and hence so aware of our limbic reactions to threats of death
and of our many systems oriented toward keeping us alive that we have a general fear of death. Here are three quotes that illustrate this point. First, for
“Such constant expenditure of
psychologists, Zilboorg (1943), an important early source of TMT:
Evolutionary theory is best because it’s falsifiable, direct, and scientific- prefer
our ev
Thayer 2k
Bradley A., Senior Analyst @ National Institute for Public Policy, Bringing in Darwin: Evolutionary
Theory, Realism, and International Politics, International Security, Vol. 25, No. 2. (Autumn,
2000), pp. 124-151
Evolutionary theory provides a better foundation for realism than the theological or metaphysical
arguments advanced by Niebuhr or Morgenthau for three reasons. First, it is superior as judged by
the common metrics in philosophy of science developed by Carl Hempel and Karl Evolutionary theory
meets all of Hempel's criteria of the deductive-nomological (D-N) model of scientific explanation, unlike Niebuhr's evil or Morgenthau's animus dominandi.
Measured by Popper's criteria-developed in his theory of critical rationalism- evolutionary theory is also superior
because it is falsifiable. That is, scholars know what evidence would not verify the theory.67 Niebuhr's and Morgenthau's ultimate
causes are noumenal (i.e., outside the realm of scientific investigation). Second, evolutionary theory offers a widely
theory reaches the same conclusion, but the causal mechanism is at the
first image (the individual) rather than the third image (the international
system). State decisionmakers are egoistic and strive to dominate others. In international politics they do so by maximizing state power.69 Focused,
empirical testing is required to determine which insights an offensive realism based on evolutionary theory provides. This in turn may inform explanations of
why state leaders choose to expand and why they are often able to generate popular support for expansion with relative ease, or why external or internal
threats have been such powerful motivators in building national solidarity and mobilizing a society's resources.
We can’t stop caring about our survival. The ONLY way humans can deal with
the terror of inevitable death is to manage it with order and denial. The
alternative LITERALLY makes life unlivable
Pyszczynski 4
Tom, Prof. Psych. – U. Colorado, Social Research, “What are we so afraid of? A terror
management theory perspective on the politics of fear”,
Winter, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2267/is_4_71/ai_n13807478/
TMT starts with a consideration of how human beings are both similar to, and
different from, all other animals. We start with the assumption that, like all other
animals, humans are born with a very basic evolved proclivity to stay alive
and that fear, and all the biological structures of the brain that produce it,
evolved, at least initially, to keep the animal alive. This, of course, is highly
adaptive, in that it facilitates survival, and an animal that does not stay alive
very long has little chances of reproducing and passing on its genes. But
as ourspecies evolved, it developed a wide range of other adaptations that helped
us survive and reproduce, the most important being a set of highly
sophisticatedintellectual abilities that enable us to: a) think and communicate
with symbols, which of course is the basis for language, b) project ourselves in time
and imagine a future including events that have never happened
before, and c) reflect back on ourselves, and take ourselves as an object of our
own attention--self-awareness. These are all very adaptive abilities that play central
roles in the system through which humans regulate their behavior--usually referred to
as the self (cf. Carver and Scheier, 1998). These abilities made it possible for us to
survive and prosper in a far wider range of environments than any other animal has
ever done, and accomplish all that we humans have done that no other species ever
has been capable of doing. However, these unique intellectual abilities also created a
major problem: they made us aware that, although we are biologically
programmed to stay alive and avoid things that would cut our life short, the one
absolute certainty in life is that we must die. We are also forced to realize that death
can come at any time for any number of reasons, none of which are particularly
pleasant--a predator, natural disaster, another hostile human, and an incredible range
of diseases and natural processes, ranging from heart attacks and cancer to AIDS. If
we are "lucky" we realize that our bodies will just wear out and we will slowly fade
away as we gradually lose our most basic functions. Not a very pretty picture. TMT
posits that this clash of a core desire for life with awareness of the inevitability of
death created the potential for paralyzing terror. Although all animals experience fear
in the face of clear and present dangers to their survival, only humans know what it is
that they are afraid of, and that ultimately there is no escape from this ghastly reality.
We suspect that this potential for terror would have greatly interfered with
ongoing goal-directed behavior, and life itself, if it were left unchecked. It
may even have made the intellectual abilities that make our species
special unviable in the long run as evolutionary adaptations--and there are
those who think that the fear and anxiety that results from our sophisticated
intelligence may still eventually lead to the extinction of our species. So humankind
used their newly emerging intellectual abilities to manage the potential
for terror that these abilities produced by calling the understandings of reality that
were emerging as a result of these abilities into service as a way of controlling their
anxieties. The potential for terror put a "press" on emerging explanations for reality,
what we refer to as cultural worldviews, such that any belief system that was to
survive and be accepted by the masses needed to manage this potential for anxiety
that was inherent in the recently evolved human condition. Cultural worldviews
manage existential terror by providing a meaningful, orderly,
andcomforting conception of the world that helps us come to grips with
the problem of death. Cultural worldviews provide a meaningful explanation of life
and our place in the cosmos; a set of standards for what is valuable behavior, good
and evil, that give us the potential of acquiring self-esteem, the sense that we are
valuable, important, and significant contributors to this meaningful reality; and the
hope of transcending death and attaining immortality in either a literal or symbolic
sense. Literal immortality refer to those aspects of the cultural worldview that
promise that death is not the end of existence, that some part of us will live on,
perhaps in an ethereal heaven, through reincarnation, a merger of our consciousness
with God and all others, or the attainment of enlightenment--beliefs in literal
immortality are nearly universal, with the specifics varying widely from culture to
culture. Cultures also provide us with the hope of attaining symbolic
immortality, by being part of something larger, more significant, and more
enduring than ourselves, such as our families, nations, ethnic groups, professions,
and the like. Because these entities will continue to exist long after our deaths, we
attain symbolic immortality by being valued parts of them.
Social hierarchy and domination are part of human nature- attempts to resist
them inevitably increase aggression- group observation proves
Thayer 2k
Bradley A., Senior Analyst @ National Institute for Public Policy, Bringing in Darwin: Evolutionary
Theory, Realism, and International Politics, International Security, Vol. 25, No. 2. (Autumn,
2000), pp. 124-151
Evolutionary theory can also explain the trait of domination. In evolutionary theory, domination usually means that
(the alpha male), leads the group. The ubiquity of this social ordering
strongly suggests that such a pattern of organization contributes to
fitness. Two principal types of behavior are evident among social mammals
in a dominance hierarchy: dominant and submissive. Dominant mammals have enhanced access to
mates, food, and territory, thus increasing their chances of reproductive success.46 Acquiring dominant status
usually requires aggression. Dominance, however, is an unstable condition; to maintain it, dominant individuals must be
willing to defend their privileged access to available resources as long as they are able. Ethologists Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson explain why an
individual animal vies for dominant status: "The motivation of a male chimpanzee who challenges another's rank is not that he foresees more matings or
rewards explain why . . . selection has favored the
better food or a longer life."47 Rather "those
desire for power, but the immediate reason he vies for status . . . . is
simply to dominate his peers."48 Dominant animals often assume
behavior reflecting their status. For example, dominant wolves and rhesus monkeys hold their tails higher than do other
members of their group in an effort to communicate dominance. A dominant animal that engages in such
ONLY the perm solves – absolute non-anthro disables ALL green politics by
erasing the human ability to correct problems we created
Dobson, 2k – Professor of Politics at the University of Keele
Andrew, “Green Political Thought,” 3rd ed., pg. 55-56
The reason for dwelling on this is that the green movement may be doing itself a
disservice by what has been seen as its insistent distancing from the human. In the
first place it is self-contradictory. Charlene Spretnak, for example writes that “Green
politics rejects the anthropocentric orientation of humanism a philosophy which
posits that humans have the ability to confront and solve the many problems we face
by applying human reason and by rearranging the natural world and the interactions
of men and women so that human life will prosper. (Spretnak and Capra, 1985, pg.
234). There is evidently a reasonable green rejection of human-instrumentalism here,
but also a disturbing hint that human beings should abandon their pretensions to
solving problems they have brought upon themselves. This suspicion is reinforced by
comments of the following kind: “In the long run, Nature is in control” (Spretnak and
Capra, 1985, p. 234). If Spretnak really believes this, one wonders why she bothers to
write books persuading us of the merits of green politics. The fact of her involvement
implies a ebleif that she has some control, however minimal, over the destiny of the
planet. Overall, of course, it is the generalized belief in the possibility of change that
makes the green movement a properly political movement. Without such a belief, the
movement’s reason for being would be undermined. From this perspective, the
recognition that weak anthropocentrism is unavoidable may act as a useful political
corrective to the idea that ‘Nature is in control’: at least it reintroduces the human on
to the agenda—a necessary condition for there to be such a thing as politics.
Human separation from nature is inevitable and good- the transition to small ag
leads to poverty and environmental destruction
Bailey 6 – Economic Philosopher
Ronald, Economic Philosopher and Science Editor for Reason Magazine, The Lingering Stench of
Malthus, http://www.reason.com/news/show/117481.html
The further good news is that the movement of humanity's burgeoning population
into the thousand of megacities foreseen that Rifkin is part of a process that
ultimately will leave more land for nature. Today cities occupy just 2 percent of the
earth's surface, but that will likely double to 4 percent over the next half century. In
order to avoid this ostensibly terrible fate Rifkin proclaims, "In the next phase of
human history, we will need to find a way to reintegrate ourselves into the rest of the
living Earth if we are to preserve our own species and conserve the planet for our
fellow creatures." Actually, he's got it completely backwards. Humanity must not
reintegrate into nature-that way lays disaster for humanity and nature. Instead we
must make ourselves even more autonomous than we already are from her. Since
nothing is more destructive of nature than poverty stricken subsistence farmers,
boosting agricultural productivity is the key to the human retreat from wild nature. As
Jesse Ausubel, the director for the Program for the Human Environment at
Rockefeller University, points out: "If the world farmer reaches the average yield of
today's US corn grower during the next 70 years, ten billion people eating as people
now on average do will need only half of today's cropland. The land spared exceeds
Amazonia." Similarly all of the world's industrial wood could be produced on an area
that is less than 10 percent of the world's forested area today leaving 90 percent of the
world's forests for Nature.
Alt fails
Dubbing people “anthropocentric” because they didn’t talk about animals
makes the creation of an effective environmental movement impossible, and
isn’t accurate
Lewsi 92 – Professor of Environment
Martin Lewis professor in the School of the Environment and the Center for International
Studies at Duke University. Green Delusions, 1992 p17-18
Nature for Nature’s Sake—And Humanity for Humanity’s It is widely accepted that
environmental thinkers can be divided into two camps: those who favor the
preservation of nature for nature’s sake, and those who wish only to maintain the
environment as the necessary habitat of humankind (see Pepper 1989; O’Riordan
1989; W Fox 1990). In the first group stand the green radicals, while the second
supposedly consists of environmental reformers, also labeled “shallow ecologists.”
Radicals often pull no punches in assailing the members of the latter camp for
their anthropocentrism, managerialism, and gutless accommodationism—to some,
“shallow ecology” is “just a more efficient form of exploitation and oppression”
(quoted in Nash 1989:202). While this dichotomy may accurately depict some
of the major approaches of the past, it is remarkably unhelpful for devising the
kind of framework required for a truly effective environmental movement . It
incorrectly assumes that those who adopt an anti-anthropocentric view (that is, one
that accords intrinsic worth to nonhuman beings) will also embrace the larger
political programs of radical environmentalism. Similarly, it portrays those who
favor reforms within the political and economic structures of representative
democracies as thereby excluding all nonhumans from the realm of moral
consideration. Yet no convincing reasons are ever provided to show why
these beliefs should necessarily be aligned in such a manner. (For an
instructive discussion of the pitfalls of the anthropocentric versus nonanthropocentric
dichotomy, see Norton 1987, chapter ir.)
Morality fails to apply across animalia – other animals won’t respect morality
Duckler 8 – PhD in Biology
Geordie, ARTICLE: TWO MAJOR FLAWS OF THE ANIMAL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, PhD in Biology, JD
from Northwestern, 14 Animal L. 179
Another example of ethical conflict created by the animal rights position
is that the entire animal world must be seen to be inherently immoral
because the new "rights" will never be respected between and among
animals other than humans. n89 God help the activist who tries valiantly
to hold long onto the argument that it is morality that demands legal
rights for animals: A basic biology text would stop them absolutely cold at
the early chapter describing the major division of all [*198] life into
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. n90 If activists gleaned their information from a
college science lesson instead of from a religious tome, they would find that
prokaryotes engage in immoral acts: Throughout earth history, prokaryotes
have created immense global "crises of starvation, pollution, and
extinction" n91 that make human parallels appear trivial in comparison.
Prokaryotes destroy other organisms by the great multitude, routinely
transfer genetic material freely from individual to individual, fool around
with genetic engineering, create "chimeras" at a level that our most ill-
advised laboratory technicians could only dream about, and
fundamentally alter the biotic and abiotic world in doing so. n92
Turns
Captivity good
Attempts to free animalia does not produce a true freedom – enclosure is
simply a benign replacement for the harsh natural world
Duckler 8 – PhD in Biology
Geordie, ARTICLE: TWO MAJOR FLAWS OF THE ANIMAL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, PhD in Biology, JD
from Northwestern, 14 Animal L. 179
It is crucial to animal rights advocates' general theme that they
deliberately overlook that evolution shaped the wild with abusive, cruel,
predatory, and destructive activities through natural selection. While
observations of the natural world can certainly be ignored over the short
term, the truths they convey cannot ultimately be eluded over the long
term. It cannot be denied that animals, whether in the wild or in enclosed
environments, must live through a constant bevy of unavoidably vicious
experiences: microscopic predators erode them; parasites weaken them;
vegetation restricts them; substrates degrade them; other animals pirate
their resources; toxins invade them; hunger shadows them; their abiotic
physical environment strains them; their biotic organic environment
burdens them; and conspecifics, kin, and potential mates exploit them.
n79 Through evolutionary processes, the natural world is an environment in
which competition for resources makes life unrelentingly harsh and
terminate early. It brooks no permanent relief from pain and decay. The careless
and intentional acts of other living things, in trying to keep their own
bodies alive, are regularly the cause of each trouble encountered. n80 An
artificial enclosure such as a home, zoo, laboratory, [*196] or kennel, may
indeed reduce those impacts or, at worst, perhaps simply replace those
impacts with different ones. Whatever the enclosure, opening its door
and allowing the animal "to go free" does not send the animal into any
more free or favorable environment in any respect worth describing.
The call for individual subjectivity papers over the importance of future
generations – makes environmental devastation the norm
--majority approval will never willingly limit growth and consumption
Stein 98
Stein (Tine, Constellations, Vol 4, No. 3, 1998) 1998
To be able to see the difficulties that emerge from this mechanism, one must first
follow some basic assumptions that have been formulated by the economic theory of
democracy.23 In general, these assumptions have to do with human behavior and, in
particular, with the behavior of politicians and the electorate. It is assumed that
individuals behave like self-interested rational actors; they act rationally and with a
present preference in the utility function, meaning they act myopically within the
short term. People who act myopically will judge today’s loss as more important than
tomorrow’s profit and vice versa; for them today’s profit is more important than a
future loss. When this problem is transferred to the sphere of democratic politics, the
voting behavior of the electorate is more easily understood. Voters will choose
those options which promise to maximize the health and well-being of the
people, and also for those that avoid any sacrifices. If the representatives wish
to hold their political power or to get political power, they must fulfil the voter’s
expectations.24 To avoid misunderstandings, it must be said that it is not impossible
for unpopular policies to be carried out. Policies that impose costs and demand
sacrifices, however, can only be successful in a democracy when a sufficient number
of voters is at the same time compensated.25
In order to reduce those gases that are dangerous to the atmosphere, the high
levels of consumption must be reduced and sacrifices such as abstaining from
luxurious fonns of living must be made. In other words, people must alter their
life-styles. Or even more simply put: we must bid the affluent society
farewell. The problem, however, is that there would be almost no material
compensation for people if they were to sacrifice their luxurious way of
living. Moreover, those who benefit from a radical ecological policy with regard to
the climate problem are the future generations. But future generations are not
part of the electorate. Thus one can assume that politicians risk losing their power
should they try to weaken those policies that benefit the present. Producing policies
that are mainly beneficial in the long run is a form of electoral suicide. If the
government tries to effect the steps required to form a firm ecological
policy, the opposition will criticize it and promise the opposing policy, for
which the majority will vote. Therefore, one can say that in a competitive
democracy the scope of action is framed by the limits of majority
approval.26 And as long as the majority of the electorate does not take responsibility
for the consequences of its action in the long run, the less likely it is that politicians
will pass and effect laws that alter those problems which are leading to the ecological
crisis.27
given community are in this sense 'artificial' constructs, and therefore contestable and
changeable. The disability community has already made enormous efforts in recognising its
own heterogeneity and in accommodating to those with multiple identities—hence, the sub-groups for disabled black and/or Asian people (e.g. Priestley, 1995)
and those for disabled gay and/or lesbian people (e.g. Shakespeare et al.t 1996). This is a positive development in terms of understanding the multifaceted nature of identities and
It may become problematic if such
oppressions (see Vernon, 1999), and the variegated impacts of policies and practices (see Drake, 1999).
sub-groups splinter apart from the main movement(s) which gave birth to them, or if they
prioritise one aspect of their identity or oppression above another , as indicated by Vernon (1999). However,
there is another boundary problem which is arguably more germane to the disability
community, since it pertains to the boundaries of disability itself . From the 'inside', there are
deaf people who are classified as disabled in legislation and by society, but who repudiate
the disabled identity on the grounds that they constitute a distinct linguistic and cultural
minority (e.g. Harris, 1995). There are also people who are coming to see themselves as disabled in
spite of not being recognised as disabled in official or traditional discourses —hence, the thought-provoking
question from Cooper (1997) 'Can a fat woman call herself disabled? ' There is also a potentially vast, but largely
untapped liminal space inhabited by people who have journeyed from a disabled to a non-
disabled identity and sometimes back again, and by those whose disabilities are hidden from
the gaze of others (cf. French, 1993; Druckett, 1998). The UNISON group is grounded upon the principle that anyone who self-defines as
disabled is disabled and is therefore eligible to join the disabled members group. In theory, this seems to be a self-evident truism; in practice, it
may well 'work' for many people; to articulate an alternative maxim would be inconceivable and, I would argue, undesirable.
Nevertheless, during the course of the research project I was led, unexpectedly, to problematise this maxim. First, it transpires
that there is an element of compulsion in adopting a disabled identity , which may be one aspect of what
Shakespeare (1997) has dubbed the ' "Maoism" in the Movement'. Many members of the UNISON group refuse to accept the self-
definitions of deaf members as 'deaf not disabled' , insisting that they are deaf and disabled, or indeed that they are first and foremost
disabled, and only secondarily deaf. Moreover, one interviewee who worked in a voluntary agency run by and for disabled people claimed that their policy was to refer to all
service-users as disabled people, regardless of the fact that many service-users repudiated this label. Whilst some did not regard themselves as 'disabled', others continued to use
The danger
'inappropriate' terminology to refer to their impairments, such as 'handicapped', and here the social model was deployed to over-ride self-definitions.
here is that the political principles of more powerful disabled actors can be prioritised over
the personal perceptions of less powerful disabled actors until the principle of self-definition
lapses into self-contradiction: DW [W]e work with a lot of disabled people who are not interested in the
social model or anything like that. What we've said is we won't use the language they've asked us to use about them—we'll just call them their
name—it's not that difficult—you don't have to refer to that language necessarily, because you have to hold on to your principles as well. Second, we can witness
the silencing of impairments, as impairment is relegated to a clandestine and privatised
space, an effect which Hughes & Paterson (1997) have attributed to the social model, and its dualism between
impairment and disability. Whilst some interviewees were explicit about their impairments, these were people with apparent impairments in any event.
One interlocutor enshrouded her impairments in layers of secrecy so that after 2 hours of otherwise frank and detailed dialogues I was still bemused as to which impairments she
had experienced. Whilst I was led to believe that different impairments had impacted differently upon her career in workplaces, trade unions and civil rights politics, the discursive
absence around impairments in their specificity prevented me from developing an accurate or adequate understanding of her narrative: JCH: I find it interesting that you had, like,
an invisible impairment that became, kind of, visible— DW: No, that was a different thing. JCH: Oh, that was a different thing—right. W: So then I was diagnosed as having
something completely different. I've still got this other things but at the moment it's not so visible. (Emphases added.) At the time, my concerns that explicit interrogations could
become oppressive intrusions meant that I accepted the veil of ignorance and castigated myself for my curiosity. Subsequently, I discovered that it was not just 'outsiders' who
could be perplexed by these 'impairments with no name'. A blind man discussed his frustration with other disability activists who challenged his inquiries as to the nature of their
impairments—his standard reply was that it was an access issue not only for him, in virtue of his blindness, but also for them, in virtue of his role as a service-provider and access
advisor. At the same time, this interviewee exhibited a more general awareness that both disability politics and disability theory had been dominated by people with particular
It's very convenient for people with apparent disabilities or impairments
disability identities like his own: DM:
to operate a social model which says. 'We don't want to discuss things in terms of
'impairments'. Because these people have got priority anyway, and impairment-related
provision [in UNISONJ ... The trouble with it [the social model] is that it's very difficult ... for people
with learning difficulties or other conditions ... which are not catered for ... to raise their
concerns as things which need dealing with on a service level, without feeling that they're
breaking the law and talking about impairments. Third, the right to self-define as disabled has as
its logical corollary the duty to accept others' self-definitions, but suspicions that people are
not who they claim to be circulate around the disabled community in UNISON. Casting aspersions upon the
purported disability of other group members in veiled or outright manners, with or without names attached, arose spontaneously during interviews. In my naivete, I neither
comprehended nor challenged this at the time, but from re-reading and de-coding interview transcripts, I can discern three themes as follows: a self-defined disabled person may be
suspected of not being disabled when they harbour a non-apparent impairment, and/or express views which diverge from the prevailing consensus, and/or simultaneously belong to
These themes, in turn, suggest the operation of hierarchies of impairments,
one of the other self-organised groups.
orthodoxies and oppressions, respectively. This is a strange juncture, where the propensity to treat
only tangible impairments as evidence of a bona fide disability identity clearly marginalises
those with non-apparent impairments, such as learning or mental health ones, whilst the
reluctance or refusal to differentiate between impairments by identifying them bolsters up
the claims by people with apparent impairments that they represent all disabled people . The
twist in the tale is that when other disabled people do become visible and audible in interrogating the
hierarchy of impairments. they may find themselves once again marginalised as the other
hierarchies of orthodoxies and oppressions come into play. For one thing, people with learning or
mental health difficulties may speak with a different voice, given the qualitatively different
stigmata attached to different impairments and given the fact that the social model has been
developed by those with physical impairments, so that their contributions may be
interpreted as deviating from prevailing orthodoxies. For another, people who belong to another
oppressed group may be all too visible in their difference, but their blackness or gayness
may be construed as detracting from their contributions as disability activists, given the
propensities of each group to prioritise its own specific identification-discrimination nexus .
The following interviewee testifies to some of these dynamics: DM: People have the right to self-define. But what we've never said is who has got the right to challenge. So if
somebody says 'I'm a disabled person; I've come to this disability group' I don't know how you can deal with your suspicion that they're not. In fact you can't deal with it. And you
there are lots of people who don't
have to ask yourself why you want to deal with it ... [names mentionedj ... But I'm absolutely convinced that
come to groups because they're frightened that they don't look disabled enough. Indeed, this
hierarchy of impairments and this 'policing' of the disability identity does act to exclude
UNISON members who believe that they experience the disabling effects of an impairment, but
who suspect that they would not 'count' as disabled people according to the prevailing
criteria in the disabled members' group. Evidence for this emerged during a detailed case-study of the lesbian and gay group, and two
examples should suffice. The first example is of a lesbian who had been dyslexic since childhood, who had experienced a range of discriminations in education, employment and
everyday life, and who was registered as disabled with the Department of Employment. She sought to engage in her local disabled members' group, but disengaged after the first
meeting: DL: I'm also disabled with an invisible disability, dyslexia ... I have to educate people about dyslexia as well ... An invisible disability is very difficult for people to cope
with—you have to tell each new person, and then they each interpret it differently, and then they can forget ... And it's a fluid disability as well—it's manageable sometimes and
unmanageable other times ... and people can't deal with that either ...' JCH: Did you ever go to the disabled members' group? DL: I did. And I got stared at when I walked in. By
people who really should know better. JCH: Sorry. Why did you get stared at? This is not obvious to me! DL: Because I didn't look like I was disabled. The second example is,
perhaps paradoxically, someone whose impairment was visible, but who dared not join the disabled members' group on the grounds that it was not 'severe' enough to be taken
seriously by other group members. The impairment in question was skin allergies over her entire body, including facial disfigurement which is recognised under the Disability
Discrimination Act 1995, as one of its few token gestures towards the social model of disability (Hqual Opportunities Review, 1996). Nevertheless, this interviewee's self-
definition as disabled was confounded and then crushed by her convictions that disability activists would define her as non-disabled: DL: 'I get quite bitter sometimes. I don't think
I'm disabled, because I don't think that what I've got prevents me from functioning, or society doesn't prevent me from functioning. But it probably does ... And my skin tissue
scars very easily, and I've got visible marks on my face, and people do look, and I do feel conscious of it, and I'm made to feel conscious of it. But I would feel like I was—what's
the word?—an impostor if I attended a disability caucus for those reasons. I feel that the disability caucus excludes people like that ... Nobody takes things like that into account.
JCH: The crazy thing is, that until people like you get involved in the disability movement in the union, then they won't take things like that into account! But that does put a big
burden on you—or on people in your position—to come out and say 'Hey! We're here too! What about us?' DL: But I feel like mine is a minimal complication. Or whether I'm
made to feel that way ...? The argument here is that the social model as operationalised within the UNISON group has both reified
the disability identity and reduced it to particular kinds of impairments—physical,
immutable, tangible and 'severe' ones—in a way which can deter many people from
adopting a disabled identity and participating in a disability community. Whilst this indicates that the social
model may harbour its own set of indigenous essentialisms and exclusions, the solution is not to capitulate to the other-imposed essentialisms and exclusions of the medical model,
but rather to work towards a more inclusive model. This will entail a more welcoming stance towards all those who self-define as disabled whatever their impairment might be and
towards those who experience impairments and who want to combat discriminations, but who do not choose to identify as 'disabled' for whatever reason. It is time for people to
ask 'What do we mean by "our" community? Are its building-blocks safe or its boundaries sensible?' There may be merit in reflecting upon Young's (1990a) warning that
communities are often fabricated out of the yearning to be among similar-and-symmetrical
selves, to the point where members respond to alterity by expelling it beyond their border .
Clearly, a self-perpetuating spiral can be set in motion, whereby the tighter the boundaries are
drawn, the more those included will normalise their sameness and exclude others , the more
the excluded will become estranged others, and the less the community will be informed by
experiences of and reflection upon diversity, etc. This should not be misread—the UNISON group, like many other disabled people's
organisations, is at least as democratic as any other social or political group in its constitution, and it is at least as diverse as any other in respecting multiple identities.
Paradoxically, some disabled people's organisations may have expended more energies in reaching out to black and gay people who harbour specific impairments than in reaching
'Who is to "count" as a member
out to differently disabled people whatever their other oppressions. Of course, we must do both. But the question
of the disability community?' is not as strange as it may sound and may even be the Achilles
heel of disability politics to date.
Solvency
Alt doesn’t solve- exposing disability oppression does not lead to social change,
non-disabled won’t surrender power
Donoghue, 2k3
(Christopher, Fordham University, Challenging the authority of the medical definition of
disability: an analysis of the resistance to the social constructionist paradigm, Disability &
Society 18.2)
In an effort to debunk the entrenched authority of the medical model, a social
constructionist paradigm has been adopted by many disability theorists and activists. They have suggested that
society normally creates a negative social identity for people with disabilities (Gergen, 1985; Fine & Asch, 1988; Scotch, 1988;
Brzuzy, 1997). Through the construction of this identity, which is typically characterised by
deviant or abnormal behaviour, the non-disabled majority is granted a legitimate means to
exclude and isolate people with disabilities. As removed members of society, their contributions are often
discredited and their successes are treated as aberrations. Likewise, the expectations of people with disabilities are chronically low,
and there is an ever-present suggestion that their lives are not necessarily worth living. This identity has been argued to derive from
the medical model, which defines a disability as a deficiency that restricts one’s ability to perform normal life activities. By adopting
the social constructionist viewpoint, theorists and activists have contended that society has created disability by choosing not to
remove structural constraints that would enable more people to participate and gain access to social resources. The social
constructionist approach was an effective ideological rejoinder to the established medical
model. Yet the question of how to convince the non-disabled majority that society has disabled certain individuals has not been
adequately resolved. The activists attempted to adopt the social constructionist theory as a basis for a minority group model of
disability. They would use this model to support a plea for action to people with disabilities as a
mechanism to overcome the oppression being inflicted upon them by the non-disabled
majority. While it is clear that such a transformation of the definition of disability among academics and disability activists has
clearly taken hold, the disability movement appears to have achieved only limited success in
changing the views of the non-disabled majority. By accepting the reward of civil rights protection without
insisting that the medical model be publicly dismantled, the hopes of the disability activists to change the views of the broader public
may have been sacrificed. The willingness to make this concession may have stemmed from the belief among social
constructionist theorists that society will change its perception of disability if it is merely
demonstrated that the prior notion has been made unjustly. From a structural point of view, it would
seem to take much more to convince a dominant group in society that it needs to
redistribute power and access to its treasured resources. The more desirable arrangement
to the non-disabled majority is one that maintains the superiority of people with ‘normal’
abilities. As a result, the disabled are typically described as dysfunctional and are often
perceived to be incapable of understanding the world in the same way that ‘normal’ people
do. Although social constructionists argue that such judgements regarding how people should be able to think or act are
subjective notions that stem from dominant social ideologies, they may be said to underestimate the extent to which
those ideologies are created and legitimated by the non-disabled majority because they best
serve their interests.
Env securitization
Environmental securitization is necessary to accurately represent the link
between climate and conflict
Mazo 10 – PhD in Paleoclimatology from UCLA
Jeffrey Mazo, Managing Editor, Survival and Research Fellow for Environmental Security and
Science Policy at the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, 3-2010, “Climate
Conflict: How global warming threatens security and what to do about it,” pg. 12-13
The expected consequences of climate change include rising sea levels and population
displacement, increasing severity of typhoons and hurricanes, droughts, floods,
disruption of water resources, extinctions and other ecological disruptions, wild- fires,
severe disease outbreaks, and declining crop yields and food stocks. Combining the
historical precedents with current thinking on state stability, internal conflict and
state failure suggests that adaptive capacity is the most important factor in avoiding
climate-related instability. Specific global and regional climate projections for the
next three decades, in light of other drivers of instability and state failure, help
identify regions and countries which will see an increased risk from climate change.
They are not necessarily the most fragile states, nor those which face the greatest
physical effects of climate change. The global security threat posed by fragile and
failing states is well known. It is in the interest of the world’s more afflu- ent
countries to take measures both to reduce the degree of global warming and climate
change and to cushion the impact in those parts of the world where climate change
will increase that threat. Neither course of action will be cheap, but inaction will be
costlier. Efficient targeting of the right kind of assistance where it is most needed is
one way of reducing the cost, and understanding how and why different societies
respond to climate change is one way of making that possible.
Climate and security are linked – Darfur proves environmental concerns were
central
Mazo 10 – PhD in Paleoclimatology from UCLA
Jeffrey Mazo, Managing Editor, Survival and Research Fellow for Environmental Security and
Science Policy at the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, 3-2010, “Climate
Conflict: How global warming threatens security and what to do about it,” pg. 84-85
A contrasting illustration is provided by UNEP’s analysis of conflict and the
environment in the Sudan. In this case, the authors are primarily interested in the
specific environmental aspects of recovery, reconstruction and development, and they
explicitly exclude other factors to focus on the environmental dimensions of conflict.
43 Like de Waal, they note that environmental problems affecting pasture and
farmland occur throughout Sudan and are ‘clearly and strongly linked to conflict in a
minority of cases and regions only’, but that nevertheless ‘there is substantial
evidence of a strong link between the recent occurrence of local conflict and
environmental degradation ... in the drier parts of Sudan’. 44 Like de Waal, they
discuss the breakdown of traditional systems of mediation and dispute resolution
after 1970 and the influx of small arms into the region, ‘with the unfortunate result
that local conflicts today are both much more violent and more difficult to contain
and mediate’. 45 Although they also recognise that land degradation ‘does not appear
to be the dominant causative factor in local conflicts’, they conclude that: There is a
very strong link between land degradation, desertification and conflict in Darfur.
Northern Darfur – where exponential population growth and related environmental
stress have created the conditions for conflicts to be triggered and sustained by
political, tribal or ethnic differences – can be considered a tragic example of the social
breakdown that can result from ecological collapse. Long-term peace in the region
will not be possible unless these underlying and closely linked environmental and
livelihood issues are resolved.
Generic turns of K impacts
Biod
Biodiversity collapse solves war
Deudney 91 - Hewlett Fellow in Science, Technology, and Society at the Center for Energy and
Environmental Studies, Princeton
Daniel, “Environment and security: Muddled thinking,” Book
Even if environmental degradation were to destroy the basic social and economic
fabric of a country or region, the impact on international order may not be very great.
Among the first casualties in such a country would be the capacity to wage war . The
poor and wretched of the earth may be able to deny an outside aggressor an easy
conquest, but they are themselves a minimal threat to other states. Contemporary
offensive military operations require complex organizational skills. Specialized
industrial products, and surplus wealth.
Deforestation
Deforestation is key to food production, economic growth, and resources
Fiset 7 – MD
Nathalie Fiset, M.D., “Benefits of Deforestation” March 2007. http://ezinearticles.com/?
Benefits-of-Deforestation&id=504455)
Whenever people talk about deforestation, usually the things that spring to mind are
negative thoughts brought on mostly by media hypes and environmentalist drives.
People think about global warming, depletion of natural resources, and the casual
extinction of indigenous fauna and flora. Yet people don't seem to realize that there are
actually quite a few benefits of deforestation. One of the easiest benefits of deforestation
to spot are the economic ones. Lumber products are one of the most staple constructive
materials in human society. Whether it's raw lumber used for making tables and houses,
or paper and other wood by-products, we simply cannot live without the use of lumber.
Like steel and stone, wood is one of the most basic natural resources, and unlike steel
and stone, it is renewable simply by growing more trees. The only real trick to
balancing it's consumption is to grow more trees to replace the ones taken. On a
similarly related note, keep in mind that a lot of jobs revolve around the use of lumber.
Wood cutters aside, there are those who work in processing plants to make glue from wood
sap, process pulp into paper, and others. This is another benefit of deforestation; it opens more
job opportunities for people who would otherwise be unemployed. These job
opportunities are more than simply a humanitarian concept; society at large would
suffer if all of the people working in the wood industry were to suddenly find themselves
jobless. This benefit of deforestation not only covers the people who cut down trees and
process them, but also extends to the people who "clean up" after them. For every patch of
forest cut down, arable land becomes available for farmers, or can be used as an area to
place urban living sites like apartments, houses, and buildings. The number of people
employed by such a construction project are many and varied. Or, if the
city/government mandates replanting trees to replace the lost ones, then jobs are also
provided for those people who do the seeding after a patch of forest is stripped.
Thinking about it, the cleared areas are places which provide a lot of potential for growth,
and this is yet another benefit of deforestation. As stated above, arable land is valuable, and
the act of deforestation to clear a place for farm land provides a much needed additional food
source for man. More often than not, the soil in a forest is much richer than that of
regular farm lands because of the wide variety of life it supports. This new land area
grants a much needed place to grow a food supply to deal with the planet's steadily
expanding population of humanity. Then, of course, there is the fact that these cleared
areas may be razed for urban renewal. Given our burgeoning population growth,
additional living areas made on cleared forest land is another benefit of deforestation. These
places can be converted into more than just housing areas. Buildings which can house
offices for work, or factories to produce clothing and other essential items, or even
research facilities for things like new medical or technological advances can be placed
in these deforested areas. Lastly, another benefit of deforestation to consider is the access it
provides to other natural resources that may lay within the forest's land area. Some places
with heavy forests are home to iron ore, mineral, and even oil deposits which can be used for
man's needs. These natural resources would otherwise lay dormant and untapped unless
people access them. The act of deforestation may not be entirely necessary to get at
these deposits sometimes, but coupled with the advantages given above, the
combination of opening up a new mine or oil well when taken with extra living spaces
or farm lands for food makes a lot of sense. So, given all of the benefits of deforestation
outlined above, you can see that more often than not, the good outweighs the bad . The
planet's environment may indeed suffer from the effects of deforestation, but that is
due to irresponsible use of the resources and other benefits provided, not the
deforestation itself. As people living on the planet, our duty is not to "hold back" and
stop cutting trees. It is to use what we glean from the Earth responsibly and wisely for
humanity and the planet's benefit.