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Petrol and Diesel Engine
Petrol and Diesel Engine
Objective:
1. To study the engine.
2. Study of heat engines.
3. Difference between internal combustion and external combustion engine.
4. 2-storke and 4-stroke engines.
5. Components of petrol and diesel engine.
6. Working of a petrol and diesel engine.
7. Thermodynamics of petrol and diesel engine.
8. Merits and demerits.
Theory:
In this experiment we will study the working of steam engine which is type of heat
engine, so we will discuss heat engines first.
- Heat Engine:
Heat engines are often confused with the cycles they attempt to mimic. Typically
when describing the physical device the term 'engine' is used. When describing the
model the term 'cycle' is used.
2-Stroke Engine:
INTAKE: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston descends
from the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of
the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by atmospheric (or greater)
pressure into the cylinder through the intake port.
COMPRESSION: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns
to the top of the cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the cylinder
head.
POWER: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston is
close to Top Dead Centre, the compressed air–fuel mixture in a gasoline engine is
ignited, by a spark plug in gasoline engines, or which ignites due to the heat
generated by compression in a diesel engine. The resulting pressure from the
combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back down toward
bottom dead center.
EXHAUST: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead
center while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-air
mixture through the exhaust valve(s).
- Petrol Engine:
A Wankel engine has a triangular rotor that orbits in an epitrochoidal (figure 8 shape)
chamber around an eccentric shaft. The four phases of operation (intake, compression,
power, and exhaust) take place in what is effectively a moving, variable-volume
chamber.
Valves:
In piston engines, the valves are grouped into 'inlet valves' which admit
the entrance of fuel and air and 'outlet valves' which allow the exhaust gases to escape.
Each valve opens once per cycle and the ones that are subject to extreme accelerations
are held closed by springs that are typically opened by rods running on a camshaft
rotating with the engines' crankshaft.
Control valves:
Exhaust system:
For jet propulsion internal combustion engines, the 'exhaust system' takes the form of
a high velocity nozzle, which generates thrust for the engine and forms a collimated
jet of gas that gives the engine its name.
Cooling systems:
Cooling systems usually employ air (air-cooled) or liquid (usually water) cooling,
while some very hot engines using radiative cooling (especially some rocket engines).
Some high-altitude rocket engines use ablative cooling, where the walls gradually
Piston:
Crankshaft:
Flywheels:
Starter system:
Lubrication systems:
Several different types of lubrication systems are used. Simple two-stroke engines are
lubricated by oil mixed into the fuel or injected into the induction stream as a spray.
Early slow-speed stationary and marine engines were lubricated by gravity from small
chambers similar to those used on steam engines at the time — with an engine tender
refilling these as needed. As engines were adapted for automotive and aircraft use, the
need for a high power-to-weight ratio led to increased speeds, higher temperatures,
and greater pressure on bearings which in turn required pressure-lubrication for crank
bearings and connecting-rod journals. This was provided either by a direct lubrication
from a pump, or indirectly by a jet of oil directed at pickup cups on the connecting rod
ends which had the advantage of providing higher pressures as the engine speed
increased.
Control system:
Most engines require one or more systems to start and shut down the engine and to
control parameters such as the power, speed, torque, pollution, combustion
temperature, and efficiency and to stabilize the engine from modes of operation that
may induce self-damage such as pre-ignition. Such systems may be referred to as
engine control units.
Two more additional components can be added to a petrol engine to improve its
performance.
2.) Turbocharger.
Supercharger:
One way to increase engine power is to force more air into the cylinder
so that more power can be produced from each power stroke. This can be done using
some type of air compression device known as a supercharger, which can be powered
by the engine crankshaft.
Turbocharger:
When idling, and at low-to-moderate speeds, the turbine produces little power from
the small exhaust volume, the turbocharger has little effect and the engine operates
nearly in a naturally aspirated manner. When much more power output is required, the
engine speed and throttle opening are increased until the exhaust gases are sufficient
to 'spin up' the turbocharger's turbine to start compressing much more air than normal
into the intake manifold.
Intake:
Combustion :
Spark plugs are used to generate the spark which ignites the
compressed fuel and air mixture in the spark ignition
engine. To generate the spark a high voltage of around
20,000 Volts is applied. Low voltage current is fed through
the primary winding of an inductor coil generating a
magnetic field. The high voltage is generated when the low
voltage supply is interrupted and the magnetic field breaks
down generating a high voltage in the secondary winding
which has a much larger number of coils. The low voltage
supply to the coil is controlled by the distributor which also
controls the spark plug that the high voltage surge is sent to.
The distributor timing is critical and usually is timed
mechanically from the engine. The diagram below shows
the typical set-up of an ignition system for a spark ignition
engine.
Compression ignition engines such as the diesel engine do
not use spark plugs to ignite the fuel-air mix. When the
piston reaches the top of the compression stroke the
temperature and pressure in the combustion chamber is
sufficient to ignite the mixture. Controlled ignition in both spark ignition and diesel
Exhaust:
Top and bottom of the loop: a pair of quasi-parallel and isentropic processes
(frictionless, adiabatic reversible).
Left and right sides of the loop: a pair of parallel isochoric processes
(constant volume).
The Otto cycle consists of isentropic compression, heat addition at constant volume,
isentropic expansion, and rejection of heat at constant volume. In the case of a four-
stroke Otto cycle, technically there are two additional processes: one for the exhaust
of waste heat and combustion products at constant pressure (isobaric), and one for the
intake of cool oxygen-rich air also at constant pressure; however, these are often
omitted in a simplified analysis. Even though those two processes are critical to the
functioning of a real engine, wherein the details of heat transfer and combustion
chemistry are relevant, for the simplified analysis of the thermodynamic cycle, it is
more convenient to assume that all of the waste-heat is removed during a single
volume change.
Piston moves from crank end (BDC, bottom dead center and
maximum volume) to cylinder head end (TDC, top dead center and minimum volume)
as the working gas with initial state 1 is compressed isentropically to state point 2,
through compression ratio . Mechanically this is the isentropic compression
of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder, also known as the compression stroke. This
isentropic process assumes there no mechanical energy is lost due to friction and no
heat is transferred to or from the gas, hence the process is reversible. The compression
process requires that mechanical work be added to the working gas. Generally the
compression ratio is around 9-10:1 (V1:V2) for a typical engine.
As the piston moves from BDC (point 1) to the exhaust valve opened,
the gaseous mixture is vented to the atmosphere and the process starts a new Otto
cycle.
P-V Diagram
P-h diagram
Merits:
Prime advantages of petrol engine are:
Cheaper than diesel car to purchase.
Less noise and vibration than a diesel engine
Service and maintenance cost is less
Highly available everywhere in time
easy to use with engine, just fill
No waste is produced and no manual emptying
Easy to carry fuel and safe to store
Engine and spare parts are available in cheap rates
Petrol as a fuel cheap than diesel in some regions
Engine and vehicle will avail on cheap rate
Petrol fuel is usually cheaper in price
De-merits:
portable engine-generators.
Diesel Engine
The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency of any standard internal or
external combustion engine due to its very high compression ratio. Low-speed diesel
engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is
relatively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that exceeds 50%.
Diesel engines are manufactured in two-stroke and four-stroke versions. They were
originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the
1910s they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy
equipment and electric generating plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly
began to be used in a few automobiles.
CYLINDER HEADS:
The cylinder head (or cylinder cover) is bolted to the top of the
engine block and forms a gas tight seal over the end of each
cylinder. The head may be cast as a separate head to cover
each cylinder as is usual with the larger engines or in the
case of smaller engines a single casting covering all
cylinders. A number of engine parts that are essential to
engine operation may be found in or attached to the cylinder
head. The cylinder head for a ٤-stroke cycle engine will
house intake and exhaust valves, valve guides, and valve
seats. The cylinder head will also carry the valve rocker arm
assembly, fuel injection valves, heater plugs, the cover for
the rocker gear as well as providing for the flow of cooling
water to essential areas of the head, air supply for
combustion and discharged exhaust gases. The design and
material of a cylinder head must be such that it can
withstand the rapid changes of temperature and pressure
that take place in the combustion space and the mechanical
stress that results from the head being bolted securely to the block. Cylinder heads are
made of heat resistant alloy cast iron or aluminum alloy.
A gas tight seal between the cylinder head and the block
depends upon both surfaces being level and smooth, good quality gaskets, and the
correct tightness (torque settings) of the head studs.
Studs:
Cylinder head studs are manufactured from round rod, generally of alloy
steel. Threads are cut on both ends. The threads that screw into the block are generally
made with finer threads than those on the nut end. This design allows for a tighter fit
in the block, which keeps the stud from loosening when the stud nut is removed.
The successful fitting of the head to the block requires care, attention and adherence to
correct procedures. This includes using torque wrenches for exacting the correct stress
on each stud and carrying this out in the correct sequence. Assembly procedures will
be dealt with in detail in stage of the course. The correct use of torque wrenches will
also be demonstrated.
Gaskets:
Gaskets are used to provide a seal between two surfaces. The type of
duty may vary greatly from the somewhat rough surfaces of water pipe flanges to the
carefully ground faces of high pressure superheated steam pipes; from the valve cover
on a cylinder head to the highly polished surfaces of hydraulic pump components.
Each duty requires the correct type and thickness of material so it is important to
understand the properties of the various gasket materials and the exact nature of the
duty.
The mating surfaces of a cylinder block and head may appear to be quite smooth;
however, if these surfaces are highly magnified irregularities can always be seen.
Gaskets will compensate for a degree of irregularity but they will not do the
impossible. If the surface of the head is rough or worse still distorted then it may be
Vibration Isolators:
Another vibration isolator is the mounting for the radiator to the frame. In this case
however the mounts provide a double duty. They also serve to protect the radiator
against any distortion from movement of the frame.
The Sump:
The engine sump is usually manufactured from pressed steel but in some
cases they may be cast iron although these are extremely heavy and not seen often
these days. The sump is the engine oil reservoir and it may also have a strainer fitted
through which the oil must pass before entering the
oil pump. The sump will be fitted with an oil drain
attachment either for bottom discharge or out through
the side for greater accessibility. The fitting of the
gaskets between the sump and the block must be done
with great care.
The material of a liner must withstand the extreme heat and pressure developed within
the combustion space at the top of the cylinder and, at the same time, must permit the
piston and its sealing rings to move with a minimum of friction. Close-grained cast
iron is the material most commonly used for liner construction. (Steel, however, is
sometimes used.) Some liners are plated
on the wearing surface with porous
chromium, because chromium has greater
wear-resistant qualities than other
materials. Also the pores in the plating
tend to hold the lubricating oil and aid in
maintaining the lubrication oil film that is
necessary for reduction of friction and
wear.
Dry Liners:
Dry liners have relatively thin walls compared with wet liners. Heat
from the thin liner wall is transferred to the block and then dissipated into the cooling
water jacket.
Wet Liners:
In wet liners the cooling water is in direct contact with the liner. Seals
are fitted at both ends of the liner to prevent the leakage of coolant into the oil pan, or
from around the liner lip. Generally, the seal at the combustion end of a liner consists
of either a gasket under the liner flange or a machined fit. Rubber or neoprene rings
generally form the seal at the bottom or crankshaft end of the liner. Liners of this type
are constructed to permit lengthwise expansion and contraction. The walls of a wet
Many of the principal parts that are within the main structure of an
engine are moving parts. These moving parts convert the thermal energy of fuel
combustion to mechanical energy into the reciprocating motion of the pistons and
connecting rods. The force is then converted to rotary motion by the crankshaft and
used to provide the service required. At this stage we will restrict the discussion to
those moving components up to and including the crankshaft. Other parts that serve to
develop and transmit power, such as timing gears and gear trains will be discussed
later in the course. At the conclusion of this section, you should be able to recognize
and describe the basic types, functions, and characteristics of valves, valve-actuating
mechanisms, piston and rod assemblies, crankshafts and flywheels.
PISTONS:
Cast iron is generally associated with the pistons of slow-speed engines, but it is also
used for the pistons of some high-speed engines. In these pistons, the piston walls are
of very thin construction, requiring additional cooling.
PISTON RINGS:
Piston rings perform three functions: seal the cylinder, distribute and
control lubricating oil on the cylinder wall, and transfer heat from the piston to the
cylinder wall. All rings on a piston perform the latter function, but two general types
of rings—compression and oil—are required to perform the first two functions.
The number of rings and their location will also vary considerably with the type and
size of the piston.
The pressure exerted by rings closest to the combustion space is increased by the
action of the confined gases during compression and combustion. The gases enter
behind the top ring, through the clearance between the ring and groove, and force the
ring out against the cylinder and down against the bottom of the groove. The gas
pressure on the second ring and each successive compression ring is progressively
Under normal operating conditions, with engine parts functioning properly, there will
be very little leakage of gas because of the excellent sealing of the piston rings. The
oil that prevents metal to metal contact between the rings and cylinder wall also helps,
to a degree, in making the seal.
When a proper seal is established, the only point at which gas can leak is through the
piston ring gap. The gap of a piston ring is so small, compared to the total
circumference of the ring, that the amount of leakage is negligible when rings are
functioning properly.
Oil Rings:
Although oil rings come in a large variety of designs, they must all do
two things: distribute enough oil to the cylinder wall to prevent metal-to- metal
contact, and control the amount of oil distributed. Without an adequate oil film
between the rings and the cylinder, undue friction occurs, resulting in excessive wear
of the rings and the cylinder wall. On the other hand, too much oil is as undesirable as
not enough oil. If too much oil is distributed by the rings the oil may reach the
combustion space and burn, wasting oil and causing smoky exhaust and excessive
carbon deposits in the cylinder. Such carbon deposits may cause the rings to stick in
their grooves.
Sticking rings lead to a poor gas seal. Thus, oil rings provide an important function in
proper control and distribution of the lubricating oil. Different manufacturers use a
variety of terms in their technical manuals to identify the oil rings of an engine—such
terms as oil control, oil scraper, oil wiper, oil cutter, oil drain, and oil regulating.
Regardless of the identifying terms used, all such rings are used to limit the oil film on
the cylinder walls and to provide adequate lubrication to the compression rings.
Most oil control rings use some type of expander to force them against the cylinder
wall. This aids in wiping the excess oil from the cylinder wall.
When the piston is being pushed upward (compression) by the crankshaft and
connecting rod it causes the side thrust to be exerted on the opposite side of the
cylinder. Thus, the side thrust alternates from side to side as the piston moves up and
down. Side thrust in an engine cylinder makes proper lubrication and correct clearance
essential. Without an oil film between the piston and the cylinder wall, metal-to-metal
contact occurs and results in excessive wear. If the clearance between the piston and
cylinder wall is excessive, a pounding noise, called PISTON SLAP, will occur as the
thrust alternates from side to side.
The bearings or bushings are made of bronze or similar material. Since the bushing
material is a relatively hard-bearing metal, surface-hardened piston pins are required.
The bore of the bushing is accurately ground in line for the close fit of the piston pin.
Most bushings have a number of small grooves cut in their bore for lubrication
purposes Some sleeve bushings have a press fit, while others are “cold shrunk” into
the bosses. If the piston pin is secured in the bosses of the piston (stationary) or if it
floats (full-floating) in both the connecting rod and piston, the piston end of the rod
must be fitted with a sleeve bushing. Pistons fitted with semi-floating pins require no
bearing at the rod end.
Sleeve bushings used in the piston end of connecting rods are similar in design to
those used in piston bosses. Generally, bronze makes up the bearing surface. Some
bearing surfaces are backed with a casehardened steel sleeve, and the bushing has a
shrink fit in the rod bore. In another variation of the sleeve-type bushing, a cast bronze
lining is pressed into a steel bushing in the connecting rod.
CRANKSHAFT:
The crankshaft changes the movement of the piston and the connecting
rod into the rotary motion required to drive such items as reduction gears, propeller
shafts, generators, or pumps. As the name implies, the crankshaft consists of a series
of cranks (throws) formed as offsets in a shaft. The crankshaft is subjected to all the
forces developed in an engine. Because of this, the shaft must be of especially strong
construction. It is usually machined from forged alloy or high-carbon steel. The shafts
of some engines are made of cast-iron alloy. Forged crankshafts are nitrided (heat-
treated) to increase the strength of the shafts and to minimize wear.
The crankshafts found in our engines are all drop forged from one solid block usually
referred to as one piece construction.
The Main Bearings support the crankshaft. They are located in the main bearing
housings that are machined into the main engine block. The section of the shaft that
turns in the main bearing is called the crankshaft main bearing journal. The section of
the crankshaft which turns inside the connecting rod bottom end bearing is known as
the bottom end journal. The main journals and the bottom end journals are surface-
hardened and ground so that a longer wearing, more durable bearing metal can be
used in the main and bottom end bearings without causing excessive wear of the shaft.
Crankshafts have a main bearing journal at each end of the shaft with an intermediate
main journal between the cranks. Each crank of a shaft consists of three parts, two
webs and a pin, (journal). The journal, provides the surface on which the connecting
rod bottom end bearing turns.
One important duty that most crankshafts do is to provide a means of lubricating the
bottom ends, the gudgeon pins and also provide cooling oil to the underside of the
pistons. This is done by drilling a hole from the main bearing journal up through the
web coming out at the center point of the bottom end journal. From here the oil can
lubricate the bottom end bearing. By a hole drilled up the center of the conrod to the
top end oil can reach both the gudgeon pin and the underside of the piston. The forces
that turn the crankshaft of a diesel engine are produced and transmitted to the
crankshaft in a pulsating manner. These pulsa-tions create torsional vibrations, which
are capable of severely damaging an engine if they are not reduced, or dampened, by
opposing forces. Many engines require an extra dampening effect to ensure
satisfactory operation. It is provided by a torsional vibration damper mounted on the
free end of the crankshaft. There are several types of torsional dampers in use.
BEARINGS:
Bearings serve to support rotating shafts and other moving parts and to
transmit loads from one part of the engine to another.
ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS:
As an engine man, you will come into contact with various items of equipment that
may require bearing replacement. Bearings that are similar in appearance may not be
suitable as replacement bearings. Ball and roller bearings are identified by a numerical
code, which indicates the bore in millimeters or sixteenths of an inch. The internal fit,
or tolerance and any special characteristics are also coded by number. Letter codes
indicate the type of bearing, the outside diameter (OD), the width of the cage, the seal
or shield, the modification.
FLYWHEELS:
The speed of rotation of the crankshaft increases each time the shaft
receives a power impulse from one of the pistons. The speed then gradually decreases
until another power impulse is received. If permitted to continue unchecked, these
fluctuations in speed (their number depending upon the number of cylinders firing on
one crankshaft revolution) would result in an undesirable situation with respect to the
driven mechanism as well as to the engine. Therefore, some means must be provided
so that shaft rotation can be stabilized. In most engines, this is accomplished by
mounting a flywheel on the crankshaft. In other engines, the motion of such engine
parts as the connecting rod journals, webs and lower ends of the connecting rods, and
such driven units as the clutch and generator serves the purpose. The need for a
flywheel decreases as the number of cylinders firing in one revolution of the
crankshaft and the mass of moving parts attached to the crankshaft increase.
A flywheel stores up energy during the power event and releases it during the
remaining events of the operating cycle. In other words, when the speed of the shaft
tends to increase, the flywheel absorbs energy. When the speed tends to decrease, the
flywheel gives up energy to the shaft in an effort to keep shaft rotation uniform. In
doing this, a flywheel keeps variations in speed within desired limits at all loads;
limits the increase or decrease in speed during sudden changes of load; aids in forcing
the piston through the compression event when an engine is running at low or idling
speed; and provides leverage or mechanical advantage for a starting motor.
Flywheels are generally made of cast iron, cast steel, or rolled steel. Strength of the
material from which the flywheel is made is of prime importance because of the
stresses created in the metal of the flywheel when the engine is operating at maximum
designed speed.
GEARS:
Idler Gears:
An idler gear is placed between two other gears to transfer
motion from one gear to the other without changing their direction. By varying the
number of teeth on the drive gear to the number on the driven gear a variation in speed
can be effected. For example the crank shaft may turn at 1500 Revs per minute (RPM)
but on a four cycle engine the cam shaft must
turn at half that speed i.e. 850 RPM. The number
of teeth on the crankshaft will be half the
number on the camshaft. This is really a very
simple example of a reduction gear system. A
more complex system would be the common
gearbox on a car. It just uses a combination of
gear ratios in order to maintain engine speed as
the load increases or decreases.
Most diesels are now turbocharged and some are both turbo
charged and supercharged. Because diesels do not have fuel in the cylinder before
combustion is initiated, more than one bar (100 kPa) of air can be loaded in the
cylinder without pre ignition. A turbocharged engine can produce significantly more
power than a naturally aspirated engine of the same configuration, as having more air
in the cylinders allows more fuel to be burned and thus more power to be produced. A
supercharger is powered mechanically by the engine's crankshaft, while a
turbocharger is powered by the engine exhaust, not requiring any mechanical power.
Turbocharging can improve the fuel economy of diesel engines by recovering waste
heat from the exhaust, increasing the excess air factor, and increasing the ratio of
engine output to friction losses.
A two-stroke engine does not have a discrete exhaust and intake stroke and thus is
incapable of self-aspiration. Therefore all two-stroke engines must be fitted with a
blower to charge the cylinders with air and assist in dispersing exhaust gases, a
process referred to as scavenging. In some cases, the engine may also be fitted with a
turbocharger, whose output is directed into the blower inlet. A few designs employ a
hybrid turbocharger for scavenging and charging the cylinders, which device is
mechanically driven at cranking and low speeds to act as a blower.
As turbocharged or supercharged engines produce more power for a given engine size
as compared to naturally aspirated engines, attention must be paid to the mechanical
design of components, lubrication, and cooling to handle the power. Pistons are
The diesel engine works approximately same as the petrol engine except that there
is no spark plug in it as it is a combustion ignition engine.
- Intake:
- Compression:
- Power:
- Exhaust:
Exhaust gases are pushed out of the cylinder by the upwards motion
of the piston following the ignition stroke. The exhaust gases are
passed into the exhaust manifold and channeled into the exhaust
pipe where they are released into the atmosphere. The exhaust
system may contain a smoke box to trap the larger soot particles, it
may also be fitted with a catalytic converter which removes some of
the harmful components from the exhaust gases. On newer cars
some of the exhaust gases are recycled back into the inlet system
(typically at the manifold or air filter), this is known as exhaust gas
re-circulation EGR.
The Diesel cycle is the thermodynamic cycle which approximates the pressure and
volume of the combustion chamber of the diesel engine, invented by Rudolph Diesel
in 1897. It is assumed to have constant pressure during the first part of the
"combustion" phase. This is an idealized mathematical model: real physical diesels do
have an increase in pressure during this period, but it is less pronounced than in the
Otto cycle. The idealized Otto cycle of a gasoline engine approximates constant
volume during that phase, generating more of a spike in a p-V diagram.
The Diesel engine is a heat engine: it converts heat into work. The isentropic
processes are impermeable to heat: heat flows into the loop through the left expanding
isobaric process and some of it flows back out through the right depressurizing
process, and the heat that remains does the work.
1. They burn less fuel than a petrol engine performing the same work, due to the
engine's higher temperature of combustion and greater expansion ratio.
Gasoline engines are typically 30% efficient while diesel engines can convert
over 45% of the fuel energy into mechanical energy.
3. The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of a petrol
engine due to the increased strength of parts used. Diesel fuel has better
lubrication properties than petrol as well.
6. For any given partial load the fuel efficiency (mass burned per energy
produced) of a diesel engine remains nearly constant, as opposed to petrol and
turbine engines which use proportionally more fuel with partial power outputs.
- De-Merits: