SURVEYS

surveys gather data at a particular point in

time with the intention of describing the
nature of existing conditions, or identifying
standards against which existing conditions
can be compared, or determining the
relationships that exist between specific
events.
 Characteristics of a survey (1)
• gathers data on a one-shot basis and hence is
economical and efficient;
• represents a wide target population (hence
there is a need for careful sampling;
• generates numerical data;
• provides descriptive, inferential and
explanatory information;
 Characteristics of a survey (2)
• manipulates key factors and variables to
derive frequencies (e.g. the numbers
registering a particular opinion or test score);
• gathers standardized information (i.e. Using
the same instruments and questions for all
participants);
• ascertains correlations (e.g. to find out if
there is any relationship between gender and
scores);
 Characteristics of a survey (3)
• presents material which is uncluttered by
specific contextual factors;
• captures data from multiple choice, closed
questions, test scores or observation
schedules;
• supports or refutes hypotheses about the
target population;
• generates accurate instruments through their
piloting and revision;
 Characteristics of a survey (4)
• makes generalizations about, and observes
patterns of response in, the targets of focus;
• gathers data which can be processed
statistically;
• usually relies on large scale data gathering
from a wide population in order to enable
generalizations to be made about given
factors or variables.
 Examples of a survey
• opinion polls (which refute the notion that
only opinion polls can catch opinions);
• test scores (e.g. the results of testing
students nationally or locally);
• students’ preferences for particular courses,
e.g. humanities, sciences;
• reading surveys
 Some preliminary considerations
• The purpose of the inquiry;
• Identification and itemizing of subsidiary topics
that relate to its central purpose;
• Formulating specific information requirements
relating to each of the issues;
• The population upon which the survey is
focused
• The resources available
• Survey sampling
 Longitudinal, cross-sectional, and
trend studies
• The term ‘longitudinal’ is used to describe a
variety of studies that are conducted over a
period of time.
• Often, the word ‘developmental’ is employed
in connection with longitudinal studies that
deal specifically with aspects of human
growth.
 The longitudinal study
• Gathers data over an extended period of time;
where successive measures are taken at
different points in time from the same
respondents
• Where different respondents are studied at
different points in time, the study is called
‘cross-sectional’.
• Where a few selected factors are studied
continuously over time, the term ‘trend study’ is
employed.
 The longitudinal study
• Follow-up study or cohort study (British)
• A panel study (American)
CASE STUDIES
 What is a case study?
• A case study is a specific instance that is
frequently designed to illustrate a more
general principle;, it is ‘the study of an
instance in action’;
• The single instance is of a bounded system,
for example a child, a clique, a class, a school,
a community.
A case study has several hallmarks
(1)
• It is concerned with a rich and vivid
description of events relevant to the
case.
• It provides a chronological narrative of
events relevant to the case.
• It blends a description of events with
the analysis of them.
A case study has several hallmarks
(2)
• It focuses on individual actors or groups of
actors, and seeks to understand their
perceptions of events.
• It highlights specific events that are relevant
to the case.
• The researcher is integrally involved in the
case.
• An attempt is made to portray the richness of
the case in writing up the report.
 Case studies:
a. are set in temporal, geographical,
organizational, institutional and other
contexts that enable boundaries to be
drawn around the case;
b. can be defined with reference to
characteristics defined by individuals and
groups involved; and
c. can be defined by participants’ roles and
functions in the case.
 Case studies
Case studies strive to portray ‘what it is like’
to be in a particular situation, to catch the
closeup reality and ‘thick description’ of
participants’ lived experiences of, thoughts
about and feelings for, a situation. Hence it is
important for events and situations to be
allowed to speak for themselves rather than
to be largely interpreted, evaluated or judged
by the researcher.
 Generalization in case studies
Generalization can take different forms:
• from the single instance to the class of
instances that it represents;
• from features of the single case to a
multiplicity of classes with the same features;
• from the single features of part of the case to
the whole of that case.
 TYPES OF CASE STUDIES
• Exploratory
– Exploratory case studies that act as a pilot can be
used to generate hypotheses that are tested in
larger scale surveys, experiments or other forms
of research, e.g. observational
• Descriptive (providing narrative accounts)
• Explanatory (testing theories)
Another classification of case studies
• Descriptive (narrative accounts);
• Interpretative (developing conceptual
categories inductively in order to examine
initial assumptions);
• Evaluative (explaining and judging)
ACTION RESEARCH
 What is action research?
Action research is a systematic approach to
investigation that enables people to find
effective solutions to problems they confront
in their everyday lives.
 Research
Research is characterized by the following:
• A problem or issue to be investigated
• A process of inquiry
• Explanations that enable individuals to
understand the nature of the problem
 Some of the areas in which the
application of community-based
action research may be fruitful:
• Education
• Health care
• Social work
• Organizational development
• Planning and architecture
 Principles of action research
• Relationships
• Communication
• Participation
• Inclusion
 Relationships
Relationships in action research should:
• Promote feelings of equality of all people
involved;
• Maintain harmony;
• Avoid conflicts, whereever possible;
• Resolve conflicts that arise, openly and
dialogically;
• Accept people as they are, not as some people
think they ought to be;