International Journal of Civil, Structural,

Environmental and Infrastructure Engineering

Research and Development (IJCSEIERD)
ISSN (P): 2249–6866; ISSN (E): 2249–7978
Vol. 11, Issue 1, Jun 2021, 21–30
© TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.

EXPLORING THE KNOWLEDGE AND ENGINEERING PRACTICES OF ARTISANS

IN THE INFORMAL GHANAIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY AND ITS EFFECT
ON CONCRETE BUILDINGS

EILEEN GOODY GANS-LARTEY & MA QINYONG

School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan 232001, Anhui, China
ABSTRACT

This paper focuses on the engineering knowledge and application of artisans in the informal sector of the Ghanaian
Construction Industry and its effect and influence on the service life of concrete buildings. This research was conducted
in two towns Prampram and Aburi across the Greater Accra and Eastern Regions in Ghana.

Specifically, the study delved into the depth of knowledge and application of engineering practices by artisans
in the informal Ghanaian Construction Industry. The data for the study was mainly obtained from field settings
(construction sites) with the aid of self-developed guide to facilitate the focus group discussions. Purposive sampling was
the sampling method employed in the two towns of Prampram and Aburi in the Greater Accra and Eastern Region of
Ghana. Applying the qualitative method, the study established that artisans in the informal Ghanaian Construction

Original Article
Industry did not have in-depth knowledge of engineering practices hence their non application of these practices in the
construction on concrete buildings.

There is little adherence to the standardized practices and this can be attributed to lack of adequate training of
these artisans in enhancing their skill set and competencies as well as a regulatory body to monitor their construction
works such as batching were not measured scientifically which leads to the improper ratio of mortar and concrete works
and insufficient cement to the aggregate ratio of cement blocks. Consequently, these factors lead to weak buildings and
poor construction works because of the weak cement blocks. There are also cracks and leaking roofs which ultimately
lead to structure failure with the structures not meeting their estimated service life.

Implications for this study include the need for artisans in the informal sector to acquire the right engineering
training, knowledge and skills, adherence of standardized practices and the need for a regulatory body to provide direct
oversight and supervision of their works

KEYWORDS: Artisans, Engineering practices, Construction, Concrete

Received: Feb 16, 2021; Accepted: Mar 04, 2021; Published: Mar 14, 2021; Paper Id.: IJCSEIERDJUN20213

INTRODUCTION

Ghana’s construction Industry is growing steadily with the development of affordable housing and pertinent
infrastructure such as roads, railways, ports, hospitals and schools. This developmental phase is accompanied by a
steadily growing economy expected to continue at a GDP growth rate of 6.8% (The Report: Ghana 2020). Despite
some limitations the construction sector has continued to grow. According to the Ghana Statistical Service,
construction has been the largest sub sector of industry in 2015 with a growth rate of 30.6% and 14.8% share of
GDP. It has grown steadily over the past five years above 70% since 2010 and employing around 320,000 people

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22 Eileen Goody Gans-Lartey & Ma Qinyong

(oxford business group)

The Ghanaian Construction Industry comprises both the formal and informal sector. According to (Hedidor et al,
2017) the formal construction industry has the government regulating construction licensing, registration and employment
whereas there is little or no adherence to these practices in the informal sector. The composition of the formal sector
includes but not limited to trained professionals such as Civil Engineers, Architects, Geotechnical. Electrical Engineers and
Quantity surveyors. This sector is monitored, taxed and regulated whereas the informal sector is unregulated, do not
usually pay tax and are managed by informally trained artisans. They comprise apprentices and casual workers.

Hedidor et al purport that the informal construction industry in Ghana operate in an incremental basis with little or
no consideration to project cost, duration, quality and health and safety issues. Project quality of the sector is questionable.
Consequently, work within this sector is without materials and workmanship, specifications, non-compliance with building
planning permits and documentation. This often leads to cracks in building, leaking roof, structure failure and short service
life of structures. The aim of this paper is therefore to assess the impact of low knowledge level and engineering practices
of artisans in the informal construction industry and its impact on Concrete Buildings.

Characteristics of the Informal Construction Sector in Ghana

Informality is about the informal, casual or unofficial activities that occur in business rms, industries, societies and the
economy as a whole (Gajendran et al 2011).

Wells (2007) describes the informal sector as unregulated and protected individuals and enterprises engaged in
economic activities in construction including the supply of labour and the production of building materials and components
for both the formal construction sector and directly in response to client needs

Interestingly in Africa and other developing countries the growing trend of the constructing buildings by private
clients is the buying of materials directly by the individuals and engaging the informal sector to supply labour. Those with
the engineering knowledge and hence the ability to apply its practices are often times bypassed. Contracts with the
informal sector are usually just verbal with the building process taking place in stages. The informal sectors lack the
framework of labour and legal regulation guiding the scope of work.

Construction Firms in Ghana and other parts of the world have only a small core of regular workers while
majority of its works are employed on a temporary and casual basis. In the Tanzanian construction industry, the majority of
the construction work is carried out by the informal sector, thus compounding to the availability of labour problems
(Mlinga and Lema 2000). This trend is also seen in other developing countries (Wells, 2012).

It is worth mentioning that the informal construction sector receives little attention and is usually ignored. There is
the stressed absence of regulations regarding the conditions of employment. This could be attributed to increasing
competition within the industry, declining workload or restrictive employment regulation (Wells 2007)

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of the study is to bring to the fore the linkage between the knowledge and engineering practices of artisans in
the Informal Ghanaian Construction Industry and Its Influence on Concrete Buildings. Dividing this chapter into two, the
first part focuses on the study‘s area with the second part discussing the study‘s research design, population, sampling and
sample size, instrumentation, reliability and validity, data sources and methods for data analysis and presentation. The

Impact Factor (JCC): 9.5582 NAAS Rating: 4.15

Exploring the Knowledge and Engineering Practices of Artisans in the Informal Ghanaian 23
Construction Industry and its Effect on Concrete Buildings

study was conducted in Ghana in two towns (Prampram and Aburi) across the Greater Accra and Eastern Region
respectively. These areas were selected because it’s currently part if the towns in Ghana undergoing massive
developmental and construction works hence suitable for the study.

Research Design

Research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose in integrating the different components of a study in a
coherent and logical way the effective address of the research problem. In effect, it constitutes the blueprint for the
collecting, measurement and analysis of data.

Additionally, Malhotra and Birks (2007) have purported research methodology as the procedural framework,
which forms the basis for conducting a research. Similarly, Powell (1997) enlisted surveys, ethnography, experiments, case
studies and grounded theory as examples of research designs from which a research study can be chosen.

The whole study is grounded on a case study of Ghana’s Informal Construction Sector. In an attempt to get a
more elaborate view, Informal Construction workers were engaged in focus group discussions to ascertain knowledge and
application of Engineering Practice in their line of duty.

Robert K. Yin defines case study research as an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon
within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which
multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p.23). In furtherance to this, the press academia defines case study, as a
research methodology, strategy and empirical enquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real -life context. It
focuses on an in-depth investigation of a single individual group or event to explore the causes of underlying principles.

In sum a case study research can be single or multiple, includes qualitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of
evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions.

The study required soliciting views, opinions and perspectives on identified issues. Interview guides were
explored in facilitating the discussions and thus could be classified as an exploratory multiple case study approach.

The face to face approach was considered useful in the study as it provided the platform for obtaining firsthand
information, opinion, attitudes and exploring relationships among variables.

The focus group discussion approach enabled the researcher to interact with the participants, pose follow up
questions or ask direct questions leading to direct responses as well as providing the opportunity to probe deeply.
Similarly, researchers are able to make inferences from non- verbal responses such as facial expressions or body language.

Focus group discussions enable information to be provided quickly as against conducting interviews separately.
The interview guide employed for purposes of the focus group discussions went through a series of review by a team of
researchers to ensure content validity.

As indicated by Yin (1994), cases from the unit of analysis of the aforementioned study. Accordingly, ethical
considerations were employed in the study and the entire research process. Additionally, the use of qualitative content
analysis by Miles and Huberman (1994) was used in analysing the data from the case studies.

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24 Eileen Goody Gans-Lartey & Ma Qinyong

Population, Sampling Technique and Sample Size (Case Selection)

Sample size is a critical feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a
sample. A sample size plays a significant role in determining the confidence interval, precision of sample estimates as well
as the probability of error.

Factors such as the desired level of significance, variance, standard deviation of the population of interest and the
researchers’ tolerable error margin influence the selection of a sample size in a research. Saunders Lewis and Thornhill
(2007) have confirmed the size of the sample and the way in which it is selected has implications for the confidence in the
data and the extent to which generalization can be made in research.

Generally, sample sizes of less than 25 or 30 are considered small as against the stated figure. The study
conducted sampled a minimum of 50 workers per town, which culminates into a total of 100.

According to Creswell 2007, a sample usually depends on the population size, available resources, appropriate
method of sampling and degree of homogeneity.

A non -probabilistic sampling technique was employed in this research. Specifically, the study made use of the
purposive sampling technique. This research technique implies the researcher selects the sample based on some subjective
judgement or prior knowledge. This design provides the researcher the opportunity of selecting an entire sample from what
he deems as a representative population.

The purposive sampling technique is effective, so long as the sample is truly representative of the population
under study. Thus the use of the purposive sampling technique was needed for an in-depth investigation with groups of
people with prior knowledge on the subject matter (Garrison 1992)

Instrumentation

Qualitative Research methodologies make use of emerging questions and procedures with data typically collected in the
setting of the respondent. It usually requires the use of more open ended questions, narrative / literary or explorative and
interpretative or holistic description designs, case studies, discourse or content analysis and instrumentation.

Qualitative data has great potential for their ability to allow for the exploration of real issues of a complex nature,
which cannot always be quantified. (Beedless 2002).

The use of focus group discussions enabled participants to agree or disagree with each other and this provides an
insight into how a group perceives an issue, the range of opinions and ideas, and the inconsistencies and variations that
exist in a particular community in terms of beliefs a well as their experiences and practices. (Kruegger, R. A 1988)

In effect it is a good way to gather together people from similar backgrounds or experiences to discuss a specific
topic of interest. The facilitator or moderator usually guides the participants, introduces topic for discussion and assists the
entire group to participate in a lively and natural discussion among themselves. (Morgan, D.L 1988). Focus group
discussions are enlisted as a qualitative research design.

Regardless of the enumerated merits, the focus group discussion could be quite problematic in areas where
respondents are difficult to control and when the selected representatives cannot be easily regulated.

In this study, the researcher opted for a self- designed interview guide due to the exploratory nature of the study.

Impact Factor (JCC): 9.5582 NAAS Rating: 4.15

Exploring the Knowledge and Engineering Practices of Artisans in the Informal Ghanaian 25
Construction Industry and its Effect on Concrete Buildings

The flexibility of the focus group discussion was best suited for this study as it provided an enabling environment for the
participants to put across their views. Guided by the study objectives, the researchers self -designed interview guide was
divided into 3 sections. The first section focused on demographic variables such as age, gender, number of years of
working in the informal construction sector, educational level, household income etc. The second section focused on the
extent to which participants had engineering knowledge and applied it effectively in their line of work. The last section
explored the linkage between the knowledge and application of engineering practices and its Effect on Concrete Buildings.
English was the language used in preparing and administering the study.

The focus group discussion took place between 10th April and Thursday 20th April 2017. The discussions were
recorded, transcribed and analysed around coded themes.

Conformability, Dependability and Transferability of Issues

Further to the proposition of Yin (2003) the researcher strongly advocates for three defined criteria of conformability,
dependability and transferability of issues in relation to the quality of the study‘s instrument.

Test conformability is to assess the researchers standing in successfully conceptualizing correct operational
measures of his study (Yin 2003). Though the qualitative research design does not provide flexibility in establishing
construct validity, the use of varying resources provided the researcher with adequate information to fulfil the requirements
of construct validity.

The employment of conformability is essential in the successful conceptualization of correct operational measures
for the studies (Yin, 2003).

Conformability proves difficult under case studies as a result of the likely bias in data collection in relation to
interviewees not answering interview questions truthfully and the unconscious withholding of information. The use of
varying sources of information and in particular reference to expert opinions provided the researcher with sufficient data to
fulfil the requirements of conformability.

In effect conformability was addressed in the study by collecting data via multiple sources reviewed under the
case study reports for the purpose of maintaining chain of evidence from the respondents.

In finality the specific case study questions were sought through focus group discussions in ensuring the efficient
capturing of the comprehensive and rich data of the study‘s main issues.

Dependability on the other hand explores case related events in exploration studies (Yin 2003)

This study was exploratory. It observed relationships from scenarios.

The issue of transferability is equally critical as it establishes the domain in which the study findings can be
generalized by the replication of logic in multiple case designs (Yin 2003). The assumption of establishing external validity
proves to be more problematic in a qualitative case study as juxtaposed to quantitative studies was the means by which the
researcher addressed the issue.

(Yin, 2003). Additionally, the study‘s transferability was established by careful documentation of the employed
techniques and procedures.

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26 Eileen Goody Gans-Lartey & Ma Qinyong

Detailed description on how the data was collected, processed and analyzed aided in the minimization of potential
errors. Primary information was obtained from discussions of the sampled groups in achieving the study‘s objectives.
Employing primary data was of essence as it aided in reducing the likely influence of extraneous variables in the study‘s
results. Finally, there was a merger of both primary and secondary data from reports, publications, books and brochures.

ANALYSIS, REPRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Introduction

Yin (1994) identified six primary sources of evidence for case studies. These sources include archival records, interviews,
direct observations, participant observation and physical artefacts.

In reference to this study, results were obtained from discussants emanating from focus group discussions, documentations
and direct observations. The facilitator and research assistants identified with the group to obtain credible and reliable
information.

Results of Univariate Analysis

Criteria for Selected Cases
The chosen case study was grounded on the researcher‘s judgement and analysis of how well the discussants related to the
topic. Three main questions informed the suitability of the discussants for the study. The three questions include:

Did the discussants have the required information to achieve the study‘s objectives?

Where the discussants available for the discussion to be held

Was the sampled ready and willing to transmit the data needed?

Clarity and answers of the enlisted questions, cost considerations and practicality guided the researcher in
selecting the specific towns for the study. In furtherance to this, the researcher ensured that the cost of soliciting
information or the data required was kept at the barest minimum without compromising on the sample size required to
prevent any kind of tradeoffs that can compromise the validity and reliability of the solicited or obtained information. In
order to have a more coherent view of the study, other specific criterion for the selected cases includes:

Sites were rapid development and construction works were ongoing

Discussants should be artisans that worked in the informal sector of the Ghanaian Construction Industry

Demographics of Artisans

Demographic data collected on the sample include their level of experience, educational level, age and sex. The data
collected suggested that men dominated the Informal Ghanaian Construction Industry as all the 100 artisans the researcher
discussed with (representing 100%) in the towns of Prampram and Aburi were men. The role of women on construction
sites were limited to provision of food and water and the cleaning of the construction environment. This could be attributed
to the perception of construction works being tedious and as such men had to occupy those roles. The artisans’
specializations included brick/block layers, block manufacturers, plasterers and others such as carpenters, masons, painters
and plumbers. The percentages of this specialization include 40%, 20%, 28% and 12% respectively. This stresses that
block/brick manufacturers remained the majority for both construction towns. The age of the respondents were between 20

Impact Factor (JCC): 9.5582 NAAS Rating: 4.15

Exploring the Knowledge and Engineering Practices of Artisans in the Informal Ghanaian 27
Construction Industry and its Effect on Concrete Buildings

and 65, with their level of experience being between 5-15 years. The youngest worker was about 24 years with the oldest
being 64 years. Regarding their level of education, the highest level was Senior High School with the lowest level being
the completion of primary education. The gained experience mainly by serving as apprentices under their masters until
they were equipped to execute menial jobs. They spent between 3-6years in apprenticeship.

Discussion of Findings
Research Question 1

The research question hypothesized the kind of Concrete Buildings and Projects Artisans in the Informal
Construction Industry worked on

Through the focus group discussions it was discovered that the informal artisans worked on residential buildings,
institutional buildings, commercial buildings and others. This showed that artisans in the informal sector had
opportunities in constructing pertinent concrete buildings. The services they provided include plastering,
block/brick moulding, carpentry works, painting, block/brick laying, plumbering etc. The sources of obtaining
their construction jobs include individuals, construction companies, NGO’s and private enterprises. The
requirements before engaging workers in the informal sector were not detailed. It was mostly based on
recommendations and years of experience as against the formal sector were a lot of paper works had to be
presented as proof of capacity to undertake the jobs. In this regard artisans in the informal construction sector
could not secure government contracts. The findings in this domain is consistent with the literature reviewed
which purports that artisans in the informal Ghanaian construction Industry did not have adequate engineering
knowledge to execute projects as they did not undergo any thorough process before they were engaged. However,
in order to ensure that they had the right engineering knowledge it is important that they undergo a thorough
process before they are engaged.

Research Question 2

The second research question seeks to explore the kind of building materials and tools used and its impact on the
building project.

The types of cement used by these artisans include Ghacem, Portland and Diamond Cement with Diamond
Cement being widely used. The criteria for choosing the type of cement were not hinged on strength but the low
price and availability. It was also realised that most of these construction workers used river water for mixing the
concrete which has huge negative implications on the compressive strength Accordingly it is in consonance with
objective two, which seeks to determine strategies to adopt in designing pro poor social interventions. In reference
to theoretical and empirical reviews and findings from focus group discussions, target beneficiaries enumerated
some strategies which when adopted will make implementation effective and the ultimate objective of reducing
poverty and ensuring development achieved. The enumerated strategies include the need to critically analyse the
information about the problem, goals and factors affecting the target beneficiaries, the use of strategic action plans
to guide implementation and achieve project deliverables and the need to incorporate sustainability strategies.
Also, their preference and use of sand from dug pits which usually had clay content could affect the strength of
the concrete and consequently lead to structural failure if not addressed in the design mix. Also, most of the
building materials for the construction works were purchased by owners of the construction building. These

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28 Eileen Goody Gans-Lartey & Ma Qinyong

owners may not also have the right knowledge to choose quality products and may purchase based on cost. This
also has implications on the service life of the structures. Sophisticated tools such as concrete mixers and poker
vibrators were not readily available as they were obtained on rental basis. The artisans were seen mainly using
tools such as head pans, shovel, block hammers, tape measures, builders square and line and pins

Research Question 3

The third research question seeks to ascertain the source of Information for Construction works.

Most of the artisans admitted the non use of detailed architectural drawings which provided the right kind of
guidelines and standards in executing quality construction works. The detailed drawings are obtained from Civil
Engineers and Architects but often times relegated by these sect mostly because of cost. Most of them resorted to
non-detailed drawings and had to compensate these drawing plans with their own basic knowledge which
provides a huge deficit in construction works

CONCLUSIONS

This study concluded that artisans in the informal construction industry did not have the right engineering knowledge and
as such did not engage in standardized engineering practices during construction and concrete works. This could be
attributed to the lack of knowledge and engineering capacity by artisans in the informal sector. This mainly due to short
training period and inadequate apprenticeship training. Also, the lack of a regulatory body to supervise and regulate the
operations of the informal Construction sector is a major contributor. The implication for these findings is that artisans in
the Informal Ghanaian Construction Sector lacked the right engineering skills, knowledge and practices and this has a
negative effect on Concrete Buildings. It is therefore recommended that a regulatory body is set up to guide their
operations and explore the industry further by harnessing their skills through organized training.

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