Petrol and Diesel Engine

Lab Manual
STUDY OF PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINE

MISS ATIYA SADIQ
HITEC UNIVERSITY TAXILA
Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

HITEC University Taxila
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Lab Manual
Study of Petrol And Diesel Engine
Objective:
1. To study the engine.
2. Study of heat engines.
3. Difference between internal combustion and external combustion engine.
4. 2-storke and 4-stroke engines.
5. Components of petrol and diesel engine.
6. Working of a petrol and diesel engine.
7. Thermodynamics of petrol and diesel engine.
8. Merits and demerits.
Theory:
In this experiment we will study the working of steam engine which is type of heat
engine, so we will discuss heat engines first.
- Heat Engine:
In thermodynamics, a heat engine is a system that performs the

conversion of heat or thermal energy to mechanical energy which can then be used to
do mechanical work.[1][2] It does this by bringing a working substance from a higher
state temperature to a lower state temperature. A heat "source" generates thermal
energy that brings the working substance to the high temperature state.
The working substance generates work in the "working body" of the

engine while transferring heat to the colder "sink" until it reaches a low temperature
state. During this process some of the thermal energy is converted into work by
exploiting the properties of the working substance. The working substance can be any
system with a non-zero heat capacity, but it usually is a gas or liquid.

In general an engine converts energy to mechanical work. Heat
engines distinguish themselves from other types of engines by the fact that their
efficiency is fundamentally limited by Carnot's theorem.[3] Although this efficiency
limitation can be a drawback, an advantage of heat engines is that most forms of
energy can be easily converted to heat by processes like exothermic reactions (such as
combustion), absorption of light or energetic particles, friction, dissipation and
resistance. Since the heat source that supplies thermal energy to the engine can thus be
powered by virtually any kind of energy, heat engines are very versatile and have a
wide range of applicability.
Heat engines are often confused with the cycles they attempt to mimic. Typically
when describing the physical device the term 'engine' is used. When describing the
model the term 'cycle' is used.
We have two types of heat engines:
1. Forward heat engines, which operate on forward

Carnot cycle, like all practical engines are
working. E.g. Petrol engine, Diesel engine, steam
engine etc.
2. Reverse heat engines are those heat engines which

operate on reverse Carnot cycle opposite to the
first type. E.g. Heat pumps, refrigerators etc.
Forward Carnot Cycle Reverse Carnot Cycle

We are here studying forward heat engines which operate on forward Carnot cycle.
Forward Heat engines are of two types mostly used:

- Internal Combustion engines
- External Combustion engines
- Internal Combustion engine:

The internal combustion engine is an
engine in which the combustion of a fuel (normally a fossil
fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion
chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow
circuit. In an internal combustion engine (ICE) the expansion
of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by
combustion apply direct force to some component of the
engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine
blades, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a
distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical
energy.
The term internal combustion engine usually refers to

an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke
and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston
engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines
use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of
which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described.
- External Combustion Engine:

An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine
where an (internal) working fluid is heated by combustion in an external source,
through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting
on the mechanism of the engine, produces motion and usable work. The fluid is then
cooled, compressed and reused (closed cycle), or (less commonly) dumped, and cool
fluid pulled in (open cycle air engine).

We are discussing here internal combustion engines, which are of two types
again. 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines. First we will differentiate between them.
 2-Stroke Engine:
A two-stroke, two-cycle, or two-cycle engine is a type of

internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle in only one crankshaft
revolution and with two strokes, or up and down movements, of the piston in
comparison to a "four-stroke engine", which uses four strokes. This is accomplished
by the end of the combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke
happening simultaneously and performing the intake and exhaust (or scavenging)
functions at the same time.
Two-stroke engines often provide high

power-to-weight ratio, usually in a narrow
range of rotational speeds called the
"power band". Compared to 4-stroke
engines, they have a greatly reduced
number of moving parts, are more
compact and significantly lighter.
The first commercial two-stroke engine

involving in-cylinder compression is
attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald
Clerk, who in 1881 patented his design,
his engine having a separate charging
cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged
engine, employing the area below the
piston as a charging pump, is generally
credited to Englishman Joseph Day.
Gasoline (spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight (portable)

applications such as chainsaws and motorcycles. They are used in diesel compression
ignition engines in large and weight insensitive applications, such as ships,
locomotives and electricity generation. The heat transfer from the engine to the
cooling system is less in a two-stroke engine than in a four-stroke. This adds to the
overall engine efficiency. Two-stroke engines have higher exhaust emissions than
four-stroke engines.

 4-Stroke engine:
A four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an internal

combustion engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes which
comprise a single thermodynamic cycle. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston
along the cylinder, in either direction. While risqué slang among some automotive
enthusiasts names these respectively the "suck," "squeeze," "bang" and "blow"
strokes. They are more commonly termed
INTAKE: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston descends
from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of
the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by atmospheric (or greater)
pressure into the cylinder through the intake port.
COMPRESSION: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns
to the top of the cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the cylinder
head.
POWER: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston is
close to Top Dead Centre, the compressed air–fuel mixture in a gasoline engine is
ignited, by a spark plug in gasoline engines, or which ignites due to the heat
generated by compression in a diesel engine. The resulting pressure from the
combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back down toward
bottom dead center.
EXHAUST: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead
center while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-air
mixture through the exhaust valve(s).

Now we will discuss, our main focus the 4-Stroke petrol Engine.
- Petrol Engine:
A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in North America) is

an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol
(gasoline) and similar volatile fuels. It was invented in 1876 in Germany by
German inventor Nicolaus August Otto. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are
usually pre-mixed before compression (although some modern petrol engines now
use cylinder-direct petrol injection). The pre-mixing was formerly done in a
carburetor, but now it is done by electronically controlled fuel injection, except in
small engines where the cost/complication of electronics does not justify the added
engine efficiency. The process differs from a diesel engine in the method of
mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process.
In a diesel engine, only air is compressed (and therefore heated), and the fuel is
injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites.
- Components of a Petrol Engine:
For a four-stroke engine, key parts of the engine include the

crankshaft (purple), connecting rod (orange), one or more camshafts (red and blue),
and valves. For a two-stroke engine, there may simply be an exhaust outlet and fuel
inlet instead of a valve system. In both types of engines there are one or more
cylinders (grey and green), and for each cylinder there is a spark plug (darker-grey,
gasoline engines only), a piston (yellow), and a crankpin (purple). A single sweep of
the cylinder by the piston in an upward or downward motion is known as a stroke. The
downward stroke that occurs directly after the air-fuel mix passes from the carburetor
or fuel injector to the cylinder (where it is ignited) is also known as a power stroke.
A Wankel engine has a triangular rotor that orbits in an epitrochoidal (figure 8 shape)
chamber around an eccentric shaft. The four phases of operation (intake, compression,
power, and exhaust) take place in what is effectively a moving, variable-volume
chamber.
 Valves:
All four-stroke internal combustion engines employ valves to control

the admittance of fuel and air into the combustion chamber. Two-stroke engines use
ports in the cylinder bore, covered and uncovered by the piston, though there have
been variations such as exhaust valves.

 Piston engine valves:
In piston engines, the valves are grouped into 'inlet valves' which admit
the entrance of fuel and air and 'outlet valves' which allow the exhaust gases to escape.
Each valve opens once per cycle and the ones that are subject to extreme accelerations
are held closed by springs that are typically opened by rods running on a camshaft
rotating with the engines' crankshaft.
 Control valves:
Continuous combustion engines—as well as piston engines—usually

have valves that open and close to admit the fuel and/or air at the startup and
shutdown. Some valves feather to adjust the flow to control power or engine speed as
well.
 Exhaust system:
Internal combustion engines have to

effectively manage the exhaust of the cooled
combustion gas from the engine. The exhaust system
frequently contains devices to control pollution, both
chemical and noise pollution. In addition, for cyclic
combustion engines the exhaust system is frequently
tuned to improve emptying of the combustion chamber.
The majority of exhausts also have systems to prevent
heat from reaching places which would encounter damage from it such as heat-
sensitive components, often referred to as Exhaust Heat Management.
For jet propulsion internal combustion engines, the 'exhaust system' takes the form of
a high velocity nozzle, which generates thrust for the engine and forms a collimated
jet of gas that gives the engine its name.
 Cooling systems:
Combustion generates a great deal of heat, and some of this

transfers to the walls of the engine. Failure will occur if the body of the engine is
allowed to reach too high a temperature; either the engine will physically fail, or any
lubricants used will degrade to the point that they no longer protect the engine. The
lubricants must be clean as dirty lubricants may lead to over formation of sludge in the
engines.
Cooling systems usually employ air (air-cooled) or liquid (usually water) cooling,
while some very hot engines using radiative cooling (especially some rocket engines).
Some high-altitude rocket engines use ablative cooling, where the walls gradually

erode in a controlled fashion. Rockets in particular can use regenerative cooling,
which uses the fuel to cool the solid parts of the engine.
 Piston:
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines. It is located in a

cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. Its purpose is to transfer force from
expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod.
In two-stroke engines the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports
in the cylinder wall.
 Crankshaft:
Most reciprocating internal

combustion engines end up turning a shaft. This means
that the linear motion of a piston must be converted into
rotation. This is typically achieved by a crankshaft.
 Flywheels:
The flywheel is a disk or wheel attached to

the crank, forming an inertial mass that stores rotational energy. In engines with only a
single cylinder the flywheel is essential to carry energy over from the power stroke
into a subsequent compression stroke. Flywheels are present in most reciprocating
engines to smooth out the power delivery over each rotation of the crank and in most
automotive engines also mount a gear ring for a starter. The rotational inertia of the
flywheel also allows a much slower minimum unloaded speed and also improves the
smoothness at idle. The flywheel may also perform a part of the balancing of the
system and so by itself be out of balance, although most engines will use a neutral
balance for the flywheel, enabling it to be balanced in a separate operation. The
flywheel is also used as a mounting for the clutch or a torque converter in most
automotive applications.
 Starter system:
All internal combustion engines require some form of system to

get them into operation. Most piston engines use a starter motor powered by the same
battery as runs the rest of the electric systems. Large jet engines and gas turbines are
started with a compressed air motor that is geared to one of the engine's driveshafts.
Compressed air can be supplied from another engine, a unit on the ground or by the
aircraft's APU. Small internal combustion engines are often started by pull cords.
Motorcycles of all sizes were traditionally kick-started, though all but the smallest are
now electric-start. Large stationary and marine engines may be started by the timed
injection of compressed air into the cylinders — or occasionally with cartridges. Jump
starting refers to assistance from another battery (typically when the fitted battery is

discharged), while bump starting refers to an alternative method of starting by the
application of some external force, e.g. rolling down a hill.
 Heat shielding system:
These systems often work in combination with engine

cooling and exhaust systems. Heat shielding is necessary to prevent engine heat from
damaging heat-sensitive components. The majority of older cars use simple steel heat
shielding to reduce thermal radiation and convection. It is now most common for
modern cars are to use aluminum heat shielding which has a lower density, can be
easily formed and does not corrode in the same way as steel. Higher performance
vehicles are beginning to use ceramic heat shielding as this can withstand far higher
temperatures as well as further reductions in heat transfer.
 Lubrication systems:
Internal combustions engines require lubrication in

operation that moving parts slide smoothly over each other. Insufficient lubrication
subjects the parts of the engine to metal-to-metal contact, friction, heat build-up, rapid
wear often culminating in parts becoming friction welded together e.g. pistons in their
cylinders. Big end bearings seizing up will sometimes lead to a connecting rod
breaking and poking out through the crankcase.
Several different types of lubrication systems are used. Simple two-stroke engines are
lubricated by oil mixed into the fuel or injected into the induction stream as a spray.
Early slow-speed stationary and marine engines were lubricated by gravity from small
chambers similar to those used on steam engines at the time — with an engine tender
refilling these as needed. As engines were adapted for automotive and aircraft use, the
need for a high power-to-weight ratio led to increased speeds, higher temperatures,
and greater pressure on bearings which in turn required pressure-lubrication for crank
bearings and connecting-rod journals. This was provided either by a direct lubrication
from a pump, or indirectly by a jet of oil directed at pickup cups on the connecting rod
ends which had the advantage of providing higher pressures as the engine speed
increased.
 Control system:
Most engines require one or more systems to start and shut down the engine and to
control parameters such as the power, speed, torque, pollution, combustion
temperature, and efficiency and to stabilize the engine from modes of operation that
may induce self-damage such as pre-ignition. Such systems may be referred to as
engine control units.
Two more additional components can be added to a petrol engine to improve its
performance.

1.) Supercharger.
2.) Turbocharger.
 Supercharger:
One way to increase engine power is to force more air into the cylinder
so that more power can be produced from each power stroke. This can be done using
some type of air compression device known as a supercharger, which can be powered
by the engine crankshaft.
Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine

relative to its displacement. Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but
there have been designs that allow it to be cut out or run at varying speeds (relative to
engine speed). Mechanically driven supercharging has the disadvantage that some of
the output power is used to drive the supercharger, while power is wasted in the high
pressure exhaust, as the air has been compressed twice and then gains more potential
volume in the combustion but it is only expanded in one stage.
 Turbocharger:
A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the engine's exhaust gases, by

means of a turbine. It consists of a two piece, high-speed turbine assembly with one
side that compresses the intake air, and the other side that is powered by the exhaust
gas outflow.
When idling, and at low-to-moderate speeds, the turbine produces little power from
the small exhaust volume, the turbocharger has little effect and the engine operates
nearly in a naturally aspirated manner. When much more power output is required, the
engine speed and throttle opening are increased until the exhaust gases are sufficient
to 'spin up' the turbocharger's turbine to start compressing much more air than normal
into the intake manifold.
Turbocharging allows for more efficient engine operation because it is driven by

exhaust pressure that would otherwise be (mostly) wasted, but there is a design
limitation known as turbo lag. The increased engine power is not immediately
available due to the need to sharply increase engine RPM, to build up pressure and to
spin up the turbo, before the turbo starts to do any useful air compression. The
increased intake volume causes increased exhaust and spins the turbo faster, and so
forth until steady high power operation is reached. Another difficulty is that the higher
exhaust pressure causes the exhaust gas to transfer more of its heat to the mechanical
parts of the engine.

- Working of Petrol Engine:
In the petrol engine, the four strokes of a typical Otto

cycle occur. Working of the petrol engine is described below.
 Intake:
The intake stroke of the combustion cycle is when

the piston travels down the cylinder with the intake port/ports open. A
mixture of air and explosive fuel are drawn into the cylinder, the
proportions of which are called the air-fuel ratio. Both the air-
fuel ratio and the quality of the mixture (dispersion, droplet size
etc.) is important for an efficient combustion process. There are two
methods of mixing air and fuel in a combustion engine, using a
carburetor or fuel injection system. In a carbureted engine, during
the intake stroke of the piston a vacuum is created in the inlet
manifold. With a multi cylinder engine the vacuum is almost
constant. The carburetor is located at the top of the manifold and
air is drawn through it by the vacuum created in the manifold.
The carburetor has a small fuel chamber supplied from the fuel
tank by a pump, fuel passes through the carburetor to small fuel
jets positioned in the air flow. The flow of air past the jets creates a
pressure difference causing the fuel to be drawn out. The fuel vaporizes in the air
flow and passes through the manifold and into cylinders on their intake stroke. The
diagram below shows the basic operation of a fixed jet carburetor.
Electronic fuel injection systems spray fuel at high pressure either directly into the
combustion chamber or into the intake port of the cylinder during the intake stroke.
Using fuel injection enables improved control over the air-fuel mixture and reduces
the power required to draw fuel from the jets. The diagram below shows a typical
electronic fuel injection system.
Diesel engines typically use direct injection which injects fuel directly into the
combustion chamber during the compression stroke. The intake stroke on a diesel
engine only draws air into the cylinder.

 Compression:
The compression stroke is the upwards movement of the piston

in the cylinder with the valves closed following the intake stroke. This upwards
motion compresses the fuel air mixture inside the
combustion chamber raising the pressure. The difference
between the initial volume of the cylinder and the final
volume at the top of the compression stroke is known as the
compression ratio. Typically this is approximately 9:1 in
spark ignition engines and 15:1 for diesel engines. The
compression ratio is particularly important in compression
fired engines such as diesel engines. The fuel-air mix and
compression ratio is critical to avoid pre-ignition which is
the abnormal ignition of fuel in the combustion chamber
before the combustion stroke. In diesel engines the fuel is
injected under high pressure towards the top of the
compression stroke. The distribution of fuel before
combustion is also of interest because it affects the
efficiency of combustion.
 Combustion :
Spark plugs are used to generate the spark which ignites the
compressed fuel and air mixture in the spark ignition
engine. To generate the spark a high voltage of around
20,000 Volts is applied. Low voltage current is fed through
the primary winding of an inductor coil generating a
magnetic field. The high voltage is generated when the low
voltage supply is interrupted and the magnetic field breaks
down generating a high voltage in the secondary winding
which has a much larger number of coils. The low voltage
supply to the coil is controlled by the distributor which also
controls the spark plug that the high voltage surge is sent to.
The distributor timing is critical and usually is timed
mechanically from the engine. The diagram below shows
the typical set-up of an ignition system for a spark ignition
engine.
Compression ignition engines such as the diesel engine do
not use spark plugs to ignite the fuel-air mix. When the
piston reaches the top of the compression stroke the
temperature and pressure in the combustion chamber is
sufficient to ignite the mixture. Controlled ignition in both spark ignition and diesel

engines is essential for efficient combustion and avoid uncontrolled combustion
effects such as pre-ignition, auto-ignition and engine knock.
 Exhaust:
Exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder by the

upwards motion of the piston following the ignition stroke. The
exhaust gases are passed into the exhaust manifold and channeled
into the exhaust pipe where they are released into the atmosphere.
The exhaust system may contain a smoke box to trap the larger soot
particles, it may also be fitted with a catalytic converter which
removes some of the harmful components from the exhaust gases.
On newer cars some of the exhaust gases are recycled back into the
inlet system (typically at the manifold or air filter), this is known as
exhaust gas re-circulation EGR.
The efficiency of the combustion process and the design of the

engine determine the exhaust constituents. Typically exhaust gases
contain oxygen, nitrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, hydrogen, nitrous oxides, particulates and unburned
hydrocarbons.
 Exhaust and Inlet Valve Overlap:
Exhaust and inlet valve overlap is the transition between the

exhaust and inlet strokes and is a practical necessity for the
efficient running of any internal combustion engine. Given the
constraints imposed by the operation of mechanical valves and
the inertia of the air in the inlet manifold, it is necessary to
begin opening the inlet valve before the piston reaches Top
Dead Centre (TDC) on the exhaust stroke. Likewise, in order to
effectively remove all of the combustion gases, the exhaust
valve remains open until after TDC. Thus, there is a point in
each full cycle when both exhaust and inlet valves are open.
The number of degrees over which this occurs and the
proportional split across TDC is very much dependent on the
engine design and the speed at which it operates.
- Thermodynamics of Petrol engine:

The petrol engine is operated on Otto cycle.

An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle which describes the functioning of
a typical spark ignition reciprocating piston engine,[1] the thermodynamic cycle most
commonly found in automobile engines.
The Otto cycle is constructed out of:
 Top and bottom of the loop: a pair of quasi-parallel and isentropic processes
(frictionless, adiabatic reversible).
 Left and right sides of the loop: a pair of parallel isochoric processes
(constant volume).
The isentropic processes of compression and expansion implies no loss of mechanical

energy due to friction and no transfer of heat into or out of the system during those
processes, hence the cylinder, and piston are assumed impermeable to heat during
those processes. Heat flows into the loop through the left pressurizing process and
some of it flows back out through the right depressurizing process, and the difference
between the heat added and heat removed is equal to the net mechanical work
generated.
The processes are described by:
 Process 0-1 a mass of air is drawn into piston/cylinder arrangement at constant

pressure.
 Process 1-2 is an isentropic and adiabatic compression of the air as the piston
moves from bottom dead Centre (BDC) to top dead Centre (TDC).
 Process 2-3 is a constant-volume heat transfer to the working gas from an
external source while the piston is at top dead Centre. This process is intended

to represent the ignition of the fuel-air mixture and the subsequent rapid
burning.
 Process 3-4 is an isentropic expansion (power stroke).
 Process 4-1 completes the cycle by a constant-volume process in which heat is
rejected from the air while the piston is at bottom dead center.
 Process 1-0 the mass of air is released to the atmosphere in a constant pressure
process.
The Otto cycle consists of isentropic compression, heat addition at constant volume,
isentropic expansion, and rejection of heat at constant volume. In the case of a four-
stroke Otto cycle, technically there are two additional processes: one for the exhaust
of waste heat and combustion products at constant pressure (isobaric), and one for the
intake of cool oxygen-rich air also at constant pressure; however, these are often
omitted in a simplified analysis. Even though those two processes are critical to the
functioning of a real engine, wherein the details of heat transfer and combustion
chemistry are relevant, for the simplified analysis of the thermodynamic cycle, it is
more convenient to assume that all of the waste-heat is removed during a single
volume change.
 Process 0-1 intake stroke:
A mass of air (working fluid) is drawn into the cylinder, at

atmospheric pressure (constant pressure) through the open intake valve, while the
exhaust valve is closed during this process. The intake valve closes at point 1.
 Process 1-2 compression stroke:
Piston moves from crank end (BDC, bottom dead center and
maximum volume) to cylinder head end (TDC, top dead center and minimum volume)
as the working gas with initial state 1 is compressed isentropically to state point 2,
through compression ratio . Mechanically this is the isentropic compression
of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder, also known as the compression stroke. This
isentropic process assumes there no mechanical energy is lost due to friction and no
heat is transferred to or from the gas, hence the process is reversible. The compression
process requires that mechanical work be added to the working gas. Generally the
compression ratio is around 9-10:1 (V1:V2) for a typical engine.
 Process 2-3 ignition:

The piston is momentarily at rest at TDC. At this instant the
air/fuel mixture is compressed at the top of the compression stroke with the volume
essentially held constant, also known as ignition phase. Heat is added to the working
fluid at constant volume by the combustion of the injected fuel. The pressure rises and
the ratio is called the "explosion ratio".
 Process 3-4 expansion stroke:
The increased high pressure exerts a force on the piston

and pushes it towards the BDC. Expansion of working fluid takes place isentropically
and work is done by the system on the piston. The volume ratio is called
"isentropic expansion ratio". Mechanically this is the expansion of the hot gaseous
mixture in the cylinder known as expansion (power) stroke.
 Process 4-1 idealized heat ejection:
The piston is momentarily at rest at BDC. The working

gas pressure drops instantaneously during a constant volume process as heat is
removed as an idealized external sink is brought into contact with the cylinder head
from point 4 to point 1. The exhaust valve opens at point 1 and the gas returns to state
1.
Process 4-0 exhaust stroke:
As the piston moves from BDC (point 1) to the exhaust valve opened,
the gaseous mixture is vented to the atmosphere and the process starts a new Otto
cycle.
P-V Diagram

T-S Diagram
P-h diagram
- Merits And De-merits of Petrol engine:
 Merits:
Prime advantages of petrol engine are:
 Cheaper than diesel car to purchase.
 Less noise and vibration than a diesel engine
 Service and maintenance cost is less
 Highly available everywhere in time
 easy to use with engine, just fill
 No waste is produced and no manual emptying
 Easy to carry fuel and safe to store
 Engine and spare parts are available in cheap rates
 Petrol as a fuel cheap than diesel in some regions
 Engine and vehicle will avail on cheap rate
 Petrol fuel is usually cheaper in price
 De-merits:
 Less mileage or fuel economy on ride

 Resale value is low than petrol vehicles

 Petrol supply is decreasing and will be problem in future
 Need to drive harder than petrol engines
 It burns the fuel quicker than a petrol engine
 High maintenance cost for petrol powered engines
 Less durability and strength (up to 150,000 miles)
 More harmful pollution to environment
 High carbon elimination through the smoke
Applications of petrol engine:
1) Petrol engines are widely used in automobiles.

2) They are mostly used in Motorbikes/dirt bikes/racing bikes engines.
3) Sometimes used in aircrafts as power source for the primary engine.
4) They are used in motorboats.
5) They are used in our daily life products such as lawn mowers, chainsaws and
portable engine-generators.
Diesel Engine

The diesel engine (also known as a compression-ignition engine) is an internal
combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition and burn the
fuel that has been injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-
ignition engines such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or gas engine (using a
gaseous fuel as opposed to gasoline), which use a spark plug to ignite an air-fuel
mixture.
The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency of any standard internal or
external combustion engine due to its very high compression ratio. Low-speed diesel
engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is
relatively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that exceeds 50%.
Diesel engines are manufactured in two-stroke and four-stroke versions. They were
originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the
1910s they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy
equipment and electric generating plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly
began to be used in a few automobiles.
 Components of Diesel Engine:
 CYLINDER HEADS:
The cylinder head (or cylinder cover) is bolted to the top of the
engine block and forms a gas tight seal over the end of each
cylinder. The head may be cast as a separate head to cover
each cylinder as is usual with the larger engines or in the
case of smaller engines a single casting covering all
cylinders. A number of engine parts that are essential to
engine operation may be found in or attached to the cylinder
head. The cylinder head for a ٤-stroke cycle engine will
house intake and exhaust valves, valve guides, and valve
seats. The cylinder head will also carry the valve rocker arm
assembly, fuel injection valves, heater plugs, the cover for
the rocker gear as well as providing for the flow of cooling
water to essential areas of the head, air supply for
combustion and discharged exhaust gases. The design and
material of a cylinder head must be such that it can
withstand the rapid changes of temperature and pressure
that take place in the combustion space and the mechanical
stress that results from the head being bolted securely to the block. Cylinder heads are
made of heat resistant alloy cast iron or aluminum alloy.

As an example look at the design of a small V- type engine
The cylinder head, over each bank of cylinders, is a one-piece casting which can be
removed from the engine as an assembly containing such moving parts as the valve
rocker arms, exhaust and inlet valves, and fuel injectors. On larger engines with a
separate head for each cylinder each head may be removed with its individual valve
gear and injectors.
 CYLINDER HEAD STUDS AND GASKETS:
A gas tight seal between the cylinder head and the block
depends upon both surfaces being level and smooth, good quality gaskets, and the
correct tightness (torque settings) of the head studs.
 Studs:
Cylinder head studs are manufactured from round rod, generally of alloy
steel. Threads are cut on both ends. The threads that screw into the block are generally
made with finer threads than those on the nut end. This design allows for a tighter fit
in the block, which keeps the stud from loosening when the stud nut is removed.
The successful fitting of the head to the block requires care, attention and adherence to
correct procedures. This includes using torque wrenches for exacting the correct stress
on each stud and carrying this out in the correct sequence. Assembly procedures will
be dealt with in detail in stage of the course. The correct use of torque wrenches will
also be demonstrated.
 Gaskets:
Gaskets are used to provide a seal between two surfaces. The type of
duty may vary greatly from the somewhat rough surfaces of water pipe flanges to the
carefully ground faces of high pressure superheated steam pipes; from the valve cover
on a cylinder head to the highly polished surfaces of hydraulic pump components.
Each duty requires the correct type and thickness of material so it is important to
understand the properties of the various gasket materials and the exact nature of the
duty.
The mating surfaces of a cylinder block and head may appear to be quite smooth;
however, if these surfaces are highly magnified irregularities can always be seen.
Gaskets will compensate for a degree of irregularity but they will not do the
impossible. If the surface of the head is rough or worse still distorted then it may be

necessary to have the face ground. Fortunately it is more common for the head to be
distorted rather than the block. It is easier to grind the head than to remove all the
studs to grind the block. Even though the composition of gasket material varies, they
have one common property - compressibility. Materials used in the manufacture of
gaskets vary as widely as does gasket design. Gaskets can be made from copper and
other relatively soft metals, such as laminated steel sheets, fiber, cork, rubber, and
synthetic rubber, and a combination of materials, such as copper and fiber
compounds-NOT ASBESTOS. Combinations of gaskets, seal rings, and grommets or
similar devices may be used in head to block assembly to prevent the leakage of oil,
water, and combustion gases.
 Vibration Isolators:
Vibration isolators are designed to absorb the forces of relatively

minor vibrations that are common to operating diesel engines. Such vibrations are
referred to as high frequency, low-amplitude vibrations, and they result from an
unbalanced condition created by the motion of operating engine parts. Isolators can be
equipped with coil springs or flexible pads to absorb the energy of engine vibrations.
An isolator reacts in the same manner, whether it is of the spring type or the flexible
pad type. Some typical examples are mounting pads for the engine found between the
mounting frame of the engine and the main frame. These may be just a simple rubber
block with a bolt through the middle or more often and more effective special vibro-
blocks molded to steel plates on each side and the steel plates are designed to bolt, one
to the base and the other to the engine mount. There is no bolting between engine and
frame.
Another vibration isolator is the mounting for the radiator to the frame. In this case
however the mounts provide a double duty. They also serve to protect the radiator
against any distortion from movement of the frame.
 The Sump:
The engine sump is usually manufactured from pressed steel but in some
cases they may be cast iron although these are extremely heavy and not seen often
these days. The sump is the engine oil reservoir and it may also have a strainer fitted
through which the oil must pass before entering the
oil pump. The sump will be fitted with an oil drain
attachment either for bottom discharge or out through
the side for greater accessibility. The fitting of the
gaskets between the sump and the block must be done
with great care.

 CYLINDER LINERS:
The barrel or bore in which an engine piston moves back and

forth may be machined from the cylinder block, or it may be a separate pressed in
sleeve or liner. The first type, whilst used in small diesel engines is more common in
gasoline engines. It has the disadvantage of not being replaceable. When excessive
wear occurs in a block of this type, the cylinder must be rebored or honed.
Reconditioning of this type cannot be repeated indefinitely and, in time, the entire
block must be replaced. For this reason, most diesel engines are constructed with
replaceable cylinder liners.
The material of a liner must withstand the extreme heat and pressure developed within
the combustion space at the top of the cylinder and, at the same time, must permit the
piston and its sealing rings to move with a minimum of friction. Close-grained cast
iron is the material most commonly used for liner construction. (Steel, however, is
sometimes used.) Some liners are plated
on the wearing surface with porous
chromium, because chromium has greater
wear-resistant qualities than other
materials. Also the pores in the plating
tend to hold the lubricating oil and aid in
maintaining the lubrication oil film that is
necessary for reduction of friction and
wear.
Cylinder liners may be divided into two

general classifications or types—dry or wet. The dry liner does not come in contact
with the engine coolant. Instead, it fits closely against the wall of the cooling jacket in
the cylinder block. With the wet liner, the coolant comes in direct contact with the
liner. Wet liners have a cooling water space between the engine block and liner.
 Dry Liners:
Dry liners have relatively thin walls compared with wet liners. Heat
from the thin liner wall is transferred to the block and then dissipated into the cooling
water jacket.
 Wet Liners:
In wet liners the cooling water is in direct contact with the liner. Seals
are fitted at both ends of the liner to prevent the leakage of coolant into the oil pan, or
from around the liner lip. Generally, the seal at the combustion end of a liner consists
of either a gasket under the liner flange or a machined fit. Rubber or neoprene rings
generally form the seal at the bottom or crankshaft end of the liner. Liners of this type
are constructed to permit lengthwise expansion and contraction. The walls of a wet

liner must be strong enough to withstand the full working pressure of the combustion
gases.
 PRINCIPAL MOVING PARTS:
Many of the principal parts that are within the main structure of an
engine are moving parts. These moving parts convert the thermal energy of fuel
combustion to mechanical energy into the reciprocating motion of the pistons and
connecting rods. The force is then converted to rotary motion by the crankshaft and
used to provide the service required. At this stage we will restrict the discussion to
those moving components up to and including the crankshaft. Other parts that serve to
develop and transmit power, such as timing gears and gear trains will be discussed
later in the course. At the conclusion of this section, you should be able to recognize
and describe the basic types, functions, and characteristics of valves, valve-actuating
mechanisms, piston and rod assemblies, crankshafts and flywheels.
 PISTONS:
As one of the major moving parts in the power-transmitting assembly,

the piston must be so designed that it can withstand the extreme heat and pressure of
combustion. Pistons must also be light enough to keep inertial loads on related parts to
a minimum. The piston aids in sealing the cylinder to prevent the escape of
combustion gases. It also transmits some of the heat through the piston rings to the
cylinder wall.
Pistons have been constructed of a variety of metals—cast iron, nickel-coated cast

iron, steel alloy, and aluminum alloy. Pistons of cast iron and aluminum are most
commonly used at the present time. Cast iron gives longer service with little wear; it
can be fitted to closer clearances, because it expands less with high temperatures, and
it distorts less than aluminum. Lighter weight and higher conductivity are the principal
advantages of aluminum pistons.
Cast iron is generally associated with the pistons of slow-speed engines, but it is also
used for the pistons of some high-speed engines. In these pistons, the piston walls are
of very thin construction, requiring additional cooling.
 PISTON RINGS:
Piston rings perform three functions: seal the cylinder, distribute and
control lubricating oil on the cylinder wall, and transfer heat from the piston to the
cylinder wall. All rings on a piston perform the latter function, but two general types
of rings—compression and oil—are required to perform the first two functions.
The number of rings and their location will also vary considerably with the type and
size of the piston.

 Compression Rings:
The principal function of compression rings is to seal the cylinder and

combustion space so that the gases within the space cannot escape until they have
performed their function. Some oil is carried with the compression rings as they travel
up and down the cylinder for lubrication. Most compression rings are made of gray
cast iron. Some types of compression rings, however, have special facings, such as
bronze (inserted in a slot cut in the circumference of the ring) or a specially treated
surface. Rings with the bronze inserts are sometimes called GOLD SEAL rings, while
those with special facings are referred to as BIMETAL rings. The bimetal ring is
composed of two layers of metal bonded together, the inner layer being steel and the
outer layer being cast iron. Compression rings come with a variety of cross sections;
however, the rectangular cross section is the most common. Since piston rings
contribute as much as any other one thing toward maintaining pressure in a cylinder,
they must possess sufficient elasticity to press uniformly against the cylinder walls.
The diameter of the ring, before installation, is slightly larger than the cylinder bore.
Because of the joint, the ring can be compressed to enter the cylinder. The tension that
is created when the ring is compressed and placed in a cylinder causes the ring to
expand and produce a pressure against the cylinder wall.
The pressure exerted by rings closest to the combustion space is increased by the
action of the confined gases during compression and combustion. The gases enter
behind the top ring, through the clearance between the ring and groove, and force the
ring out against the cylinder and down against the bottom of the groove. The gas
pressure on the second ring and each successive compression ring is progressively

lessened since the gas that reaches these rings is limited to that passing through the
gap of each preceding ring. When a piston assembly is disassembled, you can look at
the compression rings and tell whether they have been functioning properly. If a ring
has been working properly, the face (surface bearing against the cylinder wall) and the
bottom of the ring will be bright and shiny because of contact with the cylinder wall
and the groove. The top and back (inside surface) of the ring will be black, since they
are exposed to the hot combustion gases. Black areas on sealing surfaces indicate that
hot gases have been escaping.
Under normal operating conditions, with engine parts functioning properly, there will
be very little leakage of gas because of the excellent sealing of the piston rings. The
oil that prevents metal to metal contact between the rings and cylinder wall also helps,
to a degree, in making the seal.
When a proper seal is established, the only point at which gas can leak is through the
piston ring gap. The gap of a piston ring is so small, compared to the total
circumference of the ring, that the amount of leakage is negligible when rings are
functioning properly.
 Oil Rings:
Although oil rings come in a large variety of designs, they must all do
two things: distribute enough oil to the cylinder wall to prevent metal-to- metal
contact, and control the amount of oil distributed. Without an adequate oil film
between the rings and the cylinder, undue friction occurs, resulting in excessive wear
of the rings and the cylinder wall. On the other hand, too much oil is as undesirable as
not enough oil. If too much oil is distributed by the rings the oil may reach the
combustion space and burn, wasting oil and causing smoky exhaust and excessive
carbon deposits in the cylinder. Such carbon deposits may cause the rings to stick in
their grooves.
Sticking rings lead to a poor gas seal. Thus, oil rings provide an important function in
proper control and distribution of the lubricating oil. Different manufacturers use a
variety of terms in their technical manuals to identify the oil rings of an engine—such
terms as oil control, oil scraper, oil wiper, oil cutter, oil drain, and oil regulating.
Regardless of the identifying terms used, all such rings are used to limit the oil film on
the cylinder walls and to provide adequate lubrication to the compression rings.
Most oil control rings use some type of expander to force them against the cylinder
wall. This aids in wiping the excess oil from the cylinder wall.
 PISTON PINS AND PISTON BEARINGS:
In trunk-type piston assemblies, the only connection

between the piston and the connecting rod is the pin (usually referred to as the
gudgeon pin) and its bearings. These parts must be of especially strong construction
because the power developed in the cylinder is transmitted from the piston through the

pin to the connecting rod. The pin is the pivot point where the straight-line, or
reciprocating, motion of the piston changes to the reciprocating and rotating motion of
the connecting rod. Thus, the gudgeon pin is subjected to two principal forces—the
forces created by combustion and the side thrust created by the change in direction of
motion. Before discussing the pin further, let us consider the side thrust which occurs.
Side thrust is exerted at all points during a stroke of a piston, except at top dead center
(TDC) and bottom dead center (BDC). The side thrust is absorbed by the cylinder
wall. Thrust occurs first on one side of the cylinder and then on the other, depending
on the position of the piston and the connecting rod and the direction of rotation of the
crankshaft. Since the crankshaft is rotating clock-wise, the force of combustion and
the resistance of the driven parts tend to push the piston to the left. The resulting side
thrust is exerted on the cylinder wall. If the crankshaft were rotating counterclockwise,
the situation would be reversed.
When the piston is being pushed upward (compression) by the crankshaft and
connecting rod it causes the side thrust to be exerted on the opposite side of the
cylinder. Thus, the side thrust alternates from side to side as the piston moves up and
down. Side thrust in an engine cylinder makes proper lubrication and correct clearance
essential. Without an oil film between the piston and the cylinder wall, metal-to-metal
contact occurs and results in excessive wear. If the clearance between the piston and
cylinder wall is excessive, a pounding noise, called PISTON SLAP, will occur as the
thrust alternates from side to side.
 Types of Piston Pin Bearings:
The bearings used in connection with most piston pins are

of the sleeve bearing or bushing type. These bearings may be further identified
according to location—the piston boss piston pin bearings and the connecting rod
piston bearings.
The bearings or bushings are made of bronze or similar material. Since the bushing
material is a relatively hard-bearing metal, surface-hardened piston pins are required.
The bore of the bushing is accurately ground in line for the close fit of the piston pin.
Most bushings have a number of small grooves cut in their bore for lubrication
purposes Some sleeve bushings have a press fit, while others are “cold shrunk” into
the bosses. If the piston pin is secured in the bosses of the piston (stationary) or if it
floats (full-floating) in both the connecting rod and piston, the piston end of the rod
must be fitted with a sleeve bushing. Pistons fitted with semi-floating pins require no
bearing at the rod end.
Sleeve bushings used in the piston end of connecting rods are similar in design to
those used in piston bosses. Generally, bronze makes up the bearing surface. Some
bearing surfaces are backed with a casehardened steel sleeve, and the bushing has a
shrink fit in the rod bore. In another variation of the sleeve-type bushing, a cast bronze
lining is pressed into a steel bushing in the connecting rod.

 CONNECTING RODS (conrods):
The connecting rod is the

connecting link between the piston and the crankshaft.
It is a highly stressed part of an engine as it must
transfer the forces of combustion from the piston to the
crankshaft. In addition to this conrods may perform
another duty by conveying lubricating oil through an
internally drilled oil way to lubricate the gudgeon pin
and in some cases to cool the piston.
The end of the conrod that is connected to the

crankshaft is called the bottom end and houses the
bearing in which the crankshaft bottom end journal
turns. In general, the type of connecting rod used in an
engine depends on the cylinder arrangement and the
type of engine. Connecting rods come in a variety of
profiles but we shall only study the rods.
 CRANKSHAFT:
The crankshaft changes the movement of the piston and the connecting
rod into the rotary motion required to drive such items as reduction gears, propeller
shafts, generators, or pumps. As the name implies, the crankshaft consists of a series
of cranks (throws) formed as offsets in a shaft. The crankshaft is subjected to all the
forces developed in an engine. Because of this, the shaft must be of especially strong
construction. It is usually machined from forged alloy or high-carbon steel. The shafts
of some engines are made of cast-iron alloy. Forged crankshafts are nitrided (heat-
treated) to increase the strength of the shafts and to minimize wear.
The crankshafts found in our engines are all drop forged from one solid block usually
referred to as one piece construction.

 Crankshaft Terminology:
Some parts of a crankshaft may be called different names

however to save any confusion we will use the following terms as our standard
reference for the main parts.
The Main Bearings support the crankshaft. They are located in the main bearing
housings that are machined into the main engine block. The section of the shaft that
turns in the main bearing is called the crankshaft main bearing journal. The section of
the crankshaft which turns inside the connecting rod bottom end bearing is known as
the bottom end journal. The main journals and the bottom end journals are surface-
hardened and ground so that a longer wearing, more durable bearing metal can be
used in the main and bottom end bearings without causing excessive wear of the shaft.
Crankshafts have a main bearing journal at each end of the shaft with an intermediate
main journal between the cranks. Each crank of a shaft consists of three parts, two
webs and a pin, (journal). The journal, provides the surface on which the connecting
rod bottom end bearing turns.
One important duty that most crankshafts do is to provide a means of lubricating the
bottom ends, the gudgeon pins and also provide cooling oil to the underside of the
pistons. This is done by drilling a hole from the main bearing journal up through the
web coming out at the center point of the bottom end journal. From here the oil can
lubricate the bottom end bearing. By a hole drilled up the center of the conrod to the
top end oil can reach both the gudgeon pin and the underside of the piston. The forces
that turn the crankshaft of a diesel engine are produced and transmitted to the
crankshaft in a pulsating manner. These pulsa-tions create torsional vibrations, which
are capable of severely damaging an engine if they are not reduced, or dampened, by
opposing forces. Many engines require an extra dampening effect to ensure
satisfactory operation. It is provided by a torsional vibration damper mounted on the
free end of the crankshaft. There are several types of torsional dampers in use.
 BEARINGS:
Bearings serve to support rotating shafts and other moving parts and to
transmit loads from one part of the engine to another.
 ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS:
Anti-friction bearings can be grouped into six general

classifications: ball bearings, cylindrical roller bearings, and needle bearings, tapered
roller bearings, self-aligning roller bearings, and thrust bearings. The use of anti-
friction bearings is mostly limited to the exterior areas of an engine. You will find
them in use in cooling pumps, fuel-injection pumps, governors, starters, flywheel pilot
bearings, turbochargers, and blowers.

All anti-friction bearings employ a rolling element (rollers, balls, or needles) between
the inner and outer cases. Either the inner case or the outer case will remain stationary.
Because of the small contact area between the rolling elements and the inner and outer
rings and the necessity for the bearing to withstand the high compression stress, the
material used for the construction of roller bearings is usually carbonized steel alloy
and that used for ball bearings is usually heat-treated chromium-alloy steel.
As an engine man, you will come into contact with various items of equipment that
may require bearing replacement. Bearings that are similar in appearance may not be
suitable as replacement bearings. Ball and roller bearings are identified by a numerical
code, which indicates the bore in millimeters or sixteenths of an inch. The internal fit,
or tolerance and any special characteristics are also coded by number. Letter codes
indicate the type of bearing, the outside diameter (OD), the width of the cage, the seal
or shield, the modification.
 FLYWHEELS:
The speed of rotation of the crankshaft increases each time the shaft
receives a power impulse from one of the pistons. The speed then gradually decreases
until another power impulse is received. If permitted to continue unchecked, these
fluctuations in speed (their number depending upon the number of cylinders firing on
one crankshaft revolution) would result in an undesirable situation with respect to the
driven mechanism as well as to the engine. Therefore, some means must be provided
so that shaft rotation can be stabilized. In most engines, this is accomplished by
mounting a flywheel on the crankshaft. In other engines, the motion of such engine
parts as the connecting rod journals, webs and lower ends of the connecting rods, and
such driven units as the clutch and generator serves the purpose. The need for a
flywheel decreases as the number of cylinders firing in one revolution of the
crankshaft and the mass of moving parts attached to the crankshaft increase.
A flywheel stores up energy during the power event and releases it during the
remaining events of the operating cycle. In other words, when the speed of the shaft
tends to increase, the flywheel absorbs energy. When the speed tends to decrease, the
flywheel gives up energy to the shaft in an effort to keep shaft rotation uniform. In
doing this, a flywheel keeps variations in speed within desired limits at all loads;
limits the increase or decrease in speed during sudden changes of load; aids in forcing
the piston through the compression event when an engine is running at low or idling
speed; and provides leverage or mechanical advantage for a starting motor.
Flywheels are generally made of cast iron, cast steel, or rolled steel. Strength of the
material from which the flywheel is made is of prime importance because of the
stresses created in the metal of the flywheel when the engine is operating at maximum
designed speed.

A flywheel is the point of attachment for items such as a starting ring gear or a turning
ring gear. The rim of a flywheel may be marked in degrees. With a stationary pointer
attached to the engine, the degree markings can be used for a determination of the
position of the crankshaft when the engine is being timed.
 GEARS:
 Idler Gears:
An idler gear is placed between two other gears to transfer
motion from one gear to the other without changing their direction. By varying the
number of teeth on the drive gear to the number on the driven gear a variation in speed
can be effected. For example the crank shaft may turn at 1500 Revs per minute (RPM)
but on a four cycle engine the cam shaft must
turn at half that speed i.e. 850 RPM. The number
of teeth on the crankshaft will be half the
number on the camshaft. This is really a very
simple example of a reduction gear system. A
more complex system would be the common
gearbox on a car. It just uses a combination of
gear ratios in order to maintain engine speed as
the load increases or decreases.
- Supercharging and turbocharging:
Most diesels are now turbocharged and some are both turbo
charged and supercharged. Because diesels do not have fuel in the cylinder before
combustion is initiated, more than one bar (100 kPa) of air can be loaded in the
cylinder without pre ignition. A turbocharged engine can produce significantly more
power than a naturally aspirated engine of the same configuration, as having more air
in the cylinders allows more fuel to be burned and thus more power to be produced. A
supercharger is powered mechanically by the engine's crankshaft, while a
turbocharger is powered by the engine exhaust, not requiring any mechanical power.
Turbocharging can improve the fuel economy of diesel engines by recovering waste
heat from the exhaust, increasing the excess air factor, and increasing the ratio of
engine output to friction losses.
A two-stroke engine does not have a discrete exhaust and intake stroke and thus is
incapable of self-aspiration. Therefore all two-stroke engines must be fitted with a
blower to charge the cylinders with air and assist in dispersing exhaust gases, a
process referred to as scavenging. In some cases, the engine may also be fitted with a
turbocharger, whose output is directed into the blower inlet. A few designs employ a
hybrid turbocharger for scavenging and charging the cylinders, which device is
mechanically driven at cranking and low speeds to act as a blower.
As turbocharged or supercharged engines produce more power for a given engine size
as compared to naturally aspirated engines, attention must be paid to the mechanical
design of components, lubrication, and cooling to handle the power. Pistons are

usually cooled with lubrication oil sprayed on the bottom of the piston. Large engines
may use water, sea water, or oil supplied through telescoping pipes attached to the
crosshead.
- Working of Diesel Engine:
The diesel engine works approximately same as the petrol engine except that there
is no spark plug in it as it is a combustion ignition engine.
- Intake:
Diesel engines typically use direct injection which

injects fuel directly into the combustion chamber during the
compression stroke. The intake stroke on a diesel engine only
draws air into the cylinder.
- Compression:
The compression stroke is the upwards movement of the piston

in the cylinder with the valves closed following the intake stroke. This upwards
motion compresses the fuel air mixture inside the combustion
chamber raising the pressure. The difference between the initial
volume of the cylinder and the final volume at the top of the
compression stroke is known as the compression ratio. Typically
this is approximately 15:1 for diesel engines. The compression ratio
is particularly important in compression fired engines such as diesel
engines. The fuel-air mix and compression ratio is critical to avoid
pre-ignition which is the abnormal ignition of fuel in the combustion
chamber before the combustion stroke. In diesel engines the fuel is
injected under high pressure towards the top of the compression
stroke. The distribution of fuel before combustion is also of interest
because it affects the efficiency of combustion.

- Combustion:
Compression ignition engines such as the diesel

engine do not use spark plugs to ignite the fuel-air mix. When the
piston reaches the top of the compression stroke the temperature
and pressure in the combustion chamber is sufficient to ignite the
mixture. Controlled ignition in both spark ignition and diesel
engines is essential for efficient combustion and avoid
uncontrolled combustion effects such as pre-ignition, auto-ignition
and engine knock.
- Power:
As the fuel burns, the gas in the cylinder heats and

expands, driving the piston.
- Exhaust:
Exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder by the upwards motion
of the piston following the ignition stroke. The exhaust gases are
passed into the exhaust manifold and channeled into the exhaust
pipe where they are released into the atmosphere. The exhaust
system may contain a smoke box to trap the larger soot particles, it
may also be fitted with a catalytic converter which removes some of
the harmful components from the exhaust gases. On newer cars
some of the exhaust gases are recycled back into the inlet system
(typically at the manifold or air filter), this is known as exhaust gas
re-circulation EGR.

The efficiency of the combustion process and the design of the engine determine the
exhaust constituents. Typically exhaust gases contain oxygen, nitrogen, water vapor,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, nitrous oxides, particulates and unburned
hydrocarbons.
- Thermodynamics of Diesel Engine:
The Diesel cycle is the thermodynamic cycle which approximates the pressure and
volume of the combustion chamber of the diesel engine, invented by Rudolph Diesel
in 1897. It is assumed to have constant pressure during the first part of the
"combustion" phase. This is an idealized mathematical model: real physical diesels do
have an increase in pressure during this period, but it is less pronounced than in the
Otto cycle. The idealized Otto cycle of a gasoline engine approximates constant
volume during that phase, generating more of a spike in a p-V diagram.
 Process 1 to 2 is isentropic compression of the fluid

 Process 2 to 3 is reversible constant pressure heating
 Process 3 to 4 is isentropic expansion
 Process 4 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling
The Diesel engine is a heat engine: it converts heat into work. The isentropic
processes are impermeable to heat: heat flows into the loop through the left expanding
isobaric process and some of it flows back out through the right depressurizing
process, and the heat that remains does the work.

- Merits and De-merits of Diesel engine:
- Merits:
1. They burn less fuel than a petrol engine performing the same work, due to the
engine's higher temperature of combustion and greater expansion ratio.
Gasoline engines are typically 30% efficient while diesel engines can convert
over 45% of the fuel energy into mechanical energy.
2. They have no high voltage electrical ignition system, resulting in high

reliability and easy adaptation to damp environments. The absence of coils,
spark plug wires, etc., also eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions
which can interfere with navigation and communication equipment, which is
especially important in marine and aircraft applications.
3. The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of a petrol
engine due to the increased strength of parts used. Diesel fuel has better
lubrication properties than petrol as well.
4. Diesel fuel is distilled directly from petroleum. Distillation yields some

gasoline, but the yield would be inadequate without catalytic reforming, which
is a more costly process.
5. Diesel fuel is considered safer than petrol in many applications. Although

diesel fuel will burn in open air using a wick, it will not explode and does not
release a large amount of flammable vapor. The low vapor pressure of diesel is
especially advantageous in marine applications, where the accumulation of
explosive fuel-air mixtures is a particular hazard. For the same reason, diesel
engines are immune to vapor lock.
6. For any given partial load the fuel efficiency (mass burned per energy
produced) of a diesel engine remains nearly constant, as opposed to petrol and
turbine engines which use proportionally more fuel with partial power outputs.
7. They generate less waste heat in cooling and exhaust.

8. Diesel engines can accept super- or turbo-charging pressure without any natural
limit, constrained only by the strength of engine components. This is unlike
petrol engines, which inevitably suffer detonation at higher pressure.
9. The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal, therefore diesel

engines are used in underground mines.
10. Biodiesel is an easily synthesized, non-petroleum-based fuel (through trans

esterification) which can run directly in many diesel engines, while gasoline
engines either need adaptation to run synthetic fuels or else use them as an
additive to gasoline (e.g., ethanol added to gasohol).
- De-Merits:
1. The basic disadvantage of diesel engine is that it is expensive. It expensive both

in manufacturing (due to high work load) and also in maintenance.
2. The fuel in diesel engine is ignited by the heat of the compressed air. It results
in that fact that fuel had no time to fully mix with the air and it produces CH,
NOX and carbon black during the combustion process
3. Diesel cars till date are very noisy and especially make a lot of noise when
starting from cold.
4. Noise and vibration till the latest times could not be separated from the words
“Diesel engine”. Attempts to neutralize them are in wrapping up the engine
compartment by acoustic insulation, balancing the engine moments and
calibrating the control units.
5. Although diesel fuel is considered more efficient because it converts heat into
energy rather than sending the heat out the tailpipe as gas-powered vehicles do,
it doesn’t result in flashy high-speed performance
6. Diesels still need regular maintenance to keep them running. You have to
change the oil and the air, oil, and fuel filters. Cleaner diesel fuels no longer
require you to bleed excess water out of the system, but many vehicles still
have water separators that need to be emptied manually.
- Applications of Diesel Engine:

1. They are used in diesel powered electric generators.
2. Ships and marine transport engines are diesel engines.
3. Farming equipment’s.
4. Transportation system like buses, tractors, trucks/ etc.
- Comparison between diesel and petrol engine:
S. No. Criteria of Petrol Engine Diesel Engine

comparison
1 Working cycle Otto Cycle Diesel cycle
2 Fuel used Petrol Diesel
3 Compression Ratio 5:1 to 9:1 14:1 to 22:1
4 Fuel Supply Carburetor is there Fuel injector is there

5 Ignition Spark plug is required Heat of compressed air
6 Pressure & Lesser due to lower CR Higher due to more
temperature compression ratio
7 Weight & size Lighter & Smaller Heavier & Larger

8 Initial cost Lesser More expensive
9 Running cost More Less

10 Maintenance cost Frequent but costs less Rare but costlier
11 Thermal efficiency Lesser, about 25 to More, about 40 to 50%
35%
12 Starting effort Less cranking effort More effort required
due to higher CR
13 Chances of pre- More chances No chances

ignition
14 Vibration & noise Less More
15 Field of application Light duty work Heavy duty work

Petrol and Diesel Engine

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Lab Manual

STUDY OF PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINE

HITEC UNIVERSITY TAXILA

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

Study of Petrol And Diesel Engine

In thermodynamics, a heat engine is a system that performs the

The working substance generates work in the "working body" of the

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

We have two types of heat engines:

1. Forward heat engines, which operate on forward

2. Reverse heat engines are those heat engines which

Forward Carnot Cycle Reverse Carnot Cycle

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

Forward Heat engines are of two types mostly used:

- Internal Combustion engine:

The term internal combustion engine usually refers to

- External Combustion Engine:

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

A two-stroke, two-cycle, or two-cycle engine is a type of

Two-stroke engines often provide high

The first commercial two-stroke engine

Gasoline (spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight (portable)

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

A four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an internal

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in North America) is

- Components of a Petrol Engine:

For a four-stroke engine, key parts of the engine include the

All four-stroke internal combustion engines employ valves to control

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

Continuous combustion engines—as well as piston engines—usually

Internal combustion engines have to

Combustion generates a great deal of heat, and some of this

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

A piston is a component of reciprocating engines. It is located in a

Most reciprocating internal

The flywheel is a disk or wheel attached to

All internal combustion engines require some form of system to

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

 Heat shielding system:

These systems often work in combination with engine

Internal combustions engines require lubrication in

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine

A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the engine's exhaust gases, by

Turbocharging allows for more efficient engine operation because it is driven by

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

In the petrol engine, the four strokes of a typical Otto

The intake stroke of the combustion cycle is when

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

The compression stroke is the upwards movement of the piston

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

Exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder by the

The efficiency of the combustion process and the design of the

 Exhaust and Inlet Valve Overlap:

Exhaust and inlet valve overlap is the transition between the

- Thermodynamics of Petrol engine:

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq

The Otto cycle is constructed out of:

The isentropic processes of compression and expansion implies no loss of mechanical

The processes are described by:

 Process 0-1 a mass of air is drawn into piston/cylinder arrangement at constant

Thermodynamics Lab Manual Prepared By: Miss Atiya Sadiq