Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Materials Today: Proceedings

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Application of advanced volumetric non-destructive evaluation

methods for the analysis of friction welded tube-to-tube plates
using an external tool
V. Deepesh a,⇑, Amal V. Purushothaman a, S. Muthukumaran a, D. Sastikumar b
a
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, NIT Trichy, Trichy 620015, India
b
Department of Physics, NIT Trichy, Trichy 620015, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Friction welding of tube-to-tube plate using external tool (FWTPET) is a novel variant of friction welding
Received 4 August 2019 process for joining tubes to tube plates. This process has the capability of producing leak proof joints
Accepted 17 September 2019 between similar or dissimilar materials. Being a solid state welding process FWTPET has a significant
Available online xxxx
advantage that it is free from fusion related defects usually seen in conventional tube to tube plate joining
alternatives which use fusion welding methods. Hence this process offers a strong potential for applica-
Keywords: tions in several sectors including automotive, marine, aerospace etc. However, in order to establish
Friction welding
FWTPET for industrial applications it is required to develop suitable Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE)
Tube-to-tube plate
NDE
methods for detection and characterization of the defects. In this study, the defects in FWTPET joints
Digital Radiography welded between 6 mm thick AA 6061 plate and 2 mm thick AA 1060 tube under various conditions
Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing are investigated using two advanced volumetric NDE methods, namely Digital Radiography (DR) and
Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT). This study shows the capability of these volumetric NDE meth-
ods to assess the quality of FWTPET joints, and to reveal significant information about the conditions
which lead to defect formation. This work also brings out the effect of the parameters of FWTPET using
theoretical model and NDE results, and in turn suggests the parametric combinations which could offer
defect free joints.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International conference
on Materials and Manufacturing Methods.

1. Introduction
Friction welding process is a highly sought after solid state
welding process in several industrial applications due to high pro-
ductivity and freedom from fusion related defects. However, the
conventional friction process cannot be used for welding tube-to-
tube plates. An innovative variant of friction welding process,
named ‘Friction Welding of tube-to-tube plate using an external
tool (FWTPET) was patented in 2008 [1]. In this process the
FWTPET tool is rotated and plunged in to the assembly of tube
and plate, as schematically shown in Fig. 1. Frictional heat is gen-
erated on the top surfaces of tube and plate when the shoulder of
the rotating tool rubs the interface at high angular velocities. When
the tool is gradually plunged in to the assembly, this heat is
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: deepeshvimalan@gmail.com (V. Deepesh).
conducted in to the faying surface of the joint. Due to high temper-
ature and pressure, the material reaches plastic state and bonding
takes place between the faying surfaces. Major advantages of this
process include the ability to produce leak proof joints of similar
or dissimilar metals and of any dimension. Joints made by FWTPET
exhibit enhanced mechanical and metallurgical properties with
less energy consumption [2,3].
Compared to conventional friction welding process or friction
stir welding process, which have been studied extensively, FWTPET
is a relatively newer process [4]. Some of the significant studies in
this area include the analysis of metal flow pattern during FWTPET
by Senthil Kumaran and Muthukumaran [5], parametric study and
optimization by Senthil Kumaranet al. [6], and the analysis of
mechanical and metallurgical properties of FWTPET joints by
Muthukumaran et al. [7]. However, the development of FWTPET
for industrial applications requires the assessment of the defects
that could occur and means to detect and characterize these

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.09.100
2214-7853/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International conference on Materials and Manufacturing Methods.

Please cite this article as: V. Deepesh, A. V. Purushothaman, S. Muthukumaran et al., Application of advanced volumetric non-destructive evaluation meth-
ods for the analysis of friction welded tube-to-tube plates using an external tool, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2019.09.100
2 V. Deepesh et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of FWTPET set-up.
defects for process control. Most of the reported studies so far have
focused on the conventional micro-structural examination of the
selected cross-sections of the weld for the detection of the defects,
rather than on the full volume assessment using non-evasive tech-
niques. Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) methods are extensively
used in several industries such as automotive, aerospace, infras-
tructure, oil and gas, energy etc. This work investigates the
FWTPET process quality of dissimilar Aluminium alloys (AA) with
the help of two major advanced volumetric NDE methods viz., Dig-
ital Radiography (DR) and Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT).
The results of the NDE studies are used to understand the potential
defects in this process, their causes and also to analyze the effect of
FWTPET parameters viz., speed of tool rotation and plunge
duration.
2. Experimental methodology
2.1. Design of experiments
In this work the tube of AA 1060 and plate of AA 6061 are used.
The composition of these alloys along with geometry are given in
Table 1. A hole of 18 mm, matching with the outer diameter (OD)
of the tube is made at the centre of the plate. Full factorial exper-
imental design is followed, with 4 values of tool rotation speed and
4 values of plunge duration (or plunge rate), making a total of 16
parametric combinations. In each combination 3 sets of joints are
welded in order to ensure consistency of results.
2.2. FWTPET procedure
Fig. 1(b) shows the FWTPET welding system used in this work,
and Fig. 1(c) shows the close-up view of the tool made of Steel tool.
The tool shoulder diameter and pin diameter 32 mm and 13 mm
respectively, and the pin length is 12 mm. Different configura-
tions of tube placement in FWTPET has been studied by
S. Senthilkumaran et al. [8]. In our work, the tube is placed in the
slot with zero projection, which means that the end matches with
Table 1
Composition and geometry of the FWTPET materials used in this work.
Geometry Dimensions (mm) AA grade
Plate 150 x 150 x 6 (thickness) 6061
Tube OD 18, thickness 2, length 25 1060
Please cite this article as: V. Deepesh, A. V. Purushothaman, S. Muthukumaran et al., Application of advanced volumetric non-destructive evaluation meth-
ods for the analysis of friction welded tube-to-tube plates using an external tool, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2019.09.100
the hole in plate. In system the tool is at a fixed height and the
plate-tube assembly is taken vertically upward towards the tool
for the welding. The tool rotation speed (rpm) used are 710,
900,1120, 1400 rpm and the plunge duration values (seconds) for
a plunge depth of 1 mm are 50, 100, 150 and 200 seconds [9]. Since
in the present study the main objective is to examine the potential
defects in the weld, the tube portion is removed from the welded
specimen.
2.3. Digital Radiography (DR)
Digital Radiography using Digital Detector Arrays (DDA), also
known as Digital Flat Panels(DFP) has been extensively used in
industrial radiography for low thickness applications using
X-rays [10,11]. Patilet al. [12] has proven the effectiveness of
X-Ray Radiographic Testing (RT) for Friction Stir Weld joints made
of AA7075 and AA6061. Similarly, ItaiMumvengeet al. [13] has
used the DR technology for the assessment of AA6061. DR system
consists of an X-Ray equipment as the radiation source and Digital
Flat Panel as the imaging device. This imaging device converts the
incident X-Ray image to digital image almost instantaneously and
displays the real time dynamic image of the test specimen on a
high resolution image acquisition and review computer, concur-
rently with irradiation, unlike conventional film radiography
wherein the exposed radiographic films have to be chemically
processed and viewed in an illuminator. In the present study, an
Indirect Type Flat panel with Terbium-doped Gadolinium Oxy
Sulphide (Gd2S2O:Tb-GOS) scintillator is used. Indirect type Digital
Flat Panels convert the incident X-Ray photons first to light pho-
tons by the scintillator layer, and subsequently this light image
in to electronic image by amorphous Silicon photodiode layer. This
electronic image is read by an active matrix of thin-film-transistor
(TFT) [14,15]. Compared to film radiography, DR is highly produc-
tive due to instantaneous results, and safer due to no use of haz-
ardous processing chemicals. The DR imaging quality is superior
in terms of signal-to-noise ratio, spatial resolution, dynamic range
and linearity [16,17]. The most important advantage over film
Elements and weight %
Al Si Fe Cu Mg Mn Ti Zn V
96.3 0.8 0.7 0.4 1.2 0.15 0.15 0.25 0.05
99.6 0.25 0.35 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05
 V. Deepesh et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 2. Snap-shot of the Digital Radiography system used for FWTPET inspection.
radiography is the availability of digital images, which can be
stored in a computer and the quality can be further enhanced by
appropriate image processing techniques. The snapshot of the DR
exposure set up in the present work is shown in Fig. 2. Flat Panel
of model Perkin Elmer 0821, with a pixel pitch of 200 mm and
quantisation value of 14-bit is used. The X-Ray source is a
320 kV-10 mA constant potential X-Ray system with effective focal
spot size 0.8 mm. The exposure of the specimen is done using Sin-
gle Wall Single Image Technique (SWSI), with a source to object
distance of 500 mm [18]. Based on trial and error, the optimised
exposure parameters followed for this work are 36 kV potential
and 1 mA current.
2.4. Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing
Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT) is an advanced ultra-
sonic imaging technique using transducers having an array of
piezo-electric elements, which can be excited electronically in
accordance with pre-determined delay laws. This means that
unlike conventional UT using single crystal probe, PAUT system
can generate a number of angles simultaneously and thereby
increase the probability of defect detection, through the capabili-
ties such as beam steering, beam focussing and electronic raster
[19,20]. ASTM E 2700 describes the requirement for PAUT for
fusion welds as well as solid state welds [21]. Capability of PAUT
for defect detection in FSW joints made of Aluminium alloys has
been well studied [22–24]. PAUT system model used in this work
is OMNISCAN MX. In the present study manual UT is followed since
Fig. 3. PAUT scan plans for the FWTPET joint illustrating the beam propagation in the weld (a) defect free joint (b) joint with a defect.
Please cite this article as: V. Deepesh, A. V. Purushothaman, S. Muthukumaran et al., Application of advanced volumetric non-destructive evaluation meth-
ods for the analysis of friction welded tube-to-tube plates using an external tool, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2019.09.100
3
the probe has to be moved in circular path around the weld. Based
on the analysis of FWTPET joint configuration, using an Ultrasonic
beam tracer simulation package ES Beam tool, as shown in Fig. 3, a
64-element Longitudinal beam probe of 2 MHz frequency with
shear wave wedge, for an angular range of 60 deg. to 70 deg. is
used. The scanning is done at the predefined position in a circular
manner around the tube, parallel to the weld line. Although the
technique used is contact method, in order to ensure best coupling
effect, the specimens are immersed in water. From the scan plan it
can be noted that lower angle beams are bounced at the tube side
of the plate and travel towards opposite side, resulting in the
reflection from the plate edge. These beams pass through the weld
after the first bounce. Higher angles directly travel towards the
tube side edge of the plate, passing through the weld region, as
shown in Fig. 3(a). From Fig. 3(b) it can be noticed that when there
is a defect in the weld at the root side the higher angle beams are
reflected by the defect instead of the edge. Depending upon the
height of the defect along the plate thickness direction, either the
defect results in a single echo from it, with no reflection from the
tube side edge as shown in Fig. 3(b), or two reflections, one from
the defect and the other from the edge. The latter situation could
happen only in the case of very short defects or void like defects.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Analysis of DR images
In the case of Digital Radiography (DR) 25 frames are captured
and the frame averaging is done so that in the image acquisition
stage itself, the system noise level is minimised. The DR images
are stored as files in DICONDE format [25]. Further enhancement
of image quality by random noise removal is done by mean filter-
ing [26]. DR images reveal circular ring shaped indications which
are identified with white or high grey-level regions as shown in
Fig. 4. Since the radiographic images give only planar projection
of the weld region, it is challenging to determine the depth of
the discontinuity. This indication shows the potential de-bonding
defect, along the tube-to-plate faying region. From the visual
inspection of the plates it could be seen that many of these ring
type de-bond defects are visible at the root side of the weld. How-
ever, no evidence of root de-bond is observed in some of the spec-
imens which showed ring type discontinuity in DR image. This
indicates the presence of ring shaped internal defects which are
similar to the tunnel defects seen in Friction Stir welding. In the
case of FWTPET, such discontinuities can be called ring tunnel
4 V. Deepesh et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. Snap-shot of the Digital Radiography system used for FWTPET inspection.

defects. It is seen from the DR results that in most of the cases the
root de-bonding defects are fully circular though there are a few
exceptions. Ring tunnel defects are also seen in the form of fully
circular indications, but usually seen as partial circular rings. Ring
tunnel defects are found to exist not only as continuous arcs, but
also as intermittent arcs, as shown in Fig. 4. Another type of defect
revealed in DR is cavity or void, which is found to have rounded
shape, unlike ring tunnel defects. Some of the specimens are found
to have multiple void defects, as shown in Fig. 4.
3.2. Analysis of PAUT images
PAUT results for various specimens are presented in Fig. 5 to7.
Scanning is performed at a reference amplitude level set using a
2 mm Side Drilled Hole (SDH) in a block of AA1060, which can
be used for AA6061 grade also since there is no significant varia-
tion in acoustic properties. The fact that reference amplitude is
as low as 16 dB as shown in the PAUT images indicates the excel-
lent response of Aluminium alloys to ultrasound. Each image con-
sists of full wave rectified A-scan signals on the left side of the
equipment monitor and sectorial images on the right side. These
sectorial scan images show the cross sectional view of the plate
thickness in the weld region [21]. PAUT results are in agreement
with the DR results in all the cases. One advantage of PAUT over
DR is that, PAUT gives information about the depth, location and
severity of the indication and thereby facilitates effective charac-
terisation of defects. In other words, it is possible to distinguish
between a root de-bond defect and internal ring tunnel defects
in majority of the cases.
Fig. 5 shows the PAUT result of an FWTPET joint without defect,
wherein the sectorial scan image is overlaid on the weld profile, in
order to give better clarity. In this, the signal amplitude is repre-
sented by colour code: red and white colours indicating the maxi-
mum and minimum amplitudes respectively. Reflections from the
plunge step, tube side edge and plate side edge are seen in this
image, as predicted by the scan plan. It must be noted that in
sectorial scan presentation, the beam path after bouncing at the
bottom wall are shown in the same direction. A-scan representa-
tion is also useful in assessing the severity of reflection in terms
of signal amplitude.
It can be seen that tube side edges are revealed by beams in
angles in the range 70 to 75 deg. The presence of internal defects
is reiterated by the PAUT results, which show distinct indications
of root de-bonding, void and ring tunnel defects, and voids as
shown in Figs. 6 and 7(a) and (b) respectively. It can be observed
that the presence of a defect alters the reflection pattern from
the tube side edges. Severe root de-bonds tend to eclipse these sig-
nals partially, as visible in Fig. 6(a) or totally, as in Fig. 6(b). Once
an indication is observed in sectorial image, the sense of the sever-
ity and location of the de-bonding defects can be estimated, by
review of the corresponding A-scan signals particularly the ampli-
tude of the defect signal and the drop in amplitude of the edge sig-
nal. Void defects give significantly weaker reflection compared to
de-bonding defects as the curved surface of the defects could cause
scattering of the incident beams. Fig. 7(a) presents the image of the
void defect, wherein the edge signal is not eclipsed. It can be noted
that this void is detected during the direct passage of the beam
towards the bottom side. In the case of ring tunnel defect whichis
a stronger reflector of ultrasound, as presented in Fig. 7(b), signif-
icant drop in the edge signal is noted.
3.3. Macro analysis
The results of DR and PAUT are further validated by taking the
sections of the welded specimens, and subjecting to macro exam-
ination. The results of macro examination of the specimens which
have been concluded as root de-bonding defect, ring tunnel defect
and void defects along with de-bonding defect, presented in Fig. 8.
These results show that DR and PAUT examination can give the
precise detection and characterisation of the FWTPET defects. It
is can be noted from Fig. 8(c) that besides void there is excessive
flash at the plate side. This is observed in the case of specimens

Fig. 5. PAUT image of an FWTPET specimen with no defect.

Please cite this article as: V. Deepesh, A. V. Purushothaman, S. Muthukumaran et al., Application of advanced volumetric non-destructive evaluation meth-
ods for the analysis of friction welded tube-to-tube plates using an external tool, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2019.09.100
 V. Deepesh et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx 5

Fig. 6. PAUT image showing root de-bonding defects.

Fig. 7. PAUT image showing (a) void (b) ring tunnel.

Fig. 8. Macrographs of the FWTPET specimen showing (a) root side de-bonding (b) ring tunnel, (c) cavity and excessive flash.

welded at 1400 rpm and plunge durations 150 sec/mm or more.
The macro analysis shows that the voids are created due to
removal of material from the weld region, when excessive flash
is formed at plate side.
4. Parametric analysis based on NDE results
Based on the NDE results, the severity of de-bond defects is
analysed in terms of the percentage circumferential extent, as
shown in Fig. 8, and it can be noted that the severity reduces with
increase in plunge time or tool speed. In the case of short plunge
durations, though heat is generated at the regions in direct contact
with tool shoulder, the time is insufficient to sustain this heat gen-
eration and to allow the heat to propagate fully across the weld
thickness. However, as the tool rotation speed increases, this situ-
ation improves, since at higher rpm the friction induced heating
generation is more, which results in higher temperature gradient
Please cite this article as: V. Deepesh, A. V. Purushothaman, S. Muthukumaran et al., Application of advanced volumetric non-destructive evaluation meth-
ods for the analysis of friction welded tube-to-tube plates using an external tool, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2019.09.100
and in turn increased heat flow rate towards the root side. Ring
tunnel defect is also similar to this, except that it happens within
the weld volume. Both are formed due to inadequate mixing, when
the welding conditions fail to generate the necessary boding heat
input [27]. From the trends presented in Fig. 9, it can be concluded
that, it is a combination of plunge duration and tool rotation speed,
which controls the de-bonding effect. Yaduwanshi D K et al., Sch-
midt et al. etc. have presented the detailed thermal analysis in
the case of Friction Sir Welding (FSW). Though there are significant
differences between FSW and FWTPET processes, the results
obtained in the present study indicate that the heat flow analysis
of the former is adaptable to FWTPET also, by suitable modification
of parameters such as tool pin radius and height [28,29].
However, it should be noted that as far as the overall quality of
the weld is concerned, it is not only the de-bonding defects that
need to be considered. As revealed by the macro analysis discussed
in the previous section, at very high values of plunge durations and
6 V. Deepesh et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 9. Variation of root de-bond defect with tool rotation speed for various plunge
durations.
rpm, the probability of excessive flash and void formation is high.
At speeds as high as1400 rpm the frictional heat developed is
excessive, causing increased plasticity. Therefore, when the tool
at high rpm is plunged in to the plate, the metal is easily ejected
out, resulting in excessive flash and cavities. This means that, the
combination of the plunge duration and rpm should be high
enough to ensure sufficient bonding, but low enough to avoid
excessive flash.
Zhang et al. [30] has reported the parametric criterion for good
bonding in the case of FSW, based on mathematical models. This
analysis is based on the thermal studies published by Kim et al.
[31]. As per Zhang et al. the bonding efficiency increases with tool
shoulder down force and tool rotation speed, and inversely propor-
tional to feed rate. It can be observed that FWTPET has some com-
mon factors, particularly speed and plunge down force. NDE results
show that as the speed increases the bonding quality also
increases, as seen from Fig. 8. However, the term feed rate is not
directly applicable in the case of FWTPET, since in this process
the tool remains at the same location and continuously heats the
weld region. Instead, the plunge rate, or the depth of plunge
achieved in unit time, plays a significant role. Plunge rate is the
inverse of plunge duration, which means that in the case of plunge
duration 50 s for a plunge depth of 1 mm, the plunge rate is
0.02 mm/seconds, where as in the case of 200 s, it is 0.005 mm/
seconds. As seen from the NDE results for high the plunge rates
the de-bonding defects are more likely and hence the weld quality
is inferior. However, it must be noted that though high value com-
binations of speed and plunge durations (or low plunge rates)
ensure sufficient bonding, there is a high risk of flash defect and
cavities as discussed in the sub-section 3.3. Therefore, the speed
and plunge duration shall be high enough to achieve bonding at
the same time should not exceed the threshold for excessive flash
and cavity formation.
5. Conclusions
Two advanced NDE methods, viz. DR and PAUT are explored for
the volumetric assessment of FWTPET. In the case of DR, several
parameters viz., X-ray voltage, current, source to object distance,
frame rate etc. are optimised to ensure that a satisfactory image
with good Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is obtained. Similarly, in
PAUT also, extensive trials are done to arrive at a suitable set of
inspection parameters such as frequency, wedge, probe position,
scanning angles, excitation voltage, number of frames etc. DR
images reveal the presence of ring shaped discontinuities along
the weld zone. However, this has a limitation with respect to depth
Please cite this article as: V. Deepesh, A. V. Purushothaman, S. Muthukumaran et al., Application of advanced volumetric non-destructive evaluation meth-
ods for the analysis of friction welded tube-to-tube plates using an external tool, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2019.09.100
assessment. The presence of these defects are reiterated by PAUT,
which can detect and characterise the defect in terms of the reflec-
tion amplitude, depth, location, height, volumetric content etc.
Also, defects such as intermittent tunnelling defects, cavities, etc.
shown by DR are validated with PAUT results. The results of NDE
are further validated by macro analysis of the specimens, which
has shown the defects.
It is concluded from our work that DR and PAUT are powerful
NDE methods which can be used for volumetric inspection of the
tube to tube plate joints in Aluminium, using FWTPET. However,
specific applications such as aerospace etc. where the minimum
sensitivity requirement to meet the applicable codes and standards
will require further optimisation of PAUT with higher frequency
and sampling of the signals. Similarly, in the case of DR the images
are captured after removing the tubular portion, as the primary
motive is to understand the potential defects in this process.
Therefore, an improved RT technique for detection of defects with
the tube and plate in assembled condition is required for industrial
applications.
The results of NDE studies bring out a lot of crucial information
about the relationship of process quality with the welding param-
eters, particularly the tool rotation speed and the plunge duration.
It is seen from this work is that low speed of tool rotation and short
plunge duration could result in tunnel defects and root side de-
bonds, since the heat generation is not adequate to cause sufficient
plastic deformation. At the same time high speeds of rotation and
too long plunge durations are also not desirable as these could lead
to over plasticity and in turn flash defects and cavities.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank M/S. BHEL Trichy for the supports extended
towards this research work.
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Please cite this article as: V. Deepesh, A. V. Purushothaman, S. Muthukumaran et al., Application of advanced volumetric non-destructive evaluation meth-
ods for the analysis of friction welded tube-to-tube plates using an external tool, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2019.09.100