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in bacterial colonies
H. P. Zhang1, Avraham Be’er, E.-L. Florin, and Harry L. Swinney1
Center for Nonlinear Dynamics and Department of Physics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712
Edited by Raymond E. Goldstein, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom, and accepted by the Editorial Board June 23, 2010 (received for review
February 18, 2010)
Flocking birds, fish schools, and insect swarms are familiar exam- gate general phenomena of collective motion. However, in pre-
ples of collective motion that plays a role in a range of problems, vious studies, bacteria were so closely packed that it has not been
such as spreading of diseases. Models have provided a qualitative possible to identify and simultaneously track many individual bac-
understanding of the collective motion, but progress has been hin- teria in collective motion for a long period of time.
dered by the lack of detailed experimental data. Here we report In this article, we investigate collective bacterial motion in
simultaneous measurements of the positions, velocities, and orien- wild-type Bacillus subtilis colonies growing on agar substrates.
tations as a function of time for up to a thousand wild-type Bacillus Inside colonies, bacteria swim in a micrometer-thick film of liquid
subtilis bacteria in a colony. The bacteria spontaneously form on the agar surface (23, 24); the bacteria are not observed to
closely packed dynamic clusters within which they move coopera- swim over one another. By tracking many individual bacteria,
tively. The number of bacteria in a cluster exhibits a power-law we quantify the correlations among bacteria, statistical properties
distribution truncated by an exponential tail. The probability of of dynamic clusters, and the scaling of density fluctuations.
finding clusters with large numbers of bacteria grows markedly
as the bacterial density increases. The number of bacteria per unit Results
area exhibits fluctuations far larger than those for populations in Spatial Correlations. Movies of bacterial motion are recorded at
thermal equilibrium. Such “giant number fluctuations” have been various bacterial densities. Each movie contains 6,000 consecu-
found in models and in experiments on inert systems but not ob- tive images in which bacteria appear as white elongated objects.
served previously in a biological system. Our results demonstrate From the movies, we extract center-of-mass r~ i , instantaneous
that bacteria are an excellent system to study the general phenom- velocity ~vi , and cell body orientation y^ i for 95% of all bacteria
enon of collective motion. in the imaging window (A ¼ 90 × 90 μm2 ). Typical instantaneous
configurations at two densities are shown in Fig. 1.
swarming ∣ self-organization ∣ active suspensions Bacteria aggregate in clusters and move collectively as shown
in Fig. 1 (also Movies S1 and S2). To quantify the local correlation
motion. These studies suggest that bacterial systems can serve This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/
as a promising alternative to the macroscopic systems to investi- doi:10.1073/pnas.1001651107/-/DCSupplemental.
can lead to local orientational order. Physical intertwining of fla- spatial correlation functions within each cluster and then average
gella has been directly demonstrated with fluorescent imaging (33, these intracluster correlation functions over the ensemble of clus-
34), but the interaction due to intertwining has not been quantified ters within a given size range. In Fig. 3 A–C, we show cluster-
in experiments. Such an interaction also needs to be added to cur- size-dependent pair correlation gðx;y;nÞ, orientational correlation
rent models, and its role needs to be explored. The interactions Cθ ðx;y;nÞ, and velocity correlation Cv ðx;y;nÞ functions for the
between bacteria differ from the cognitive coordination of animals cluster size ranges 81 ≤ n ≤ 110 obtained under the density con-
and birds, yet these systems all exhibit collective motions. dition N total ¼ 718. To measure the physical dimensions of clus-
ters, we identify the contour of gðx;y;nÞ ¼ 0.1 as the “statistical”
ECOLOGY
Dynamic Clusters. The two-dimensional pair correlation functions edge of a cluster and extract longitudinal (λy ) and transverse (λx )
in Fig. 2 A and D show no bacterial aggregation along the cell dimensions (see Fig. 3A). In Fig. 3D, λx and λy are plotted as a
body (^y) direction beyond y ≈ 3.8 μm. However, the velocity
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lines are fits to Eq. 1. (Inset) All data collapse onto a master curve by rescaling Our results demonstrate that bacteria are an excellent model
and are plotted in a log-log frame with a solid line showing the rescaled fit. system for studying general principles of collective motion. Their
dynamics can be accurately quantified from the individual to the Image Analysis and Bacteria Tracking. A typical raw image (1;000 × 1;000
population level in the lab, their physical environment can be pixels) is shown in Fig. S4A. The closely packed bacteria are in such close
proximity in the image that simple procedures such as edge detection and
systematically controlled, and biological characteristics such as intensity thresholding cannot separate them. In order to “isolate” a bacte-
individual motility can be changed through genetic manipulations rium, we first obtain a background image by smoothing the original image
(17, 21, 23). with a moving Hamming window (7 × 7 pixels), and then the background is
subtracted from the original image. A background-removed image is shown
Materials and Methods in Fig. S4B. Then a gradient-based edge-detection algorithm is applied to
Bacteria Strain and Colony Growth. Wild-type B. subtilis strain 3610 is a extract the edges of a bacterium. A binary image, as shown in Fig. S4C, is
Gram-positive bacterium with a rod-shaped body and multiple flagella, constructed such that only pixels inside the extracted edges are set to be
which generate a propelling force in the direction of its body (21, 22). white. Properties of the resultant white objects, such as center of mass,
They swim with a mean speed about 40 μm∕s in a thin liquid film on the orientations, and sizes, are extracted by Matlab functions bwlabel and
substrate (24). In our experiments, the bacteria have mean dimensions of regionprops. White objects other than bacteria in binary images (cf.
0.72 μm × 7.4 μm (see Fig. S4 E and F). Fig. S4C) are eliminated by requiring each object to be elongated with an
Colonies grow on soft (0.5%) LB agar substrates. For inoculation, 5 μL of B. aspect ratio greater than 4. The final results are plotted on top of the original
subtilis overnight culture (OD650 ¼ 1) is placed on the agar. The inoculated image in Fig. S4D, where the centers of mass of the bacteria are shown by red
crosses and edges of the bacteria by blue lines.
gel is stored in an incubator at 30 °C and 90% humidity. After a lag time
To construct bacteria trajectories, we use a standard particle-tracking
of 2 h, a colony starts to expand outward isotropically with a speed 1.4 cm∕
algorithm based on a minimum distance criterion between bacteria in suc-
hour (23). cessive frames. From the trajectories, we compute instantaneous velocities,
~v i . Because flagella are not resolved in our experiments, we cannot distin-
Imaging Procedure. After growing for 1.5 h, the colony (2.1 cm in radius) is guish cell “head” from “tail” (where flagella connect to cell body) from static
placed under an optical microscope (Olympus IX50 with an LD 60X Phase con- images. In order to determine the orientation vector y^ i uniquely, we assume
trast PH2 objective) for measurements. The imaging window (90 × 90 μm2 ) is the angle difference between y^ i and velocity ~v i is less than π∕2. All image
positioned initially at the edge of the colony, and its position in the labora- analysis and tracking programs are developed in Matlab.
tory reference frame is left unchanged throughout the experiments. As the
colony expands, the observed density of bacteria increases as a function of Cluster Identification. First, two bacteria are identified to be connected if the
PHYSICS
time due to a gradient of bacterial density from the edge to the interior of distance between their center of masses is less than Rd ¼ 5.4 μm and the dif-
the colony. As shown in Fig. S5, the total number of bacteria Ntotal increases ference in their directions of motion is less than Ad ¼ 20 degrees. We then
from 340 to 720 in 35 min, and then Ntotal saturates. The radius of a colony define clusters recursively: A bacterium belongs to a cluster if it is connected
increases for 0.82 cm in 35 min, from which we estimate the density gradient to any other bacterium belonging to a cluster. Nine representative configura-
tions of clusters are shown in Fig. S1. The majority of the clusters are elon-
near the colony edge is 465∕cm. This means the spatial density variation
gated along the direction of motion.
within the imaging window is negligible.
The two parameters Rd ¼ 5.4 μm and Ad ¼ 20 degrees used to identify
At each density condition, we record 60 frame∕s for 100 s, during which
clusters are empirically chosen, based on correlation functions and instanta-
ECOLOGY
the increase in Ntotal is not significant (about 3%), and the system is in a qua- neous fields. We find that, around the chosen values (Rd ¼ 5.4 μm and Ad ¼
sisteady state. As shown in Figs. S6 and S7, the correlation times of density, 20 degrees), the end results depend only weakly on the particular values of
velocity, and orientation fluctuations are about 0.2–0.4 s. Therefore, the Rd and Ad . As shown in Fig. S3A, the cluster size distributions extracted under
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number of statistically independent configurations sampled within 100 s is five sets of Rd and Ad are nearly indistinguishable. Higher values for Rd and
large enough to yield good statistics. Ad lead to slightly greater numbers of large clusters. Further, the cluster-size-
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