A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE WECHSLER-BELLEVUE

INTELLIGENCE SCALE, FORM I , IN A

MATRIX WITH REFERENCE VARIABLES

A D isse rta tio n

P re se n te d to
t h e F a c u l t y o f t h e D e p a rtm e n t o f P s y c h o lo g y
The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a

In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t
o f t h e R e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e D eg ree V£

D o c to r o f P h i l o s o p h y

by
P a u l C h a f in D a v is
June 1952
 UMI Number: DP30413

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JP.aul._Gha£in_Dayijs. ...................................
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on Studies, and approve d by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Council
on Graduate Study and Research, in partial f u l­
fillm ent of requirements fo r the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y

...........................
D ean

D a te,

C om m ittee on Studies
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I THE STUDY AND ITS PURPOSE.......................................... 1

A. I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................. 1
B* The p r o b l e m .............................................. 4
'C* P la n o f t h e r e p o r t .............................................. 6
II REVIEW OF THE L IT E R A T U R E ................................................ S

A. W e c h s l e r f s v ie w on i n t e l l i g e n c e .................. 10
B. F a c to r a n a ly se s of in t e l l i g e n c e . . . . . 14
1* A le x a n d e r s t u d y .......................... . 15
2* W rig h t s t u d y ....................................... 16
3* T h u r s t o n e s t u d y ................................................ IS

4* B u r t and John s t u d y ............................. 19

5* McNemar s t u d y ..................................................... 21
6 * J o n e s s t u d y .......................................................... 22
C. W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e r e s e a r c h ........................... 24
1. F a c to r a n a ly tic s tu d ie s .............................. 24
a. B a l i n s k y s t u d y ....................................... 25
b. G o ld f a r b s t u d y ....................................... 2S

c. S im k in s t u d y . .................................. 31
d. Cohen s t u d y ...................................... 32
e. ' B i r r e n s t u d y ........................................... 33
2. R e lia b ility stu d ie s ....................................... 35
a. R ab in s t u d y ................................................ 37
 iii

CHAPTER ' PAGE

b* H a m i s te r s t u d y .......................................* 37
c* G i l h o o l y s t u d y ...................................... 3$
d* Webb and DeHaan s t u d y * ................... 33
e. D e r n e r , A b o m , an d C a n t e r s t u d y • 3$
III STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES AND DESCRIPTION
OF TEST BATTERY................................. . ............................ 40
A. H y p o t h e s e s ................................................................... 41
1* C o m p l e x i t y .......................................................... 41
2. E x p e c te d f a c t o r s . 42
a. V e r b a l c o m p re h e n s io n . . . . . . 43
b. N u m e ric a l f a c i l i t y ............................ 44
c. V isu a liz a tio n . . . ........................... 46
d. P e r c e p t u a l sp e ed ................................. 47
e. R e a s o n i n g .................................................... 49
f. M e c h a n ic a l know ledge . . . . . . 51
g. Memory and s p a c e r e l a t i o n s . . . 52
3* O t h e r p e r t i n e n t h y p o t h e s e s .................... 53
a. R e c o g n i t i o n vs* r e c a l l ................... 53
~b. I n d i v i d u a l vs* g r o u p t e s t
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ...................................... 54
B. P re p a ra tio n of th e t e s t b a tte r y . . . . . 56
C. D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t e s t b a t t e r y ................... 57
 iv

CHAPTER ' PAGE

IV ADMINISTRATION AND SCORING .................................. 67

A* The s a m p l e .................................................................... 67
B. S e l e c t i o n o f W-B e x a m i n e e s .............................. 68
C. E x a m i n e r s ........................................................................ 71
D. Group a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ............................................ 72
E. S c o r i n g ............................................................................. 72

F. D i f f i c u l t y .................................................................... 73
G. N o r m a l i z a t i o n ............................................................... 75
V STATISTICAL ANALYSIS ........................ 77
A. C o m p u ta tio n o f i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s . . . . 77
B. R e l i a b i l i t i e s ............................................................... SO
C. H om ogeneity o f s u b g r o u p s ................................... $5
D. F a c t o r a n a l y s i s ............................................... 86
1. E x t r a c t i o n o f f a c t o r s ................................. 86
a. C r i t e r i a f o r ce asin g e x t r a c t i o n . 88
b. C o m m u n a l i t i e s ........................................... 90
2. R o ta tio n o f axes ............................. 90
VI INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . 96
A. In te rp re ta tio n of fa c to rs ................................... 98
1. F a c t o r A,v e r b a l c o m p re h e n s io n . . . 96
2. F a c t o r B, v i s u a l i z a t i o n ...................100
3* F a c t o r C,n u m e r i c a l f a c i l i t y . . . . 104
 V

CHAPTER ' PAGE

4* F a c t o r D, m e c h a n ic a l know ledge . . ♦ 109
5* F a c to r E, s i m i l a r i t i e s d o u b le t • • . 114
6* F a c t o r F , g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g .................... 114
7* F a c t o r G, f l u e n c y ...................................... ..... 11$
$. F a c t o r H, p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d ............ 124
9* F a c to r J , e d u c tio n o f c o n c e p tu a l
r e l a t i o n s .............................................................. 127
10. F a c t o r K, i n f o r m a t i o n .......................... 130
B. E v a l u a t i o n o f h y p o t h e s e s .......................... 135
1. F a c t o r s ................................................................... 13 5
2. C o m p l e x i t y .......................................................... 13$
3* R e c a l l v s . r e c o g n i t i o n ............................. 139
4* I n d i v i d u a l v s . g ro u p a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . 140
V II FACTORIAL CONTENT OF WECHSLER-BELLEVUE
S U B T E S T S ..................................................................................... 141
A. S u b te st fa c to r d e sc rip tio n s ............................... 143
1. In fo rm a tio n ....................................... 144
2. C o m p r e h e n s i o n ..................................................... 144
3* D i g i t S pan .................................. 145
4* A r i t h m e t i c ............................................... • . 146
5* S i m i l a r i t i e s ..................................................... 147
6 * V o c a b u l a r y .......................................................... 14#
 vi

CHAPTER ' PAGE

7- P i c t u r e A r r a n g e m e n t ...................................... 14$
$. P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n ..................................... 149
9* B lo c k D e sig n . .......................................... 150
10. O b je c t A s s e m b l y ............................................... 150
11. D i g i t S y m b o l .................................................... 151
B. D i s c u s s i o n o f s u b t e s t s ........................................ 152
1. F a c t o r c o v e r a g e ............................................... 152
a. N u m b e r ......................................................... 153
b. Word f l u e n c y ........................................... 153
c. Space .......................... 153

d. V e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s i o n ........................ 154
e. M e m o r y ......................................................... 155
f. I n d u c t i v e ..................................................... 155
g. P e r c e p t u a l ................................................ 156
V III SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.............................................. 159
A. The p r o b l e m .................................... 159
B. P la n o f s t u d y ............................................................... 160
C. The.in v e s tig a tio n ...................................................... 160
1. R eview o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e ....................... 160
2. H y p o t h e s e s ........................................................ 162
3* The t e s t b a t t e r y .......................................... 163
4* The s a m p l e ................................................ • . 163
 v ii

CHAPTER ' PAGE

5. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ........................................... ..... 163

6 * S c o r in g . . • ................................................. 164
D. T r e a tm e n t o f d a t a . ....................... . . . . . 164
1* C o m p u ta tio n o f i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s . . 164
2. P r o b le m s o f h o m o g e n e i t y ........................ . 165
3* E x t r a c t i o n o f f a c t o r s ................................. 165
4* R o t a t i o n o f a x e s ......................... ...................... 165
E. R e su lts .............................................................. 166
F. W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . . . . 16£
G. O u tcom es o f h y p o t h e s e s .......................................... 169
1. C o m p le x ity ..................................................... 169
2. R e c a l l vs* r e c o g n i t i o n ............................ 169
3« Group v s . in d iv id u a l a d m in is tr a tio n • 169
H. C o n c l u s i o n s .................................................... 170

1. P o s itiv e in fe r e n c e s ........................................... 170

2. S u g g e stio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . . 171
BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................... 1
 L IS T OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

I F a c t o r L o a d in g s o f W e c h s l e r - B e l l e v u e T e s t s a t
Ages 12 and 1 5 , a s R e p o r te d b y B a l i n s k y . . . 27
II R e l i a b i l i t y E s t i m a t e s o f t h e W e c h s le r -
B e l l e v u e T e s t s and S c a l e s .................................... 36
III I n f o r m a t i o n on T e s t B a t t e r y ................................. 5$
IV Raw S c o r e D i s t r i b u t i o n s and D a ta on Sex
D i f f e r e n c e s ............................................... 69
V I n t e r e o r r e l a t i o n M a t r i x .......................................... $1
VI C om p ariso n o f S u b sa m p le s f o r H om og eneity . . $7
V II C e n t r o i d F a c t o r L o a d in g s an d C o m m u n a litie s . 91
V III F i n a l R o t a te d F a c t o r L o a d in g s ................................... 94
IX- C o m m u n a litie s and E s t i m a t e d R e l i a b i l i t i e s
f o r W e c h s l e r - B e l l e v u e S u b t e s t s ......................... 142
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

A ckn o w led g m en t i s due t h o s e w h o se a s s i s t a n c e h a s

made t h i s research p o s s ib le . D r . L . G. Humphreys d i r e c t e d

and a s s i s t e d i n p l a n n i n g t h e p r o j e c t and i n t h e t e s t i n g .

S u b j e c t s f o r t e s t i n g w ere p r o v id e d th r o u g h c o o p e r a t io n o f

t h e S e a t t l e S c h o o l s , M r. L y l e S t e w a r t , A s s i s t a n t S u p e rin ­

t e n d e n t , Mr. W. E . D a n i e l , p r i n c i p a l o f H a m ilt o n J u n i o r

H ig h S c h o o l , and M is s D e l l a P a t c h o f t h e s c i e n c e d e p a r t ­

m ent o f H a m i l t o n . Dr. L o u is e H e a th e r s 1 c l a s s in i n d i v i d ­

u a l t e s t i n g a s s i s t e d i n t h e W-B t e s t i n g . D r . E . R.

G u t h r i e s e c u r e d U n i v e r s i t y o f W a s h in g to n r e s e a r c h fu n d s

t o c o v e r t h e c o s t o f a b o u t o n e - h a l f o f t h e W-B t e s t i n g .

D r. P a u l H o rst a s s i s t e d i n s e t t i n g up t h e p r e ­

lim in a r y s t a t i s t i c a l p ro ced u re. The f a c t o r a n a l y s i s h a s

b e e n done u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f D r . J# P . G u i l f o r d ,

c h a irm a n o f my c o m m i t t e e . H is p a t i e n t a s s i s t a n c e , gener­

o u s c o u n s e l , and e n c o u r a g e m e n t c a n n o t b e a d e q u a t e l y

a c k n o w le d g e d . O t h e r members o f t h e c o m m i t t e e , D r s .

G r i n g s , K l e i n , T h o r p e , V i n c e n t , a n d W arren , h a v e g i v e n

e n c o u r a g e m e n t and s u g g e s t i o n s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e

p r o j e c t and t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s d isse r ta tio n .

T h ro u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d when t h i s r e s e a r c h w as u n d e r

w a y , my w i f e , F a i t h , h a s made p o s s i b l e its c o n tin u a n c e by

 X

h e r l a b o r s and c o n s t a n t en c o u ra g e m e n t* To h e r b e l o n g s
much o f t h e c r e d i t t h a t t h e p r o j e c t h a s r e a c h e d com­
p le tio n .
 CHAPTER I

THE STUDY AND ITS PURPOSE

A. In tro d u c tio n

One o f t h e m ost i n t e r e s t i n g and a t t h e same t i m e

m ost b a f f l i n g p r o b le m s t h a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s h av e f a c e d d u r i n g
t h e c u r r e n t c e n t u r y h a s b e e n t h a t o f e v a l u a t i n g and d i f ­
f e r e n t i a t i n g human a b i l i t i e s . C o m p a r a ti v e ly l i t t l e was
done b e fo re th e tu r n of th e c e n tu ry in d i f f e r e n t i a l psy ­
c h o l o g y , and o f w hat was d o n e v e r y l i t t l e d e a l t w ith th e
h i g h e r l e v e l s o f human a b i l i t y .
H i s t o r i c a l l y , p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e c o n c e r n e d th em ­
s e l v e s w ith a b i l i t i e s i n t h e g e n e r i c s e n s e and i n g e n e r a l
h a v e b e e n c o n t e n t t o t r e a t su c h p ro b le m s i n s t r i c t l y
l o g i c a l m anner w i t h o u t t h e e m p e r i c a l o r e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i ­
d e n c e t h a t s c i e n c e deems i n d i s p e n s a b l e a s t h e b a s i s o f
v a lid in fe re n c e . I t i s not th e in te n tio n h ere to e n te r
i n t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c
m e th o d , b u t r a t h e r t o p o i n t o u t m e r e ly t h a t s c i e n t i f i c
a n a ly s is , as a b a s is o f d if f e r e n tia tin g in d iv id u a ls accord­
i n g t o a b i l i t y , i s a r e l a t i v e l y l a t e d e v e lo p m e n t.
I The p r e s e n t c e n t u r y , w i t h i t s a c c e l e r a t e d tem po o f
j s o c i a l , i n d u s t r i a l , and s c i e n t i f i c p r o g r e s s , h a s b r o u g h t
i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e f o r v a l i d , r e l i a b l e , and p r a c t i c a l
 2
means b y •which p r e d i c t i o n can b e made r e g a r d i n g t h e d i f ­
f e r e n t i a l perfo rm ances o f in d iv id u a ls * Many e a r l y
a t t e m p t s a l o n g t h i s l i n e w e re l i m i t e d t o p e r i p h e r a l
m e a s u r e s su c h a s r e a c t i o n t i m e , s im p le d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ,
an d i n d i c e s o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s ($ 9 )*
I t m ig h t b e n o t e d t h a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d t h e o ­
l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s to w a r d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e human o rg a n ism
p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n d e l a y i n g and r e t a r d i n g
p r o g r e s s i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f man’ s h i g h e s t c a p a c i t i e s *
The d u a l i s t i c v ie w t e n d e d t o h o l d a s s a c r e d and n o t s u b ­
j e c t t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e s o u l o r h i g h e r l e v e l o f man’ s
n a tu re . I g n o r a n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f m e n ta l
p r o c e s s e s s h r o u d e d t h e s e m a t t e r s i n m y s t e r y and t h e common
v ie w was t h a t i t was e i t h e r im p r o p e r o r i m p o s s i b l e ( o r
b o t h ) t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e h i g h e r l e v e l s o f human a b i l i t y *
D arw in and S p e n c e r made an i n e s t i m a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n
t o t h e ad v a n ce m en t o f p s y c h o lo g y b y d o in g much t o t e a r
away t h e s h r o u d o f m y s t e r y an d s u p e r s t i t i o n t h a t s u r r o u n d ­
ed t h e human mind* One d o e s n o t n e e d t o a c c e p t D a rw in ’ s
id e a s c o n c e rn in g th e o r i g i n o f t h e s p e c i e s , i n f a c t he
need n o t accep t th e th e o ry of e v o lu tio n a t a l l , t o ap p re­
c i a t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r e s e n t o b j e c t i v e a t t i t u d e to w a r d
t h e m easu rem en t and e v a l u a t i o n o f human a b i l i t y i s t r a c e ­

a b l e i n c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e t o t h e t h r u s t o f D a rw in ’ s
 3
r a p i e r a g a i n s t t h e i r o n c u r t a i n o f man’ s i g n o r a n c e c o n ­
c e rn in g h im se lf*
The f i r s t a t t e m p t s a t m e a s u r in g and e v a l u a t i n g
a b i l i t y , a s a r e s u l t o f t h e e m a n c ip a tio n j u s t r e f e r r e d t o ,
w ere i n t h e m ain a t t e m p t s t o make o v e r - a l l e s t i m a t e s o f
a b ility . An e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e t r a c e s t h e p r o g r e s s o f
t h e s e e f f o r t s , b e g in n in g w ith B in e t i n F ra n c e . H u n d red s
o f i n s t r u m e n t s known a s i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s h a v e b e e n
d e v e lo p e d s i n c e B i n e t 1s f i r s t s c a l e and h av e made a g r e a t
c o n t r ib u t io n to th e s o lu tio n of p r a c t i c a l s o c i a l , educa­
t i o n a l , an d i n d u s t r i a l p r o b l e m s . D u rin g r e c e n t y e a r s
t h e r e h a s b e e n a p a r a l l e l d e v e lo p m e n t i n v o l v i n g t h e mea­
surem ent o f f u n c t i o n a l l y u n i t a r y a b i l i t i e s o r a p t i t u d e s .
One a s p e c t o f t h i s h a s b e e n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f r e l a t i v e l y
pure f a c t o r t e s t s .
F a c to r a n a ly s ts , in c lu d in g th e p re s e n t in v e s tig a to r ,
b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s l a t t e r d e v e lo p m e n t i s t h e more f r u i t f u l
o f t h e tw o . I f one i s p r a c t i c a l , h o w e v e r, he m ust r e c o g ­
n i z e t h a t t h o u s a n d s o f p e r s o n s i n e d u c a t i o n , s o c i a l w o rk ,
and i n d u s t r y a r e u s i n g om nibus i n s t r u m e n t s w h e th e r t h e
p s y c h o lo g is t th in k s th e y a re th e b e s t in s tru m e n ts or n o t .
S i n c e we a r e f a c e d w ith an a c c o m p l is h e d f a c t , m ig h t i t n o t
b e w e l l t o c o n t r i b u t e to w a r d im p r o v in g t h e s i t u a t i o n b y
a n a l y z i n g t h e s e g e n e r a l m e a s u r e s i n t e r m s o f w hat we may
 4
f e e l t o b e more u s e f u l and p r e d i c t i v e i n s t r u m e n t s ?
E x p l i c i t l y , th e su g g e stio n i s : f a c t o r an a ly z e th e s e
i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t a r e u s e d b y t h o u s a n d s who know l i t t l e or
n o t h i n g a b o u t f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , and make a v a i l a b l e t o th e m
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t w i l l e n a b l e th em t o em ploy su c h i n s t r u ­
m e n ts i n a m ore e f f e c t i v e m a n n e r. T h e r e a r e many a s p e c t s
o f t h i s p r o b le m b u t t h i s i s t h e c e n t r a l i d e a . The p r e s e n t
p a p e r r e p o r t s r e s u l t s , t o d a t e , o f one su c h s t u d y . O th e r
s t u d i e s , su ch a s t h o s e o f t h e T h u r s t o n e s ( 7 4 , 7 5 ) h av e
done much t o b l a z e t h e t r a i l . The p r e s e n t s t u d y m e r e ly
e x t e n d s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f m e th o d s a l r e a d y a b l y w orked
o u t by o t h e r s .

B. The P ro b le m

I n t h i s fra m e o f r e f e r e n c e w i l l b e o u t l i n e d t h e
p ro b le m o f t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . D u rin g W orld War I I ,
t h e w r i t e r o b se rv e d t h a t t h e W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e I n t e l l i ­
g e n c e S c a l e was u s e d v e r y w id e l y f o r c l i n i c a l p u r p o s e s ,
b o t h i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f a b i l i t y and i n t h e d i a g n o s i s o f
p a th o lo g ic a l c o n d itio n s. In s p i t e of t h i s , th e r e appeared
to be v ery l i t t l e in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g th e i d e n t i t y of
f u n c t i o n s b e i n g m e a s u re d b y t h e v a r i o u s s u b t e s t s . I n v ie w
o f h i s f i r s t - h a n d k n o w led g e o f t h e f a c t o r a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h

em ployed i n t h e AAF A v i a t i o n P s y c h o lo g y p ro g ra m ( 3 9 ) , t h e
 5
w r i t e r 1 s f i r s t t h o u g h t was t o em ploy a s i m i l a r a p p r o a c h
i n th e s tu d y o f t h e W e ch sle r-B e lle v u e *
The e s s e n t i a l p ro b le m o f t h i s s t u d y was t o a s c e r t a i n
w hat t h e f a c t o r c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s u b t e s t s o f t h e
W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e S c a le i s • The a p p r o a c h t h a t a p p e a r e d
s o u n d e s t was t o d e t e r m i n e t h i s f a c t o r c o m p o s i t i o n i n a
s e t t i n g t h a t would a l l o w o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o
o t h e r known f a c t o r s . T h is w ould demand t h e p r e s e n c e i n t h e
a n a l y z e d b a t t e r y o f t e s t s o f known f a c t o r c o m p o s i t i o n ,
p r e f e r a b ly t e s t s a s pure a s p o s s i b l e . R eferen ce v a r i a b l e s ,
a s t h e s e t e s t s a r e c a l l e d , w ere n e e d e d f o r a s many a s
p o s s i b l e o f t h e e x p e c te d f a c t o r s . I n t h i s w ay, p r e s u m a b ly ,
t h e g r e a t e s t c e r t a i n t y w ould b e a c h i e v a b l e i n t h e i n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n o f f a c t o r s , an d h e n c e o f t h e f a c t o r c o n t e n t o f t h e
W e ch sler s u b t e s t s .
As s u g g e s t e d , t h e t e c h n i q u e o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s was
s e t t l e d on a s t h e p r o p e r t o o l f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h . No
a t t e m p t w i l l be made t o d i s c u s s f a c t o r m e th o d s a s s u c h .
I t i s m e r e ly p o i n t e d o u t t h a t T h u r s t o n e ’ s m ethod (7 9 ) was
se le c te d . The p ro b le m o f f a c t o r m e th o d s and t h e i r r e s p e c ­
t i v e m e r i t s h a s b e e n d e a l t w ith a b l y e l s e w h e r e and i s o u t ­
s i d e t h e sc o p e o f t h e p r e s e n t r e p o r t .
 6
C• P3-3** o f t h e R e p o r t

The p r e s e n t p a p e r c o n s t i t u t e s a r e p o r t o f t h e
re s e a r c h su g g e ste d in th e p re v io u s s e c ti o n . The p r e s e n t
c h a p t e r i s l a r g e l y i n t r o d u c t o r y and i n d i c a t e s t h e b a c k ­
g ro u n d o f t h o u g h t t h a t went i n t o t h e p l a n n i n g o f t h e
p ro je c t. C h a p te r I I i s a re v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e d i r e c t l y
p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e p r o b le m . W e c h s l e r ’ s v ie w s o f i n t e l l i ­
g e n c e an d h i s i d e a s c o n c e r n i n g t h e u s e o f t h e s c a l e a r e
c o n s id e re d . O th e r s t u d i e s t h a t h a v e d e a l t w ith t h e
p ro b le m o f t h e f a c t o r i a l a n a l y s i s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e o r
i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s a r e a ls o re v ie w e d . L a s t ly , p re v io u s
a n a ly s e s o f th e W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e a r e re v ie w e d . C h a p te r
I I I o u t l i n e s t h e h y p o t h e s e s o f f e r e d and t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f
t h e b a t t e r y an d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e v a r i a b l e s . T h is i s
f o l l o w e d by d i s c u s s i o n o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s c o r i n g and
d i f f i c u l t y i n C h a p t e r IV . C h a p t e r V d e a l s w ith t h e
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a ; i n c l u d i n g c o m p u ta t io n
o f r e l i a b i l i t i e s a n d i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s , and t h e f a c t o r
a n a ly s is of th e m a trix . The p ro b le m o f h o m o g e n e ity o f
s u b - s a m p le s i s a l s o t r e a t e d . C h a p t e r VI i s d e v o te d t o
in te r p r e t a ti o n o f th e f a c t o r s . The m a jo r o b j e c t i v e o f
t h e s tu d y i s r e a c h e d i n C h a p t e r V II i n w h ic h e a ch o f t h e
s u b t e s t s o f t h e W e c h s l e r - B e l l e v u e i s d i s c u s s e d fro m t h e
 7
sta n d p o in t of i t s f a c t o r i a l c o n te n t. C h a p te r V III
i n c l u d e s a b r i e f summary and c o n c l u s i o n s fro m t h e s t u d y .
A n o t e s h o u ld be a d d e d c o n c e r n i n g c e r t a i n a b b r e ­
v i a t i o n s t h a t seem t o b e d e s i r a b l e i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f
b re v ity . I n g e n e r a l , th e te rm , W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e I n t e l l i ­
g e n c e S c a l e f o r A d o l e s c e n t s and A d u l t s , Form I , w i l l b e
a b b r e v i a t e d t o e i t h e r W e c h s l e r - B e l l e v u e o r W-B. F req u en t
r e f e r e n c e i s made t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s Army A i r F o r c e s
A v i a t i o n P s y c h o lo g y p ro g ra m o f World War I I . T h is t e r m
i s a b b r e v i a t e d t o Aimy A ir F o r c e s o r AAF.

T
 CHAPTER I I

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

A r e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e , made i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
an e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d y o f th e s o r t b e in g r e p o r te d h e r e ,
s h o u l d i n c l u d e b a s i c o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l an d
p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e p ro b le m i n h a n d . The t h e o r e t i c a l
a s p e c t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r more t h a n one r e a s o n . In th e
f i r s t p l a c e , a l l s c i e n c e r e s t s t o a l a r g e e x t e n t on t h e
f o u n d a t i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n l a i d by p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h . The
w o u ld -b e s c i e n t i s t i s e i t h e r p re s u m p tu o u s o r a g e n i u s who
a t te m p ts to engage i n e x p e rim e n ta l i n v e s t i g a t i o n w ith o u t
f i r s t f a m i l i a r i z i n g h i m s e l f w i t h w hat h a s a l r e a d y b e e n
done i n t h e f i e l d . Even t h e g e n i u s i s l i k e l y t o d i s s i p a t e
much o f h i s e n e r g y i n u s e l e s s r e p e t i t i o n an d i n w o rk in g
h i s way o u t o f s c i e n t i f i c c u l - d e - s a c s u n l e s s h e h a s g i v e n
a t t e n t i o n to th e f in d in g s of h is p re d e c e s s o rs .
In th e second p la c e , s c ie n c e r e s t s i n a v e ry r e a l
s e n s e on t h e r a t i o n a l b a s e s t h a t h a v e b e e n f o r m u l a t e d
s l o w l y a n d so m e tim es b l i n d l y by t h o s e p h i l o s o p h e r s o f t h e
p a s t who o f t e n e n g a g e d i n n o t a s i n g l e s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r i ­
m e n t. Modern s c i e n c e a t t e m p t s , w i t h some suc-cess p o s ­
s i b l y , t o com bine p h i l o s o p h y a n d s c i e n c e an d t o p r o d u c e
s c h o l a r s who a r e a t o nce s k i l l e d i n t e c h n i q u e s o f i n v e s t i ­
g a t i o n an d s o p h i s t i c a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e means by
 9
w h ic h t e c h n i c a l p r o g r e s s i s g u id e d and k e p t i n l i n e w i t h
ra tio n a l c r ite r ia . R easo n and t h e o r y d e v e lo p e d b y sound
r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s m ust a lw a y s b e t h e l e a d e r s i n s c i e n ­
tific advance.
The e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e i s s e p a r a t e d i n t o
th re e se c tio n s . In th e f i r s t s e c tio n W e c h sle r’ s concept
o f i n t e l l i g e n c e an d some o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e
, p ro b le m a r e d i s c u s s e d . R a p a p o r t (6 0 ) s a y s t h a t t h e
p r o b le m o f w hat i n t e l l i g e n c e i s h a s i n s p i r e d m ore w a s te
o f p a p e r t h a n an y o t h e r p r o b le m i n p s y c h o l o g y . Such a
d i s c u s s i o n i s u n n e c e s s a r y h e r e , so t h e w r i t e r w i l l r e f r a i n
fro m w a s t i n g more p a p e r an d w i l l m e r e ly c i t e s e v e r a l d i s ­
c u s s i o n s o f t h e s u b j e c t b y c o m p e te n t a u t h o r i t i e s . T h ese
i n c l u d e B i n e t ( 4 ) , B u r t ( 3 ) , C h e in ( 1 4 ) , G a r r e t t ( 2 5 ) ,
G oddard ( 3 1 ) , Goodenough ( 3 3 ) , K e l l e y ( 4 8 ) , L o e v i n g e r
( 4 9 ) , Murphy ( 5 5 ) , P e t e r s o n ( 5 6 ) , Spearm an ( 6 5 , 6 6 ) ,
S t o d d a r d ( 6 9 ) , T h u r s t o n e ( 7 8 ) , a n d W e c h s le r ( 8 3 ) , t o name
b u t a few . I n t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n a r e r e v ie w e d some f i n d ­
i n g s t h a t b e a r on t h e p ro b le m o f i d e n t i f y i n g f a c t o r s o f
in te llig e n c e . T h is i n c l u d e s m a in ly f a c t o r f i n d i n g s t h a t
can be in te g r a te d w ith r e s u l t s of th e p re s e n t s tu d y . The
f i n a l s e c t i o n i s more s p e c i f i c , i n c l u d i n g t h e f a c t o r i a l
an d r e l i a b i l i t y f i n d i n g s b a s e d on t h e W e c h s l e r - B e l l e v u e
S c a le i t s e l f .
 \

10
A. W e c h s l e r ’ s View on I n t e l l i g e n c e

I n a s t u d y su ch a s t h i s , i n w hich an i n s t r u m e n t
d e v e l o p e d by a n a u t h o r f o r a c e r t a i n p u r p o s e i s a n a l y z e d ,
it i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e v ie w s o f t h e a u t h o r b e g iv e n
c o n s id e ra tio n in in te r p r e t in g th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d . In
l i n e w ith t h i s p r i n c i p l e , ¥ e c h s l e r f s p o s i t i o n w i l l be
re v ie w e d a s i t i s s e t f o r t h i n h i s w r i t i n g s . H is t e x t ,
” The M easu rem en t o f A d u lt I n t e l l i g e n c e ” ( £3) i s t h e
p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n on h i s v i e w s . O th e r
s o u rc e s w i l l be c i t e d a s th e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o .
I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , W e c h s le r d e f i n e s i n t e l l i g e n c e
i n th e s e te rm s : ”I n t e l l i g e n c e i s th e a g g re g a te or g lo b a l
c a p a c ity of th e in d iv id u a l to a c t p u r p o s e fu lly , to th in k
r a t i o n a l l y and t o d e a l e f f e c t i v e l y w ith h i s e n v i r o n m e n t . ”
( S 3 , p . 3) He g o e s on t o e x p l a i n t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e i s
g l o b a l by re a s o n of i t s c h a ra c te ristic o f w h o l e n e s s , and
t h a t i t i s a g g re g a te by re a s o n of th e f a c t t h a t i t i s com­
posed o f p a r t s . T h i s seem s t o im p ly t h e t y p i c a l G e s t a l t
p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e w h o le i s more t h a n t h e sum o f i t s p a r t s .
W hile a g r e e i n g t h a t a b i l i t y , a s f o r exam ple mea­
s u r e d b y S p e a rm a n ’ s g ( 6 7 ) , i s an i m p o r t a n t e le m e n t i n
i n t e l l i g e n c e , W e c h s le r h o l d s t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e i s m ore
t h a n m ere i n t e l l e c t i v e a b i l i t y . H ere he r e f e r s t o
i
 11
c o n a t i v e a s p e c t s t h a t a r e a p p a r e n t l y , i n h i s v ie w , q u i t e
in d e p e n d e n t o f c a p a c ity in th e i n t e l l e c t i v e se n se
(S6 , p* 7 &) • T h e se a s p e c t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a r e m o t i v a ­
t i o n a l and h a v e t o do w i t h ’ s e t t i n g o f f 1 t h e i n t e l l e c t i v e
c a p a c iti e s of th e in d iv i d u a l. In th is c o n n e c tio n ,
W e c h s le r p o i n t s t o t h e ”W!t f a c t o r o f Webb an d t h e ’’P” o r
p e r s e v e r e n c e f a c t o r o f L a n k e s , and J o n e s , a s d e m o n s t r a t i n g
t h e k in d o f i n t e g r a l u n ity t h a t h e c o n c e i v e s e x i s t s b e tw e e n
p e r s o n a l i t y o r te m p e ra m e n t and i n t e l l e c t i n t h e dom ain
t h a t h e d e n o m in a t e s i n t e l l i g e n c e .
In h is p r e s i d e n t i a l a d d re ss b e fo re th e D iv isio n of
C l i n i c a l a n d Abnormal P s y c h o lo g y o f t h e A m erican P sy c h o ­
l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n i n 1 9 4 9 , (&6 ) W e c h s l e r f u r t h e r s u p ­
p o r te d h i s c o n te n tio n t h a t t e s t s c o r e s , in c lu d in g m easures
o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , have c o n s id e ra b le p ro p o rtio n s o f v a r ia n c e
i n c o n a t i v e and n o n - i n t e l l e c t i v e v a r i a b l e s . F o r one
t h i n g , he p o i n t s o u t t h a t a s t e s t s a r e a d d e d t o a b a t t e r y ,
t h e p r o p o r tio n o f v a r ia n c e ac c o u n te d f o r by th e f a c t o r s
te n d s to d e c re a s e . T h is h e b e l i e v e s i s e v i d e n c e t h a t
o th e r f a c t o r s a r e p re s e n t in th e b a t t e r y , r e p r e s e n tin g to o
g r e a t s p e c i f i c i t y f o r them t o em erge i n t h e a n a l y s i s .
T h is h e s e e s a s t h e p ro b le m e s s e n t i a l l y , o f l a c k o f
re fe re n c e v a r ia b le s to a c t as c a ta l y s ts f o r t h i s v a ria n c e
i n p e r s o n a l i t y o r te m p e ra m e n t q u a l i t i e s .
 12
W e c h s le r * s e a r l i e r s t a t e m e n t s a l o n g t h i s l i n e
( $ 1 , $2 ) made i t a p p e a r , t o t h e w r i t e r a t l e a s t , t h a t he
b e l i e v e d t h a t v a r i a n c e c o u ld a c t u a l l y b e p r e s e n t i n t e s t
s c o r e s w i t h o u t b e h a v i n g i n a n y l a w f u l m an n er t h a t w ould
a llo w i t to be i d e n t i f i e d * H is i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e
v a r i a n c e u n a c c o u n te d f o r by t h e f a c t o r s ( t e c h n i c a l l y ,
u n i q u e n e s s ) c o n s i s t s l a r g e l y o f te m p e ra m e n t o r p e r s o n a l i t y
v a r i a n c e , seem s t o b e i n t h i s c l a s s . ^ More r e c e n t
w r i t i n g s , h o w e v e r, h e l p t o some e x t e n t t o c l e a r up t h e
m a t t e r , a l t h o u g h he d o e s n o t e x p l a i n why t h e i n c l u s i o n o f
s e v e r a l t e s t s d e p e n d e n t p r e s u m a b ly on n o n - i n t e l l e c t i v e
f a c t o r s ( s u c h a s h i s own p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t , f o r ex am p le)
d o e s n o t l e a d im m e d i a t e l y t o t h e em erg en ce o f n o n -

1 I t a p p e a rs to th e w r i t e r t h a t i f t e s t s c o re s r e ­
f l e c t te m p e ra m e n t q u a l i t i e s t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t W e c h s le r
b e l i e v e s , t h e r e m u st n e c e s s a r i l y b e some o r d e r i n su ch
e f f e c t s . T h is o r d e r w i l l b e r e f l e c t e d i n e i t h e r common o r
u n iq u e v a r i a n c e . I f t h e v a r i a n c e i s common, i t a p p e a r s
t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n , o f s e v e r a l o r many t e s t s on w hich t h e s e
te m p e ra m e n t q u a l i t i e s p r e s u m a b ly come t o b e a r , s h o u ld r e ­
s u l t i n t h e e m e rg en ce o f s t a t i s t i c a l e n t i t i e s ( f a c t o r s )
t h a t can b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n te rm s o f te m p e ra m e n t r a t h e r
t h a n i n t e l l e c t . A few such c a s e s a r e c i t e d b y W e c h s le r
b u t e v i d e n c e a p p e a r s i n c o n c l u s i v e . I f , on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
t h e v a r i a n c e i s s p e c i f i c , a s W e c h s le r d o e s n o t s a y b u t h i s
a rg u m e n t i m p l i e s , we a r e t h e n th ro w n b a c k upon i d e o g r a p h i c
( p e r s o n a l i s t i c ) i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h is w ould im p ly t h a t
e a c h t r a i t o f te m p e ra m e n t h a s a u n iq u e i n f l u e n c e on e a c h
t e s t ( o r ev e n t e s t i t e m ) , u n r e l a t e d t o i t s i n f l u e n c e on
o th e r t e s t s or ite m s. I t i s q u i t e im p ro b ab le t h a t
W e c h s le r i n t e n d s t h i s i m p l i c a t i o n . The q u e s t i o n may b e
 13
i n t e l l e c t i v e f a c t o r s ( e i t h e r g e n e r a l o r common) i n
a n a ly se s. I f h i s a s s u m p tio n s a r e c o r r e c t , t h e em erg en ce
o f su ch f a c t o r s s h o u ld l e a d t o a r a t h e r a b r u p t i n c r e a s e
i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e a c c o u n te d f o r b y t h e
fa c to rs.
The p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n i m p l i e s s t r o n g l y t h a t W e c h s le r
d oes n o t co n c e iv e of i n t e l l i g e n c e a s u n i t a r y . T h is p o s i ­
t i o n i s made e x p l i c i t i n t h e m anual f o r t h e W e c h s le r
I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a l e f o r C h i l d r e n (&5, P* 5 ) * He d o e s h o ld
t o t h e p o s i t i o n , h o w e v e r, t h a t i n t e l l e c t i v e a b i l i t y o r
f a c e t s o f i t may b e u n i t a r y , a l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t a s s e r t
t h a t th e y a r e .
I n h i s e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s ( S i , S 2, S3 ) W e c h s le r made
r e f e r e n c e t o f a c t o r s t u d i e s su c h a s A l e x a n d e r 1s ( 1 ) ,
B a l i n s k y ’ s ( 3 ) , an d Webb1s . At t h e same t i m e , he d o e s n o t
e x p re s s h im s e lf re g a rd in g th e adequacy or a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f
f a c t o r a n a ly s is to t h e stu d y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . I n h i s 1949
a r t i c l e , h o w e v e r, h e s t a t e s h i s p o s i t i o n c l e a r l y i n t h e s e
w o rd s :
What i s n e e d e d i s t h a t t h e s e f a c t o r s ( n o n -
i n t e l l e c t i v e ) be r i g o r o u s l y a p p r a i s e d . F a c to r
a n a l y s i s h a s - b e e n e m p h a s iz e d b e c a u s e , a t p r e s e n t ,

1 ( C o n tin u e d )
r a i s e d , w h e th e r a n y t h i n g may b e s a i d t o b e ’m easured *
u n l e s s some i n d e x r e f l e c t s a s y s t e m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p
t o th e th in g m easured.
 14
i t i s t h e o n l y m eth od w hich e n a b l e s u s t o
d e m o n s t r a t e an d d i s c o v e r i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s *
We a l r e a d y h a v e some c l u e s a s t o w hat t h e n o n -
i n te lle c ti v e bu t re le v e n t f a c to rs of in te llig e n c e
may be* What we now n e e d a r e t e s t s w h ic h n o t o n l y
i d e n t i f y b u t m e a s u re them* (£ 6 , p* #3 )
I n summary, t h e n , W e c h s le r s e e s i n t e l l i g e n c e a s
w h o le i n a dynam ic s e n s e b u t a l s o s e e s i t a s d i v i s i b l e *
He h o l d s t h a t g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e i s more t h a n i n t e l ­
l e c t i v e c a p a c i t y , i n c l u d i n g a l s o n o n - i n t e l l e c t i v e an d
c o n a tiv e f a c t o r s . He b e l i e v e s t h a t m e a s u r e s o f i n t e l l i ­
g e n c e , i f t h e y can b e r e s t r i c t e d t o i n t e l l e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s ,
a r e so r e s t r i c t e d o n l y w i t h s e r i o u s l o s s t o t h e i r p r e ­
d ic tiv e e ffic ie n c y . He s e e s f a c t o r a n a l y s i s a s an
im p o rta n t t o o l i n th e stu d y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , b u t c a l l s
f o r t e s t s t h a t w i l l be m easures o f n o n - i n t e l l e c t i v e f a c ­
t o r s a n d t h u s b r i n g o u t su c h v a r i a n c e a s common i n
a n a ly se s of in te llig e n c e . He h a s n o t made an y a t t e m p t t o
c o n s t r u c t h i s own t e s t s a l o n g p u r e f a c t o r l i n e s a l t h o u g h
h e a p p e a r s t o c a l l f o r p u r e f a c t o r t e s t s i n h i s 1949
a rtic le •

B. F a c t o r A n a ly s e s o f I n t e l l i g e n c e

E xcept f o r th e e x c u rs io n of th e p re v io u s s e c tio n
in to W e ch sler’ s co n cep t of i n t e l l i g e n c e , th e i n t e n t i o n i s
t o c o n fin e c o n s id e ra tio n h e re p r in c ip a lly to th e fin d in g s
of fa c to r a n a ly sis . T h i s a p p e a r s t o be a r e a s o n a b l e
r e s t r i c t i o n , s i n c e o t h e r t y p e s o f a n a l y s i s do n o t y i e l d
i n v a r i a n t r e s u l t s o r r e s u l t s t h a t a r e c o m p a r a b le t o t h o s e
of f a c to r a n a ly sis . I t i s u n f o r t u n a t e a l s o , a s McNemar
( 51) has p o in te d out r e c e n tly , t h a t f a c to r f in d in g s a re
f r e q u e n t l y n o t c o m p a r a b le . T h is i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f
r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d b y t h e d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r a n a l y t i c m e th o d s .
Even w i t h t h e same m ethod an d t h e same t e s t s , i n v a r i a n t
r e s u l t s a r e n o t o b t a i n e d a l t h o u g h t h e r e s u l t s o f AAF
r e s e a r c h l e a d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t w ith s i m i l a r p o p u l a ­
t i o n s an d l a r g e N’ s r e s u l t s t e n d t o s t a b i l i z e (39)•
Goodman’ s e x p e r i e n c e i n a p p l y i n g t h e T h u r s to n e P rim a r y
M e n ta l A b i l i t i e s b a t t e r y t o e n g i n e e r i n g fre s h m e n i s an
e x a m p le o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t e n e n c o u n te r e d * He f o u n d
( 3 4 , 3 5 ) t h a t one o f t h e f a c t o r s h e o b t a i n e d h a d s i g n i f i ­
c a n t lo a d in g s i n f i v e o f th e sev en p rim a ry a b i l i t i e s a s
d e f in e d by t h e t e s t s . T h e r e a r e p ro b le m s o f p o p u l a t i o n
d i f f e r e n c e s , r o t a t i o n o f a x e s , an d t h e l i k e t h a t b e a r on
t h e s u b j e c t , b u t t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n i s g i v e n t o p o i n t up
t h e p ro b le m s t h a t e x i s t i n c o m p a rin g f a c t o r i a l r e s u l t s .

A le x a n d e r s t u d y . A le x a n d e r ( 1 ) r e p o r t e d an
e a r l y f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i n w hich t h e r e was an a t t e m p t made
t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e c o n c r e t e and a b s t r a c t i n t e l l i g e n c e . H is
b a t t e r y d id not c o n s is t of sta n d a rd i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s ,
b u t in c lu d e d v e r b a l , n u m e ric a l, p r a c t i c a l , t e c h n i c a l , and
sh o p t e s t s , and a m e a s u re o f g . He o b t a i n e d f i v e f a c t o r s
t h a t he i d e n t i f i e d a s f o l l o w s : 1 . g , 2 . v e r b a l , 3 .
p r a c t i c a l a b i l i t y - n o t v e r b a l , im p o rta n t i n perfo rm an ce
te s ts . F o u r and f i v e he c a l l e d c h a r a c t e r f a c t o r s , t h e
f o r m e r he b e l i e v e d r e l a t e d t o i n t e r e s t and te m p e r a m e n t.
The l a t t e r he fo u n d r e l a t e d t o s h o p , m a t h e m a t i c s , n u m b e rs ,
a n d E n g l i s h b u t he c o u l d n o t i n t e r p r e t i t f u r t h e r . P aren­
th e tic a lly , th is f i n d i n g i s o f i n t e r e s t in asm u ch a s i t i s
i n e s s e n t i a l a g r e e m e n t w i t h T h u r s t o n e ( 7 5 ) , C a t t e l l (1 3 )
a n d o t h e r s i n t h e f i n d i n g t h a t a b i l i t y and te m p e ra m e n t
f a c t o r s may a r i s e o u t o f a b a t t e r y d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u re
a b i l i t y o r o u t o f one d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u re p e r s o n a l i t y .
From t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h ,
A le x a n d e r * s r e s u l t s a r e o f l i m i t e d i n t e r e s t . T h is i l l u s ­
t r a t e s t h e p o i n t made by B u r t and Jo h n (1 0 ) and r e c e n t l y
by G u i l f o r d ( 3 $ ) , h o w e v e r, t h a t f a c t o r s may y i e l d t o
fu rth e r fra c tio n a tio n . T h is h a s c e r t a i n l y o c c u r r e d i n t h e
case of th e v e rb a l f a c t o r ( 23, 7 4 ) , re a s o n in g (3 6 , 3 9 ) ,
and t h e s p a t i a l f a c t o r ( 3 9 , 7 0 , 9 2 ) .
*

W rig h t s t u d y . A n o th e r e a r l y f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f
i n t e l l i g e n c e i^as done b y R u th W rig h t an d r e p o r t e d i n
 17
1939 (9 0 )* She f a c t o r a n a l y z e d t h e o r i g i n a l (1916)
S t a n f o r d - B i n e t S c a l e and was a b l e t o i n t e r p r e t f o u r o f
th e re s u ltin g fa c to rs* H er sam p le was somewhat y o u n g e r
(10 y e a r s o l d ) , b u t t h e c l o s e n e s s o f t h e a g e l e v e l t o t h a t
o f s u b je c ts in th e p re s e n t stu d y adds to p re s e n t i n t e r e s t
in th e r e s u l t s . She fo u n d t h a t a f a c t o r s h e i n t e r p r e t e d
a s n u m e r i c a l h a d l o a d i n g s on t e s t s su c h a s r e p e a t i n g
d i g i t s , m aking c h a n g e , c o u n t i n g b a c k w a r d s , and t h e l i k e .
A s p a t i a l f a c t o r y i e l d e d l o a d i n g s i n d r a w in g fro m memory,
c o p y in g a d ia m o n d , p a p e r c u t t i n g , and t h e b a l l and f i e l d
te s t. H er v e r b a l f a c t o r h ad l o a d i n g s on v o c a b u l a r y ,
v e r b a l a b s u r d i t i e s , a b s t r a c t w o r d s , and s i m i l a r v e r b a l
m a te ria l. A f a c t o r s h e c a l l e d in d u c tio n had lo a d in g s in
f i n d i n g l i k e n e s s e s , v e r b a l a b s u r d i t i e s , and i n t e r p r e t a ­
tio n s of p ic tu re s. I n o n l y a few i n s t a n c e s d i d l o a d i n g s
a p p e a r on t h e s e f a c t o r s t h a t c o u l d n o t b e r a t i o n a l i z e d
q u i t e e a s i l y w ith th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e f a c t o r . One
i n t e r e s t i n g f in d in g o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s t h a t one f a c t o r
h a d h ig h l o a d i n g s on a l l t e s t s . W rig h t c a l l e d t h i s f a c t o r
m a tu ra tio n . She p o i n t s o u t t h a t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f i n d s
some s u p p o r t i n t h e f a c t t h a t T h u r s t o n e fo u n d no su c h
f a c to r in h ig h school s tu d e n ts . The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t an y
g e n e r a l f a c t o r d e c r e a s e s i n im p o r t a n c e w i t h i n c r e a s e in

m a t u r i t y i s s u p p o r t e d b y G a r r e t t (25), C l a r k ( 1 5 ) ,
 13
G a r r e t t , Brjyan, an d P e r l ( 2 6 ) , R e ic h a r d ( 6 1 ) , W i t t e n b o m
( 3 7 ) , T h u r s t o n e ( 7 5 ) , S l a t e r ( 6 4 ) , M e llo n e ( 5 2 ) , Hsu ( 4 6 ) ,
an d i n f e r r e n t i a l l y a t l e a s t b y K e l l e y ( 4 6 ) , an d R a p a p o r t
(6 0 ) • T h i s p o s i t i o n h a s b e e n c h a l l e n g e d , h o w e v e r, b y
Hagen ( 4 4 ) , and S w i n e f o r d ( 7 1 )*

3* T h u r s to n e s t u d y . P r o b a b l y t h e m ost a m b i t i o u s
p r o j e c t e v e r a t t e m p t e d i n t h i s a r e a was r e p o r t e d b y t h e
T h u r s t o n e s (7 5 ) i n 1 9 4 1 , u n d e r t h e t i t l e , " F a c to ria l
S tu d ie s in I n t e l l i g e n c e ." The a p p r o a c h o f t h i s s t u d y was
somewhat d i f f e r e n t fro m m ost o t h e r s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s s e c ­
t i o n , i n t h a t t h e t e s t s u s e d d i d n o t c o n s t i t u t e an i n t e l l i
gence s c a l e . The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s t u d y can h a r d l y b e
o v e r e s t i m a t e d , h o w e v e r, and e s p e c i a l l y so i n t h e p r e s e n t
c o n n e c t i o n s i n c e t h e p o p u l a t i o n em ployed was hom ogeneous
e d u c a t i o n a l l y and a t t h e same g r a d e l e v e l a s t h e p o p u l a ­
tio n in th e p re se n t stu d y .
T h u r s t o n e h a d p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d h i s monograph
on p r im a r y m e n ta l a b i l i t i e s (7 4 ) and t h e s t u d y i n i n t e l l i ­
gence c o n s titu t e d a fo llo w -u p . On t h e b a s i s o f f a c t o r
f i n d i n g s o f t h e f i r s t s t u d y , 60 t e s t s w e re s e l e c t e d a s t h e
b a tte ry . Some o f t h e s e h a d b e e n c h a n g e d t o a d j u s t f o r a g e
! a n d d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l and some h a d b e e n r e v i s e d i n an
a t t e m p t t o p u r i f y them f a c t o r i a l l y . The t e s t s w ere
 19
a d m i n i s t e r e d t o more t h a n a th o u s a n d s t u d e n t s i n g r a d e £B.
C h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e , m e n ta l a g e , a n d s e x w ere a l s o i n c l u d e d
i n th e c o r r e l a t i o n m a tr i x .
In o rd e r to a v o id un n ecessary d e t a i l a t t h i s
p o i n t , t h e r e p o r t w i l l b e c o n f i n e d t o n am ing o f t h e
fa c to rs* S i x w ere i n t e r p r e t e d w ith c o n f i d e n c e : n u m b er,
w ord f l u e n c y , s p a c e , v e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s io n , memory, and
in d u c tio n * A p e r c e p t u a l f a c t o r was i d e n t i f i e d b u t t h e
e x a c t d e f i n i t i o n o f i t d i d n o t seem , t o th e m , p o s s i b l e a t
t h e tim e * , E x a m in a tio n o f t h e t e s t s h a v in g l o a d i n g s l e a d s
one t o c o n c lu d e t h a t t h i s i s none o t h e r t h a n t h e p e r c e p ­
t u a l s p e e d f a c t o r , l i s t e d b y F re n c h (22 ) a s h a v i n g a p p e a r e d
d e f i n i t e l y o r p r o b a b l y i n 34 o f t h e a n a l y s e s t h a t he
re v ie w s •

4* B u r t and Jo h n s t u d y * B u r t and J o h n ( 9 , 10)

r e p o r t e d i n 1942 two f a c t o r a n a l y s e s o f t h e 1937 R e v i s i o n
o f t h e S ta n f o r d - B i n e t • T h e se h a v e some i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e
t h e a g e r a n g e i n c l u d e d i n t h e s t u d y was s i m i l a r ( s l i g h t l y
y o u n g e r , r a n g i n g fro m 10 t o 14 l / 2 ) t o t h a t i n t h e p r e s e n t
s t u d y , and b e c a u s e c e r t a i n t e s t s a t t h e X, X I, and X I I
y e a r l e v e l s o f th e S ta n f o rd -B in e t (th e l e v e l s u se d i n th e
stu d y ) b e a r c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p to t e s t s a p p e a rin g i n th e
presen t b a tte r y . The p u r p o s e o f t h e a u t h o r s w as t o
 20
com pare t h e f a c t o r f i n d i n g s b y t h e b i - p o l a r m ethod a n d by
t h e g ro u p f a c t o r m ethod* The b i - p o l a r m eth o d y i e l d e d a
g e n e r a l f a c t o r , of c o u r s e , t h a t a c c o u n te d f o r a p p r o x i­
m a t e l y 45 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a r i a n c e * T h re e o t h e r f a c t o r s
w e re e x t r a c t e d * One was c a l l e d b i - p o l a r m a t u r i t y and t h e
r e m a i n i n g two w ere even m ore c o m p le x , on e c o v e r i n g v e r b a l ,
n u m e r i c a l , a n d s p a t i a l t a s k s , and t h e o t h e r memory,
v o c a b u l a r y , and c o m p re h e n s io n * O b v io u s ly t h i s a n a l y s i s
d id l i t t l e to d i f f e r e n t i a t e th e c o n te n ts o f th e ta s k s
p sy c h o lo g ic a lly *
The se c o n d a n a l y s i s i s o f more i n t e r e s t . By t h e
g r o u p m e th o d , p r e s u m a b ly B u r t ’ s , t h e y e x t r a c t e d e i g h t
f a c t o r s fro m t h e same d a t a * The g e n e r a l f a c t o r , w h ich
th e y c a l l b a s ic i n t e l l i g e n c e , a c co u n te d f o r l e s s o f th e
v a ria n c e th a n b efo re* O th e r f a c t o r s , th e y c a l l e d , ag e ,
v e r b a l , v o c a b u l a r y , c o m p r e h e n s io n , n u m e r i c a l , s p a t i a l ,
an d memory f a c t o r s * I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t th e s e n in e
f a c t o r s w ere o b t a i n e d fro m o n l y t w e l v e t e s t s , a c o n d i t i o n
t h a t c o u l d n o t o c c u r by T h u r s t o n e ’ s (79) m ethod* The
d e t e r m i n a t i o n an d i n v a r i a n c e o f such r e s u l t s may c e r t a i n l y
! be q u e stio n e d . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s a m a jo r h a n d i c a p o f
t h e m ethod*
 21
5# McNemar s t u d y * A t t e n t i o n s h o u ld p r o b a b l y b e
d i r e c t e d a l s o t o t h e f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e R e v is e d
S t a n f o r d - B i n e t r e p o r t e d b y McNemar (5 0 ) i n 1942* He
a n a ly z e d c o r r e l a t i o n s o f s c o r e s a t fo u r te e n d i f f e r e n t
a g e l e v e l s , fro m a g e 2 t o a g e 1 $ . A fte r th e e x tra c tio n
o f one f a c t o r , he found t h a t T h u rs to n e ’ s o r i g i n a l c r i ­
t e r i o n was s a t i s f i e d n a m e ly , t h e r e s i d u a l v a r i a n c e was
e q u a l t o o r l e s s th a n t h e s a m p l i n g v a r i a n c e o f t h e o r i g ­
in a l in te re o rre la tio n s • He e x t r a c t e d two o t h e r f a c t o r s
b u t made a l m o s t no a t t e m p t t o i n t e r p r e t th e m . A lth o u g h
h e s a y s n o t h i n g a b o u t r o t a t i n g , t h e l a r g e number o f
n e g a t i v e l o a d i n g s o f m a g n itu d e c o m p a ra b le t o t h e p o s i t i v e
lo a d in g s su g g est t h a t th e f a c to r s a r e u n r o ta te d . McNemar
i n t e r p r e t s t h e f i r s t f a c t o r a s a g e n e r a l f a c t o r and b e ­
l i e v e s t h a t t h i s f a c t o r i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a t a l l
l e v e l s s t u d i e d , a l t h o u g h some s l i g h t s h i f t a p p e a r s t o t a k e
p la c e . T h is a n a l y s i s c o n t r i b u t e s a l m o s t n o t h i n g a s f a r a s
th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of f a c to r s i s concerned. I t i s im­
p o r t a n t p r i n c i p a l l y b e c a u s e t h e same i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s
w e re u s e d b y J o n e s (4 7 ) i n h i s r e c e n t a n a l y s i s . T h is i s
a goo d d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s p u t on t h e u s e ­
f u l n e s s o f d a t a by i n c o m p l e t e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s .
 22
6* Jones s tu d y . In 1949, Jones re p o rte d a r e ­
a n a l y s i s o f M cN em ar^ i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e S t a n f o r d -
B in e t, a t fo u r age l e v e l s . H is a n a l y s i s (4 7 ) i s o f
s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e m e th o d s
o f e x t r a c t i o n and r o t a t i o n a r e t h e same a s em ployed i n
t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a n d one o f h i s a g e l e v e l s , 13 y e a r s ,
co m p a re s q u i t e c l o s e l y w i t h t h e a g e o f t h e s u b j e c t s i n
th e p re s e n t stu d y . At t h e 1 3 - y e a r l e v e l , J o n e s fo u n d s i x
in te rp re ta b le fa c to rs . T h ese w e r e : a v e r b a l f a c t o r , tw o
r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r s , a memory f a c t o r , a v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c ­
t o r , and a s p a t i a l f a c t o r . He f o u n d more f a c t o r s and
c l e a r e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a t a g e 13 t h a n a t t h e y o u n g e r
le v e ls. As w ould b e e x p e c t e d , th e v e r b a l f a c t o r h a s f a r
m ore s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s t h a n d o e s a n y o t h e r . V o c a b u la r y
i s t h e le a d in g t e s t , fo llo w e d c l o s e l y by th e a b s t r a c t
w o rd s t e s t s . T h ese a r e f o l l o w e d b y d i s s e c t e d s e n t e n c e s ,
r e s p o n s e t o p i c t u r e s , v e r b a l a b s u r d i t i e s , and s e v e r a l
o th e r s im ila r t e s t s . T h is i s i n l i n e w i t h t h e g e n e r a l
consensus t h a t th e S ta n fo rd -B in e t i s v ery h e a v ily
w e ig h t e d w i t h v e r b a l v a r i a n c e .
The f i n d i n g o f tw o r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r s i s o f more
th a n p a s sin g i n t e r e s t . One i s i d e n t i f i e d by t h e P l a n o f
S e a r c h t e s t s a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o J o n e s , h a s some c h a r a c t e r ­
i s t i c s o f a d o u b le t, p ro b a b ly a s a r e s u l t o f th e c lo s e
 23
s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e two P la n o f S e a r c h t e s t s t h a t h a v e t h e
h i g h e s t l o a d i n g s ( s e e T h u r s to n e 7 7 )* The o t h e r r e a s o n i n g
f a c t o r i s i d e n t i f i e d by t h e I n g e n u i t y t e s t s e s p e c i a l l y ,
a n d P ro b le m s o f F a c t * The g e n u i n e e x i s t e n c e o f two
r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r s seems t o b e a t t e s t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e P l a n o f S e a r c h t e s t s a n d P ro b le m s o f F a c t a r e a l m o s t
e x a c tly o rth o g o n a l* The memory f a c t o r seems t o b e imme­
d i a t e memory, a s t h e D i g i t t e s t s , P a p e r C u t t i n g , Memory
f o r W ords, a n d C opying a Bead C h a in a r e t h e i d e n t i f y i n g
te s ts . The p r e s e n c e o f a v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r i s i n t e r ­
e s t i n g , in a sm u ch a s t h i s seems t o b e t h e o n ly f a c t o r
a n a l y s i s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s i n w h ich su c h a f a c t o r
h a s b ee n nam ed. I t i s i d e n t i f i e d p r i n c i p a l l y by t h e
O r i e n t a t i o n D i r e c t i o n an d I n d u c t i o n ( v i s u a l i z i n g c u t
p ap er) t e s t s . The s p a t i a l f a c t o r seems t o t h i s w r i t e r
t o be l e s s c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d th a n t h e o t h e r s a lth o u g h
th e lo a d in g s a re s u f f i c i e n t l y la r g e . Memory f o r D e s ig n s
a p p e a rs to be t h e i d e n t i f y i n g v a r i a b l e a lth o u g h i t does
n o t h a v e t h e h i g h e s t l o a d i n g an d t h e r e a r e t h r e e o t h e r
t e s t s w ith h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t lo a d in g s .
J o n e s and McNemar ( 4 7 , 50) b o t h re m a rk c o n c e r n i n g
W r i g h t Ts (9 0 ) a n a l y s i s , a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o , an d p o i n t o u t
t h a t h e r frm a t u r a t i o n ff f a c t o r may b e i n l a r g e p a r t an
 24
a r t i f a c t o f h e r i n c l u s i o n o f m e n ta l a g e i n t h e a n a l y s i s .

In th is c o n n e c t i o n , one r e c a l l s T h u r s t o n e f s w a r n in g (77)
t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n o f any s c o r e t h a t i s t h e r e s u l t o f
an y l i n e a r c o m b in a t io n o f o t h e r s c o r e s w i l l b r i n g a b o u t
one a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r f o r e a c h s u c h c o m b in a t io n o c c u r r i n g .
He g o e s on t o s a y , f u r t h e r , t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n o f p a r a l l e l
o r v e r y s i m i l a r t e s t s may t e n d t o p r o d u c e e q u i v a l e n t r e ­
s u l t s , i n t h i s c a s e s e t s o f d o u b l e t s f o r e a c h su ch p a i r .
It is o f in te r e s t a t le a s t th a t J o n e s ’ f a c t o r s te n d to b e

id e n tifie d by p a ir s o f s im ila r t e s t s . As w i l l be n o te d

l a t e r , t h i s p o in t i s p e r tin e n t to th e p r e s e n t s tu d y .

C• W e c h s le r -B e lle v u e R esea rch

F a cto r a n a ly t ic s t u d i e s . In a. stu d y o f t h i s

s o r t , th e r e s u lt s o f p r e v io u s f a c t o r s t u d i e s o f t h e

s p e c ific in s t r u m e n t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n a r e o f p r im a r y

im p o r t a n c e . I n t e r e s t a tta c h e s e s p e c ia lly to fo u r a s p e c t s

o f su c h s t u d i e s ; a. t h e m eth od o f a n a l y s i s , b . t h e

v a r ia b le s in c lu d e d in t h e a n a l y s i s , c . t h e p o p u la tio n

e m p lo y e d , and d . t h e r e s u l t s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . In t h i s

s e c tio n f iv e s t u d ie s o f th e W e c h s le r -B e lle v u e t h a t h ave

e m p lo y e d f a c t o r a n a l y s i s w i l l b e r e v i e w e d . The a b o v e
i
i
p o in t s w i l l b e c o n s id e r e d in e v a l u a t i n g s u c h r e s e a r c h and

r e l a t i n g t h e r e s u l t s and m e th o d s t o t h o s e o f t h e p r e s e n t
 25
stu d y •

a# B a lin s k y s t u d y . T h is s t u d y (3 ) w as r e p o r t e d
w i t h i n a b o u t tw o y e a r s o f t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e W e c h s le r -

B e l l e v u e S c a l e and i s t h e f i r s t r e p o r t e d f a c t o r s t u d y o f

th e s c a le . The s t u d y w a s d e s i g n e d t o in v e s t ig a t e s im ila r ­

itie s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n f a c t o r p a t t e r n a t s i x a g e l e v e l s

i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n , fr o m a g e n in e t o a g e f i f t y - n i n e , w it h

t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e c o n c e n tr a t io n o f c o n s id e r a t io n a t any

one age le v e l i s n o t s o g r e a t a s on e m ig h t d e s i r e . The

a g e s s t u d i e d a r e 9 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 2 5 - 2 9 , 3 5 - 4 4 , and 50-59* In

th e p r e sen t d is c u s s io n a tte n tio n i s g iv e n p r im a r ily t o th e

1 2 a n d 15 y e a r r e s u l t s , s in c e t h is i s t h e a p p r o x im a t e a g e

l e v e l e m p lo y e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y .

I n h i s s tu d y , B a lin s k y in c lu d e d n in e o f t h e ele v en
s u b t e s t s o f t h e W-B. S i m i l a r i t i e s and V o c a b u la r y h ad n o t
b e e n s t a n d a r d i z e d when t h e s t u d y was m ade. He d i d n o t
i n c l u d e a n y o t h e r v a r i a b l e s , so t h e num ber o f f a c t o r s t h a t
c o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d b y T h u r s t o n e ! s m ethod c o u ld n o t
e x c e e d 5 ( 7 9 , P* 2 9 4 )* I n f a c t , B a l i n s k y e x t r a c t e d o n ly
th r e e f a c to rs a t th e ages th a t a re o f s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t .
T h e se f a c t o r s w ere r o t a t e d t o o r t h o g o n a l s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e
an d i n t e r p r e t e d . A lth o u g h h e c a l l e d one o f h i s two f a c ­
t o r s a t a g e n i n e a g e n e r a l f a c t o r , no g e n e r a l f a c t o r
 26
a p p e ared a t th e h ig h e r age l e v e l s . T a b le I su m m arize s
t h e f a c t o r l o a d i n g s f o r t h e two ag e l e v e l s t h a t a r e o f
p r im a r y i n t e r e s t .
The a u t h o r i d e n t i f i e d v e r b a l f a c t o r s a t b o t h a g e
l e v e l s , and t h e r e i s f a i r a g r e e m e n t a s t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n
o f t h e f a c t o r , a l t h o u g h t h e h ig h l o a d i n g s on D i g i t S pan
an d D i g i t Symbol a t a g e 12 a r e d i f f i c u l t t o r a t i o n a l i z e .
At 15 t h e v e r b a l l o a d i n g f o r D i g i t Span was . 2 9 , so t h a t
th e v e rb a l f a c t o r a c c o u n ts f o r l e s s th a n o n e - f o u rth th e
p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e o f t h e t e s t a t a g e 15 t h a t i t d i d
a t age 12. The d i f f e r e n c e i s e v e n g r e a t e r w ith D i g i t
S y m b o l. On t h e o t h e r h a n d P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t a p p e a r s t o
i n c r e a s e i t s v e r b a l l o a d i n g w ith a g e . In h i s re v ie w o f
t h i s s t u d y , F re n c h (2 2 ) t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e s t h e f a c t o r
a s d e d u c tio n r a t h e r th a n v e r b a l .
The f i r s t f a c t o r l i s t e d a t t h e 15 y e a r l e v e l and
t h e t h i r d a t t h e 12 l e v e l i s w hat B a l i n s k y c a l l s n o n ­
v e r b a l o r p erfo rm an ce. T h ree of th e p e rfo rm a n c e t e s t s
a p p e a r c o n s i s t e n t l y on t h e f a c t o r , b u t w i t h l a r g e r l o a d ­
i n g s a t t h e 12 y e a r l e v e l . I n a d d i t i o n , a t t h e 15 y e a r
l e v e l , P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t an d P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n a p p e a r
w i t h r e l a t i v e l y h ig h l o a d i n g s . F re n c h d o e s n o t o f f e r a n y
h y p o th e s is re g a rd in g th e i d e n t i t y of t h i s f a c t o r .
 27

TABLE I

FACTOR LOADINGS OF WECHSLER-BELLEVUE TESTS AT

AGES 12 AND 1 5 , AS REPORTED BY BALINSKY

F a c t o r L o a d in g s * *
V erbal P e r fo r m a n c e ^ A w a r e n e ss
T est Age : 12 15 12 15 12 15

I n fo r m a tio n •73 •49 — — — •40

Com p reh en s i on • 59 •47 — —
•35 —
to

A r ith m e tic •73

•

D i g i t Span •61 — — — •36 — ■

P i c t u r e A rra n g em en t — •42 — • 50 • 52 —

P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n .6 0 •63 —

O b j e c t A s s e m b ly — — •59 •36 — • 56
B lo c k D e s ig n — — •60 •36 — • 51
D i g i t S ym b ol .6 0« •33 •36

* S ee t e x t f o r d i s c u s s i o n
** O nly l o a d i n g s o f *30 a n d a b o v e i n c l u d e d

f
 2#

The f a c t o r c a l l e d " A w a re n e ss" i n T a b le I i s c a l l e d '

" S e e i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s ” b y B a l i n s k y a t a g e 12* H is se c o n d
f a c t o r a t a g e 15 i s c a l l e d " A w a re n e ss o f e n v ir o n m e n t* "
A lth o u g h t h e s e a r e l i s t e d s i d e b y s i d e u n d e r t h e same
h e a d in g i t can b e s e e n t h a t t h e f a c t o r s a r e o b v i o u s l y n o t
t h e sam e, s i n c e e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t t e s t s a p p e a r w i t h s i g ­
n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s a t t h e two a g e l e v e l s * At a g e 1 5 ,
F r e n c h (2 2 ) t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e s t h i s f a c t o r a s s p a c e *
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f l o a d i n g s on t h i s t h i r d f a c t o r and on
t h e p e r f o r m a n c e f a c t o r f o r P i c t u r e A rr a n g e m e n t, P i c t u r e
C o m p le t io n , O b j e c t A s s e n b l y , and B lo c k D e sig n l e a d t h e
w rite r to s u s p e c t t h a t t h e s e f a c t o r s h a v e b e e n v e r y im­
p e r f e c t ly se p a ra te d in r o t a t i o n .
I n summ ary, B a l i n s k y * s s t u d y i n d i c a t e s t h e p r e s e n c e
o f a minimum o f t h r e e f a c t o r s i n t h e W-B S c a l e * I t appears
p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e f a c t o r s a r e c o m p le x , i n p a r t a t l e a s t
due t o t h e a b s e n c e o f r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s (4 1 )*
W eeh sler’s h y p o th e sis o f d if f e r e n c e i n fu n c tio n f o r th e
v e r b a l and p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t s , m ig h t b e c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e
h a d some v e r i f i c a t i o n i n v ie w o f t h e r e l a t i v e s e p a r a t i o n
o f t h e tw o s e t s o f t e s t s i n T a b le I *

k* G o ld fa rb s tu d y * I n t h e same y e a r (1 94 1) t h a t
B a l i n s k y ’ s s t u d y (3 ) was p u b l i s h e d , G o l d f a r b p u b l i s h e d
 29
a m onograph ( 3 2 ) on r e a c t i o n t i m e i n o l d e r a d u l t s an d
in c lu d e d in h i s stu d y a H o te llin g f a c t o r a n a ly s is o f a g e ,
v a r io u s m easu res o f r e a c t i o n t i m e , t h r e e sp eed ed m e n ta l
t e s t s , t h e O t i s , t h e CAVD, and t h e e l e v e n s u b t e s t s o f t h e
W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e . T h is s tu d y i s o f i n t e r e s t b e c a u se a s
f a r a s t h e w r i t e r h as been a b le t o a s c e r t a i n i t i s th e
o n ly stu d y t h a t h a s in c lu d e d v a r i a b l e s i n a d d itio n t o t h e
W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e t e s t s . G o ld fa rb e x t r a c t e d t h r e e f a c t o r s
w h ich a c c o u n t f o r a b o u t 54 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e
b a tte ry . He d i d n o t r o t a t e h i s f a c t o r s a n d , a s i s u s u a l l y
th e c a se u n d e r such c ir c u m s ta n c e s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s d i f ­
f i c u l t and n o t v e r y e n l i g h t e n i n g . The f i r s t f a c t o r he
c a lls g e n e ra l. The h i g h e s t l o a d i n g i s i n t h e D i r e c t i o n s
t e s t w h ich i s an e a s y t e s t t h a t m e a s u r e s s p e e d o f f o l l o w ­
i n g s i m p l e d i r e c t i o n s su ch a s " J o i n t h e s e 2 l i n e s : --------
---------- n ( 3 2 , p . 2 3 ) . A l l W e c h s le r t e s t s h a v e l o a d i n g s on
t h e f a c t o r , b u t t h e P e r fo r m a n c e t e s t s a r e h i g h e r t h a n t h e
V e r b a l , w i t h D i g i t Symbol n e a r l y a s h i g h a s t h e D i r e c t i o n s
te st. The s e c o n d f a c t o r i s i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e a u t h o r w i t h
wisdom o r e x p e r i e n c e . I n f o r m a t i o n i s h i g h e s t on t h i s f a c ­
t o r and a l l t h e V e r b a l t e s t s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f D i g i t
S pan h a v e a p p r e c i a b l e l o a d i n g s on t h e f a c t o r . The a u t h o r
g i v e s no a t t e n t i o n t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t h i r d f a c t o r .
Age i s t h e h i g h e s t v a r i a b l e on t h i s f a c t o r , w i t h V ocabu-
 30
l a r y and I n f o r m a t io n b e i n g n e x t h ig h on t h e p o s i t i v e p o l e . ’

^ G o ld fa r b c o n c lu d e s t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s v e r i f i e s t h e

h y p o th e s is of a general a b ility and n a r r o w e r s p e c i f i c

a b ilitie s common t o o n l y a fe w o f t h e t e s t s o f su c h a

b a tte r y . U n fo r tu n a te ly , t h i s s t u d y s h e d s a minimum o f

lig h t on t h e f a c t o r i a l c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e W e c h s l e r - B e l l e v u e

S c a le .

A lth o u g h t h e w r i t e r h a s s e a r c h e d d i l i g e n t l y , h e i s

f o r c e d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t f o r a p e r io d o f t e n y e a r s

( 1 9 4 1 - 1 9 5 1 ) t h e r e w a s n o t a s i n g l e p u b l i c a t i o n b a s e d on

fa c to r a n a ly tic stu d y o f t h e W e c h s le r -B e lle v u e . D u r in g

th is p e r io d i n t e r e s t i n t h e s c a l e in c r e a s e d tr e m e n d o u s ly ,

p r im a r ily in its u se a s a c l i n i c a l in s tr u m e n t. The r a t e

o f in c r e a s e i s s u g g e s t e d b y t h e num ber o f t i t l e s a p p e a r in g

i n t h e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s o f R a b in ’ s tw o r e v i e w s (5&, 59) o f
t h e W-B l i t e r a t u r e . I n h i s 1945 r e v i e w a f t e r t h e s c a l e had

b e e n i n u s e f o r m ore th a n f i v e y e a r s , t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y c o n ­

t a i n e d 36 t i t l e s . In 1951, a f t e r a s l i g h t l y lo n g e r p e r io d

s in c e th e f i r s t r e v ie w , t h e b ib lio g r a p h y o f h i s r e v ie w con­

t a i n e d n o f e w e r th a n 145 t i t l e s . A la r g e p r o p o r tio n o f

t h e s e a r t i c l e s d e a l w i t h c l i n i c a l p r o b le m s , m a t t e r s w it h

w h ic h t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s not d ir e c t ly con cern ed . A

fe w d e a l w ith r e l i a b i l i t y and w i l l b e m e n t io n e d l a t e r .
 31
At t h e 1951 m e e tin g o f t h e A m eric an P s y c h o l o g i c a l
A s s o c i a t i o n , t h r e e f a c t o r a n a l y s e s o f t h e W-B s c a l e w ere
r e p o r t e d ( 5 , 1 6 , 6 3 )* An a n a l y s i s o f t h e W e c h s l e r I n t e l ­
l i g e n c e S c a l e f o r C h i l d r e n w as a l s o r e p o r t e d (4 4 ) a l t h o u g h
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a b s t r a c t , t h e r e s e a r c h was n o t c o m p le te
a t t h e t i m e ( a t l e a s t \ftxen t h e a b s t r a c t was w r i t t e n ) *
W ith t h e l i m i t a t i o n s im p o se d b y t h e f a c t t h a t a s n e a r a s

can b e a s c e r t a in e d o n ly , o n e o f t h e s e h a s r e a c h e d p u b l i c a ­

tio n s t a g e , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e a n a l y s e s w i l l b e r e v ie w e d

b r ie fly * U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a g a i n n o r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s w e re

in c lu d e d in any o f t h e s t u d i e s r e p o r te d *

c* S im k in s t u d y * S im k in (6 3 ) d e s i g n e d h i s
a n a l y s i s to d e te rm in e th e d i f f e r e n c e s in i n t e l l e c t u a l
f a c t o r s b e tw e e n n o r m a ls and s c h i z o p h r e n i c s * He em ployed
T h u r s t o n e f s c o m p le te c e n t r o i d m e th o d , w i t h r o t a t i o n b y t h e
e x t e n d e d v e c t o r m ethod (7 9 )* As n o t e d a b o v e , o n l y t h e
e l e v e n W-B v a r i a b l e s w e re u s e d . F or th e norm al g ro u p ,
w h ic h i s o f p r e s e n t i n t e r e s t , h e r e p o r t e d a g e n e r a l f a c t o r ,
a v i s u a l - m o t o r f a c t o r , and a f a c t o r t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d
a s s y m b o lic m a n i p u l a t i o n . He o b t a i n e d a l s o a u n iq u e f a c ­
t o r l o a d e d o n l y i n t h e D i g i t Span t e s t * D a ta i d e n t i f y i n g
t e s t s w ith th e s e f a c t o r s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e a lth o u g h p r i ­
v a t e co rre sp o n d e n c e w ith t h e a u th o r i n d i c a t e s t h a t p u b l i -
 32
c a t i o n i s p la n n e d i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e *

Cohen s t u d y * Cohen (1 6 ) a l s o r e p o r t e d a f a c t o r
a n a l y s i s o f t h e W-B i n 1951 and h a s g r a c i o u s l y made a v a i l ­
a b l e t o t h e w r i t e r some o f h i s u n p u b l i s h e d d a t a * H is
a n a l y s i s em ployed p s y c h o n e u r o t i c , s c h i z o p h r e n i c , and b r a i n
dam aged g r o u p s * He em p lo yed T h u r s t o n e f s c o m p le t e c e n t r o i d
m ethod an d r o t a t e d t o o b l i q u e s im p le s t r u c t u r e (ro ta tio n
m ethod n o t s p e c i f i e d ) • He e x t r a c t e d t h r e e f a c t o r s f o r
e a c h o f t h e g r o u p s n am ed . T h ese he i d e n t i f i e d a s v e r b a l ,

n o n - v e r b a l , an d d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y fa c to rs* The v e r b a l f a c ­
t o r h a d h i g h l o a d i n g s i n I n f o r m a t i o n , C o m p re h e n s io n ,
S i m i l a r i t i e s , a n d V o c a b u la r y f o r a l l g ro u p s * A rith m e tic
a n d P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n a l s o h a d m o d e r a te l o a d i n g s f o r two
o f th e th r e e gro u p s. The n o n - v e r b a l f a c t o r h a s c o n s i s t ­
e n t l y s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s i n P i c t u r e A r r a n g e m e n t, P i c t u r e
C o m p le t io n , B lo ck D e s i g n , and O b j e c t A sse m b ly . The b r a i n
dam aged g ro u p a l s o g av e a s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g on t h i s f a c ­
t o r f o r D i g i t S y m b o l. The d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y f a c t o r a s he
i d e n t i f i e s i t h as c o n s i s t e n t lo a d in g s o n ly i n D i g i t Span,
a l t h o u g h A r i t h m e t i c h a s m o d e r a te l o a d i n g s i n tw o o f t h e
t h r e e g r o u p s a n d B lo c k D e s ig n an d D i g i t Symbol h a v e one
s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g each * One w o n d ers i f t h i s f a c t o r may
! n o t b e s i m i l a r t o t h e u n i q u e f a c t o r r e p o r t e d b y S im k in

(63 ) *
 33
e# B irren stu d y . One f i n a l r e s e a r c h s t u d y on t h e
f a c t o r c o n t e n t o f t h e W-B b r i n g s t h i s r e v i e w up t o d a t e #
B i r r e n ( 5 , 6) h a s b e e n i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e e f f e c t o f a g e on
i n t e l l e c t u a l f u n c t i o n s and f o l l o w e d t h e r a t h e r u n s a t i s ­
f a c t o r y r e s u l t s o f G o ld f a r b (3 2 ) b y d o in g a n o t h e r f a c t o r
a n a ly s is of th e s c a le . The i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere f a c t o r ­
ed b y t h e c e n t r o i d m ethod a n d t h e f o u r r e s u l t i n g f a c t o r s
r o t a t e d t o o b l i q u e s im p le s t r u c t u r e . One r o t a t i o n l e f t
th e f i r s t f a c t o r o rth o g o n a l to th e o th e r t h r e e . T h is
s o l u t i o n was a p p a r e n t l y n o t p r e f e r r e d by t h e a u t h o r an d
a l l f a c t o r s w ere r o t a t e d t o o b l i q u e s o l u t i o n s . In th is
s o l u t i o n o f t h e m a t r i x b a s e d on n o r m a l e l d e r l y p e o p l e , he
i n t e r p r e t s h i s f a c t o r s a s v e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s io n , c l o s u r e ,
r o t e memory, an d ( t e n t a t i v e l y ) in d u c tio n . The v e r b a l
c o m p r e h e n s io n f a c t o r h a s s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s on I n f o r m a ­
t i o n , S i m i l a r i t i e s , V o c a b u l a r y , C o m p re h e n s io n , and
A r i th m e t ic , i n o r d e r o f m a g n itu d e . Of t h e s e c o n d f a c t o r ,
he sa y s t h a t p e r c e p tu a l sp e e d , c l o s u r e and s p a t i a l r e l a ­
t i o n s m ig jit b e p r e s e n t i n t h i s g r o u p , b u t c a l l s t h e f a c t o r
c lo su re . D i g i t S y m b ol, P i c t u r e A r r a n g e m e n t, O b j e c t
A sse m b ly , P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n , and B lo c k D e s i g n , i n o r d e r
o f m a g n i t u d e , h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s on t h e f a c t o r .
! The r o t e memory f a c t o r h a s s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s on D i g i t
S p a n , B lo c k D e s i g n , and D i g i t S y m b o l, i n o r d e r . The
 34
f a c t o r t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d a s i n d u c t i o n h a s o n ly one
l o a d i n g a b o v e *30* T h is i s i n S i m i l a r i t i e s . O b je c t
A ssem bly an d B lo ck D e s ig n h a v e l o a d i n g s s l i g h t l y lo w e r*
B i r r e n fo u n d t h a t t h e o r t h o g o n a l s o l u t i o n o f t h e
f i r s t f a c t o r , a s r e f e r r e d t o a b o v e , l e f t t h e f a c t o r w ith
l o a d i n g s on a l l t e s t s a n d t h u s a s a g e n e r a l f a c t o r . He
f e e ls th a t th is in d ic a te s th a t th e f a c to r re p re se n ts a
g e n e r a l fu n d o f s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n , o f TAfoich v e r b a l com­
p r e h e n s i o n i s t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t p a r t . He c o n c l u d e s ,
,ft h e W-B d o e s n o t i n c l u d e t e s t s o f many o f t h e known
p rim a ry a b i l i t i e s . ------------------I t w ould seem d e s i r a b l e ,
t h o u g h , to i n c l u d e t e s t s o f f a c t o r s n o t r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e
p r e s e n t e le v e n t e s t s p e rh a p s a t t h e ex p en se o f d ro p p in g
s e v e r a l o f t h e p r e s e n t t e s t s w h e re t h e y a r e h i g h l y c o r ­
r e l a t e d . ” ( 6 , p* 6) I t i s n o t c l e a r w h e th e r in t h i s r e ­
mark he r e f e r s t o f a c t o r r e s e a r c h o r t o u s e o f t h e t e s t s ,
b u t p ro b a b ly th e l a t t e r i s in te n d e d . I n a n y c a s e , he h a s
o v e r l o o k e d some i m p o r t a n t f a c t s . In th e f i r s t p la c e , th e
i n c l u s i o n o f o n ly e le v e n t e s t s in th e b a t t e r y n e c e s s a r i l y
l i m i t s t h e num ber o f f a c t o r s t h a t ca n b e d e t e r m i n e d ( 4 1 ,
7 9 )* I n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , o v e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f se v e n o f
T h u r s t o n e 1s p r i m a r i e s ( a s i n h i s F a c t o r i a l S t u d i e s o f
I n t e l l i g e n c e ) w ould p r o b a b l y r e q u i r e a minimum o f a t l e a s t

20 t e s t s ev en a f t e r t h e y h a d b e e n p u r i f i e d * The r e s u l t
 35
i s , t h e n , t h a t su c h an a n a l y s i s l e a v e s u n a n s w e re d t h e
q u e s t i o n o f w hat and how many p r i m a r i e s may e n t e r i n t o
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e W-B s u b t e s t s c o r e s * I t seem s t o t h e
w r i t e r t h a t t h e o n l y way t o a n s w e r t h i s q u e s tio n i s to
i n c l u d e i n a n a n a l y s i s enough known r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s
so t h a t m o st o r a l l s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a n c e s i n t h e s c a l e w i l l
no l o n g e r b e s p e c i f i c b u t w i l l j o i n w i t h v a r i a n c e s o f
r e f e r e n c e t e s t s i n d e t e r m i n i n g i d e n t i f i a b l e common f a c t o r s *
T h is i s w hat t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h was d e s i g n e d t o a c ­
c o m p lis h •

2* R e lia b ility stu d ie s* T h is s e c t i o n r e v i e w s

b r i e f l y f iv e s tu d ie s o f th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e W-B S c a l e *
T h is does n o t e x h a u s t th e l i s t b u t r e p r e s e n t s p ro b a b ly
th e b e s t s tu d i e s t h a t have been r e p o r te d . R e lia b ility
e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e s u b t e s t s o f t h e W-B h a v e r e p r e s e n t e d a
p ro b le m fro m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g . W e c h s le r (3 3 ) com pared
one s e t o f f o u r t e s t s w i t h a n o t h e r s e t o f f o u r t e s t s and
a rriv e d a t a s o rt of r e l i a b i l i t y . D e r n e r , A b o m , and
C a n t e r (1 9 ) p o i n t o u t , h o w e v e r, t h a t i n r e a l i t y t h i s i s
n o t a r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t e b u t r a t h e r a c o r r e l a t i o n co ­
e f f i c i e n t b a s e d on common f a c t o r s * One o f t h e p r i n c i p a l
re a so n s f o r th e d i f f i c u l t y i s th e f a c t t h a t th e m a te r ia ls
do n o t l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o d i v i s i o n i n t o p a r a l l e l p a r t s .
 36
TABLE I I

RELIABILITY ESTIMATES OF THE WECHSLER-

BELLEVUE TESTS AND SCALES

B ern er, A bom ,

( normal s ) *

and C a n te r
(to ta l)*
H a m is te r
( t o t a l )*

G ilh o o ly

Webb and
DeHaan
R abin
N: 60 53 122 50 158
T est
In fo rm a tio n •99 .9 4 • 79 .8 2 • 86
Comp r e h e n s i on •44 •76 *56 •53 •74
D i g i t Span •77 • 59 • A4 •67
A rith m e tic • 68 .8 7 — *S2 •62
S im ila ritie s •62 •86 • 77 *74 • 71
V o c a b u la r y •90 *94 *94 .8 8
P i c t u r e A rran g e m en t •67 •73 *29 •64
P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n •60 • 71 — *42 .8 3
B lo c k D e s ig n •74 •71 — *76 .8 4
O b j e c t A s s e n b ly •6-5 •66 — •46 •69
D i g i t Symbol • 57 .8 0 _ _ — •80
V erbal S c a le .89 •91 — —
.8 4
P erfo rm an ce S c a le •76 • S3 —— —— .8 6
F u ll S c a le •84 .8 7 ( .9 0

* I n d i c a t e s g r o u p on Taihich e s t i m a t e s a r e b a s e d *
A u th o r r e p o r t e d m ore t h a n one s e t o f e s t i m a t e s
 37
A n o th e r p ro b le m i s t h e f a c t t h a t r e t e s t m e th o d s e n c o u n t e r
th e f a c t s of d i f f e r e n t i a l le a rn in g * S t i l l a n o t h e r p ro b le m
i s t h e f a c t t h a t many o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n s u s e d f o r t h e
co m p u ta tio n o f s p l i t - h a l f o r t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t i e s
h a v e b ee n fro m p s y c h o n e u r o t i c o r p s y c h i a t r i c w a rd s o f
h o sp ita ls ( 2 9 , 3 0 , 4 5 , 5 7 , &0) • G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s from su c h
f in d in g s a r e e x tre m e ly q u e s tio n a b le .

a* R a b in s t u d y . R a b in (5 7 ) r e p o r t e d a t e s t - r e t e s t
s t u d y b a s e d on 60 s t a t e h o s p i t a l c a s e s w i t h a w ide r a n g e
of d ia g n o se s. Age r a n g e d fro m 16 t o 6 3 , and l a p s e o f tim e
b e tw e e n t e s t s r a n g e d fro m one t o 35 m o n th s . U nder t h e s e
c irc u m sta n c e s i t i s s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e e s t i m a t e s w e re n o t
lo w e r th a n th e y w e re . A summary o f r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t e s
fro m t h e v a r i o u s s t u d i e s i s g i v e n i n T a b l e I I .

b* H a m iste r s t u d y . I n 1 9 4 9 , H a m i s t e r (4 5 ) r e p o r t e d
a s t u d y i n w h ic h t h e W-B was a d m i n i s t e r e d t w i c e t o 53
n e u ro p sy c h ia tric p a t i e n t s . T h i s g ro u p c o n s i s t e d o f 34
s c h i z o p h r e n i c s a n d 19 w hose d i a g n o s i s i s n o t g i v e n . P art
o f t h e g r o u p was r e t e s t e d a f t e r one week a n d p a r t a f t e r
o n e m o n th . The d e s i g n f o r v a r y i n g e x a m i n e r s , s e l e c t i n g
s u b j e c t s , and t h e l i k e a p p e a r s t o b e s o u n d . In t h i s stu d y
t h e N i s s m a l l an d t h e a t y p i c a l p o p u l a t i o n l i m i t s t h e
g e n e ra lity of in te r p r e ta tio n of th e r e s u l t s .
 33
c* G ilh o o ly s t u d y * G i l h o o l y (3 0 ) r e p o r t e d a
r e l i a b i l i t y s t u d y b a s e d on 122 n e u r o p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s .
He s p l i t t h e i t e m s o f t h e I n f o r m a t i o n , C o m p re h e n s io n ,
S i m i l a r i t i e s , and V o c a b u la r y t e s t s , com pu ted r e l i a b i l i t i e s
an d c o r r e c t e d them b y u s e o f t h e S pearm an-B row n f o r m u l a .
H is r e s u l t s a p p e a r on T a b l e I I .

an d DeHaan s t u d y . Webb and DeHaan (3 0)

r e p o r t e d a s t u d y i n 1951 i n w h ich s p l i t - h a l f r e l i a b i l i t i e s
w e re com puted f o r 50 fe m a le p s y c h o t i c p a t i e n t s and 50
f e m a le n o r m a l p a t i e n t s . Mean a g e s w ere n e a r l y c o m p a ra b le
a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d a g e i n t h e two s a m p le s w ere f a i r l y
w e ll e q u a te d . D a ta a p p e a r i n T a b l e I I .

e* D e r n e r , A b o rn , a n d C a n t e r s t u d y . D em er,
A b o m , and C a n t e r r e p o r t e d i n 1950 (1 9) w hat t h e w r i t e r
b e l i e v e s i s t h e b e s t s t u d y o f r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e W-B t o
a p p e a r so f a r . They u s e d n o rm a l s u b j e c t s and s t u d i e d
t e s t - r e t e s t r e s u l t s a f t e r one w eek, f o u r w e e k s , an d s i x
m o n th s . The s i x month v a l u e s b a s e d on an N o f 3 ^ d i f f e r
o n l y s l i g h t l y fro m t h e one an d f o u r week v a l u e s b a s e d on
Nf s o f 60 e a c h . No t r a t i o s o f d i f f e r e n c e s a r e s i g n i f i ­
c a n t. The r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t e f o r A r i t h m e t i c i n t h e s i x
m onth g r o u p was *74, w h i l e f o r t h e one and f o u r week
g r o u p s t h e v a l u e s w e re .5 3 and .5 7 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The
c o m p o s ite e s t i m a t e f o r A r i t h m e t i c r e l i a b i l i t y may w e l l
b e t o o lo w , t h e r e f o r e * O t h e r w i s e , i t seem s t h a t t h e s e
a r e p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t e s t i m a t e s t h a t a r e now a v a i l a b l e *
 CHAPTER I I I

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES AND DESCRIPTION

OF TEST BATTERY

T h is c h a p t e r i n c l u d e s a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s p e c i f i c
h y p o th e se s t h a t a r e t o be t e s t e d by t h i s stu d y , th e
p r e p a r a tio n o f th e t e s t b a t te r y in th e l i g h t o f th e s e
h y p o t h e s e s , and t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t e s t s t h e m s e l v e s *
As p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r I I , fin d in g s
su c h a s t h o s e o f B u r t and Jo h n ( 1 0 ) , A l e x a n d e r ( 1 ) , J o n e s
( 4 7 ), th e T h u rs to n e s ( 7 5 ) , B a l i n s k y ( 3 ) , an d W rig h t ( 9 0 ) ,
t o m e n tio n o n l y a f e w , h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t g e n e r a l a b i l i t y
o r i n t e l l i g e n c e i s e x t r e m e l y co m plex and i s d i f f e r e n t i a b l e
i n t o many f a c t o r s * T h e r e i s n o a g r e e m e n t among t h e s e
a u t h o r s o r o t h e r s , h o w e v e r, a s t o w hat and how many f a c t o r s
c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o a g l o b a l m e a s u re o f i n t e l l i ­
gence. T h e r e i s o b v i o u s l y , i n f a c t , no s i n g l e a n s w e r t o
t h i s q u e s t i o n u n t i l o r u n l e s s one d e f i n e s w h at i n t e l l i ­
g e n c e o r w hat i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t he m e a n s . I f one w e re t o
r e s t r i c t h i m s e l f o n l y t o t h e s t u d i e s named a b o v e , he w o u ld
f i n d a t l e a s t tw e n t y f a c t o r nam es u s e d , even a l l o w i n g f o r
o b v io u s d u p l i c a t i o n s .
T h is s i t u a t i o n c a l l s f o r d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u ­
m ent t o b e a n a l y z e d , t h e r e f o r e , a n d t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f
 41
some h y p o t h e s e s r e g a r d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e v a r i a n c e s
t h a t a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y w h a t may be t h o u g h t o f a s l a t e n t
su b -c o n te n t sc o re s in th e t e s t . The p r e s e n t s t u d y h a s
em p lo y ed t h i s a p p r o a c h and i n a d d i t i o n h a s i n c l u d e d
c e r t a i n r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s r e p r e s e n tin g th e s e h y p o th e se s
i n th e f a c t o r stu d y in o rd e r t h a t b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n o f th e
f a c t o r s can b e a c h i e v e d - Of t h e a u t h o r s who h a v e i n t e r ­
e s te d th e m selv es in f a c t o r i a l a n a ly s i s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
T h u r s t o n e (7 5 ) a l m o s t a l o n e h a s em p lo y ed an a p p r o a c h
s i m i l a r to t h i s .

A. H y p o th ese s

C o m p le x ity ♦ T h is h y p o t h e s i s i s im p lic it in

much o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t h a s p r e c e d e d , b u t i s h e r e made

e x p lic it. S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e h y p o th e s is i s advan ced th a t

t h e W e c h s l e r - B e l l e v u e S c a l e m e a s u r e s a c o m p le x o f f a c t o r s .

T h is h y p o t h e s i s w i l l b e v e r i f i e d o f c o u r s e i f a num ber o f

f a c t o r s a r e r e q u ir e d t o a cco u n t f o r t h e v a r ia n c e o f s c a l e .

A ls o i n c l u d e d i n t h e h y p o t h e s i s w a s t h e e x p e c ta tio n t h a t

th e s u b s c a le s a r e r e l a t i v e l y c o m p le x , h a v in g v a r i a n c e on

tw o o r m ore o f t h e common f a c t o r s .

Number o f f a c t o r s . As a s u b o r d i n a t e h y p o t h e s i s

u n d e r c o m p l e x i t y , t h e p r e d i c t i o n w a s m ade t h a t t h e
 42
W e c h s l e r - B e l l e v u e can b e e x p l a i n e d e c o n o m i c a l l y an d w i t h
g r e a t e r p a r s im o n y i n te rm s o f f e w e r f a c t o r s t h a n t h e r e
a re t e s t s in th e sc a le (e le v e n )* S in c e th e r e l i a b i l i t i e s
o f t h e s u b t e s t s o f t h e W e c h s l e r - B e l l e v u e m u st b e e s t i m a t e d
fro m o t h e r s t u d i e s , f o r t h i s r e p o r t , t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s
n o t c o m p le te ly t e s t a b l e * I t s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r,
t o make e s t i m a t e s o f t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f n o n - e r r o r v a r i a n c e
a c c o u n t e d f o r by f e w e r t h a n e l e v e n f a c t o r s * I f th is p ro­
p o r t i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h , t h i s h y p o t h e s i s can b e co n ­
s id e re d to b e e s s e n t i a l l y v e r i f i e d . I f t h i s p ro p o rtio n
i s low o r m o d e r a t e , t h e h y p o t h e s i s c o u l d n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d
to be e i t h e r v e r i f i e d or r e f u te d . If, on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
e l e v e n o r m ore f a c t o r s show up w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s ,
it s h o u ld p r o b a b l y h a v e t o b e c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e h y p o t h ­
e s i s h as been r e fu te d *

E x p e c te d f a c t o r s * In th e p re p a ra tio n o f th e
b a t t e r y , s e v e r a l h y p o t h e s e s w e re a d o p t e d r e g a r d i n g t h e
g e n e ra l n a tu re o f th e f a c t o r s to b e e x p e c te d . The g e n e r a l
e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d some o f t h e b a s e s f o r t h e s e e x p e c t a t i o n s
a r e d is c u s s e d here* I n C h a p t e r VI A e r e t h e o b t a i n e d
f a c t o r s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d , m ore c o m p le t e a n a l y s i s o f t h e
n a tu re o f th e f a c to r s a c t u a l l y o c c u rrin g in th e b a t te r y
w i l l be g iv e n .
 43
a* V e r b a l c o m p re h e n s i o n . G u i l f o r d (3 9 ) s t a t e s
t h a t t h e v e r b a l f a c t o r i s b e s t r e p r e s e n t e d by v o c a b u l a r y
t e s t s o r t e s t s o f s im p l e v e r b a l - c o m p r e h e n s i o n . G reen (3 6 )
b e lie v e s th a t th e v erb al fa c to r s ig n if ie s f a m ilia r ity
w i t h w o rd s b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y w i t h t h e i r m e a n in g s .
F r e n c h ( 22) d e f i n e s v e r b a l c o m p re h e n s io n a s em bodying
k n o w le d g e and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e .
K e l l e y (4 $ ) b e l i e v e s t h a t f u l l y h a l f o f w h at Spearm an ( 65)
c a lls *gf i s a c c o u n ta b le f o r by t h e v e r b a l f a c t o r . He
t h i n k s o f t h e v e r b a l f a c t o r a s c o n s i s t i n g o f f a c i l i t y w ith
v e rb a l m a te ria l* E ven t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n o f S p e a rm a n f s c o n ­
c e p t p r o b a b l y l e a v e s to o w ide an a r e a t o b e c o v e r e d b y t h e
te rm , v e r b a l . W o lfle ($&) c i t e s many s t u d i e s , up t o 1 9 4 0 ,
i n w h ich a v e r b a l f a c t o r was f o u n d , a n d d e f i n e s i t a s i n ­
v o l v i n g p r i m a r i l y m e a n in g s o f w o rd s and i d e a s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h th e m .
The a b o v e c i t a t i o n s s u g g e s t t h e c e n t r a l th em e w i t h
r e s p e c t to th e v e rb a l f a c t o r . In t h i s stu d y th e concept
i s d e f in e d i n l i n e w ith F ren ch ( 2 2 ) . V e r b a l c o m p re h e n s io n
i s p ro b a b ly a b e t t e r te rm , s in c e i t i s in te n d e d to co v e r
b o t h f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l .
S i n c e su ch a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t e s t s t h a t a r e u s e d i n
m e a s u r in g i n t e l l i g e n c e i n v o l v e v e r b a l m a t e r i a l i n one way
o r a n o th e r, i t i s l o g i c a l t o e x p e c t t h a t v a r i a n c e on a
 44
v e r b a l f a c t o r s h o u ld o c c u r i n a s c a l e su c h a s t h e
W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e . In f a c t , B a lin sk y ( 3 ) , B irre n ( 6 ) ,
Cohen ( 1 6 ) , and S im k in ( 6 3 ) , a l l o f whom h a v e a n a l y z e d
t h e W-B w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s , r e p o r t f i n d i n g a
v erbal fa c to r. T h is l a t t e r f a c t s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e r e
m ig h t b e enough common v a r i a n c e i n t h e v e r b a l f a c t o r i n
t h e W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e s u b t e s t s a lo n e to d e te rm in e th e
f a c t o r w ith o u t any r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s . R eferen ce to th e
f a c t o r f i n d i n g s i n C h a p t e r VI w i l l show t h a t d e f i n i t i o n
o f t h e f a c t o r w ould p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n a c c o m p l is h e d l e s s
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i f t h i s p o lic y had been fo llo w e d . As i t
w a s , i t a p p e a r e d d e s i r a b l e t o i n c l u d e two o t h e r v o c a b u l a r y
te sts, fo r reaso n s to be d isc u sse d l a t e r . T hese, p lu s th e
W-B v a r i a b l e s and t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t e s t s t h a t t y p i c a l l y
h a v e v a r i a n c e on t h e v e r b a l f a c t o r , w e re c o n s i d e r e d a d e ­
q u a te to in s u r e d e te rm in a tio n of th e h y p o th e siz e d f a c t o r
in th e a n a ly s is . *

b. N u m e r ic a l f a c i l i t y . The n u m e r i c a l f a c t o r i s
o n e o f t h e b e s t e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t o r s o f human a b i l i t y a l ­
th o u g h t h e r e i s n o t c o m p le te a g r e e m e n t on t h e e x a c t
d e s c rip tio n of th e f a c t o r . T h u r s t o n e ( 75) r e m a rk s t h a t
t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l n a t u r e o f th e n u m e ric a l f a c t o r i s n o t
s o c l e a r a s t h e o t h e r s o f h i s p r i m a r y m e n ta l a b i l i t i e s .
 45
He b e l i e v e s t h a t m ere o c c u r r e n c e o f n u m b e rs i n a t e s t i s '
n o t a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a num er­
i c a l facto r* G e n e ra lly a n u m e ric a l f a c t o r h a s been de­
f i n e d b e s t b y s im p le n u m e r i c a l t a s k s t h a t i n v o l v e imme­
d i a t e c o m p re h e n s io n o f t h e p r o c e s s an d t h e m ere m a n ip u la ­
t i o n o f num bers a c c o r d i n g t o s im p le r u l e s . The Army A ir
F o r c e s a n a l y s e s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t r e p e a t e d s t u d i e s came
o u t w i t h su c h t e s t s a s N u m e r ic a l O p e r a t i o n s ( 3 9 , P* $94)
a t t h e t o p o f t h e l i s t i n t h i s f a c t o r , a s w e l l a s among
th e p u rest of t e s t s f a c t o r i a l l y . F u r t h e r l i g h t i s th ro w n
on t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s f a c t o r b y t h e f i n d i n g i n t h e AAF
r e s e a r c h ( 3 9 , p* S2&) and a l s o b y S u t t o n (7 0 ) t h a t su c h
t a s k s a s p l o t t i n g and t a b l e r e a d i n g show c o n s i s t e n t l y
s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s on t h e n u m e r i c a l f a c t o r . T h is seem s
t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e f a c t o r i s n o t c o n f i n e d t o c o m p u ta ­
t i o n s a s s u c h , b u t a l s o i n c l u d e s c o u n t i n g , r e a d i n g n u m b ers
f ro m c h a r t s , an d s i m i l a r t a s k s t h a t i n v o l v e t h e u s e and
m a n ip u la tio n of n u m e ric a l sy m b o ls. F re n c h (2 2 ) s a y s t h a t
t h e b e s t t e s t s o f num ber a r e t h o s e w ith t h e g r e a t e s t
am ount o f num ber h a n d l i n g . S i n c e t h e W-B c o n t a i n s an
a r i t h m e t i c t e s t an d a d i g i t s p a n t e s t , b o t h o f w h ich m ig h t
b e e x p e c t e d t o h a v e some l o a d i n g on t h i s f a c t o r , i t a p ­
p eared d e s ira b le to in c lu d e a re fe re n c e t e s t a s a c a ta l y s t
f o r t h i s v a ria n c e * I t w as h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e s e t e s t s
 46
w ould i n s u r e t h e a p p e a r a n c e an d a d e q u a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f ’
th e n u m e ric a l f a c t o r in th e a n a l y s i s .

c* V isu a liz a tio n . M ost o f t h e e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g

a v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r h a s b e e n r e l a t e d i n one way o r
a n o t h e r t o t h e AAF r e s e a r c h d u r i n g W orld War I I . A
v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r was r e p o r t e d i n a t l e a s t t w e l v e d i f ­
f e r e n t a n a l y s e s (3 9 ) and w as among t h e b e s t d e f i n e d f a c ­
to rs. G u i l f o r d ( 3 9 , P« $3&) s t a t e s t h a t v i s u a l i z a t i o n i s
m o s t e v i d e n t i n t h o s e t e s t s i n w hich a s t i m u l u s i s p r e ­
s e n t e d e i t h e r v i s u a l l y o r v e r b a l l y and t h e ex a m in e e m ust
p e r f o r m some m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e im age w i t h o u t o b j e c t i v e
m a n ip u la tio n of th e s tim u lu s . The T h u r s t o n e s , ( 7 5 ) , i n
t h e i r a n a ly s is of i n t e l l i g e n c e u sin g sch o o l c h ild re n o f
a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same a g e a s t h o s e u s e d i n t h i s stu d y ,
d id n ot r e p o r t a v i s u a liz a ti o n f a c t o r . I t is sig n ific a n t,
h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e y d e f i n e s p a c e i n a l m o s t t h e same te r m s
a s v i s u a l i z a t i o n i s d e f i n e d h e r e , nThe s p a c e f a c t o r i s
fo u n d i n t h e t e s t s w h ic h r e q u i r e t h a t t h e s u b j e c t m a n ip u ­
l a t e an o b j e c t i m a g i n a l l y i n two o r m ore d i m e n s i o n s . 11
( 7 5 , P* 2 1 ) O nly r e c e n t l y h a s v e r y g r e a t p r o g r e s s b e e n
made i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g s p a t i a l and v i s u a l i z i n g a b i l i t i e s .
M i c h a e l , Zimmerman, a n d G u i l f o r d ( 5 4 ) , S u t t o n ( 7 0 ) , a n d

Zimmerman ( 9 2 ) , h a v e a l l c o n t r i b u t e d m a t e r i a l l y t o t h e
 47
s o l u t i o n o f t h i s p r o b le m . In th e f i r s t o f th e s tu d ie s
j u s t c i t e d , t h e a u t h o r s fo u n d t h e i r h y p o t h e s i s t o b e
e s s e n t i a l l y u p h eld , to th e e f f e c t t h a t th e f a c t o r o f
v i s u a l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e s m e n ta l m a n i p u l a t i o n o f v i s u a l
re p re se n ta tio n s. They c o n c lu d e d a l s o , a s h ad b e e n fo u n d
e a r l i e r i n t h e AAF r e s e a r c h (3 9 ) t h a t t e s t s o f v i s u a l i z a ­
t i o n s h o u ld b e e s s e n t i a l l y u n tim e d i f t h e v i s u a l i z a t i o n
f a c t o r i s to o p e r a te f u l l y .
V i s u a l i z a t i o n a p p e a r e d t o b e one o f t h e m o st im­

p o r t a n t f a c t o r c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e W-B S c a l e on t h e b a s i s
o f arm -c h a ir a n a ly s is . As n o t e d e a r l i e r , t h e s t u d y o f
B a l i n s k y ( 3 ) , w h ich was t h e o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t W-B a n a l y s i s
a v a i l a b l e when t h i s s t u d y was b e g u n , d i d l i t t l e more t h a n
d i f f e r e n t i a t e v e r b a l fro m p e r f o r m a n c e t a s k s . T h is was
e s p e c i a l l y t r u e a t t h e younger age l e v e l s . T h e re a p p e a r e d
t o b e am ple e v i d e n c e i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e B lo c k D e s ig n a n d
O b j e c t A ssem b ly t e s t s o f t h e W-B S c a l e , a t l e a s t , t h a t
some f u n c t i o n l i k e v i s u a l i z a t i o n s h o u ld b e o p e r a t i n g . The
A ir F o rc e s r e s e a r c h had d e m o n s tra te d t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f
t h e M e c h a n ic a l P r i n c i p l e s t e s t a s a m easure o f v i s u a l i z a ­
tio n (3 9 )• A c c o r d i n g l y , t h i s t e s t was i n c l u d e d i n t h e
b a tte r y as th e v is u a liz a tio n re fe re n c e v a r ia b le .

d. P e rc e p tu a l speed. F r e n c h (2 2 ) s t a t e s t h a t t h e
 4$
p e r c e p tu a l speed f a c t o r i s i d e n t i f i e d v d th th e ta s k o f
f i n d i n g a g i v e n v i s u a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i t h i n a m ass o f
d is tra c tin g m a te ria l. H is l i s t show s t h a t i n 34 o f t h e
a n a l y s e s t h a t h e r e p o r t s a p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d f a c t o r was
r e p o r t e d o r can b e h y p o t h e s i z e d fro m t h e r e p o r t e d d a t a .
T h u r s t o n e ( 7 4 , 76) e a r l y r e p o r t e d su c h a f a c t o r b u t was
n o t c e r t a i n as to i t s in te rp re ta tio n . He s u g g e s t e d t h a t
i t app eared to be th e " a b i l i t y to fin d q u ic k ly th e d e t a i l
o f v i s u a l p e r c e p t u a l m a t e r i a l " ( 7 5 , P* 2 3 )* T h is e s t i m a t e
o f t h e e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e o f t h e f a c t o r seem s t o h a v e b e e n
v e rifie d by l a t e r re se a rc h . I n 1 9 4 7 , G u i l f o r d (3 9 ) d e s ­
c r i b e d t h e f a c t o r a s i n v o l v i n g r a p i d c o m p a r is o n o f v i s u a l
fo rm s an d t h e n o t a t i o n o f s i m i l a r i t y and d i f f e r e n c e s .
T h u r s t o n e ’ s I d e n t i c a l Forms t e s t i n t h e o r i g i n a l PMA
b a t t e r y h a d t h e h i g h e s t l o a d i n g on a f a c t o r h e v e r y t e n t a ­
t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d a s p e r c e p t u a l (7 4 ) and i n v o l v e s a t a s k
e s s e n t i a l l y i n ag reem en t w ith G u i l f o r d ’ s d e f i n i t i o n .
I t a p p e a r s fro m t h e s e few r e m a r k s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t
a p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d f a c t o r i s q u i t e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d and
, t h a t i t i n v o l v e s m a i n l y t h e q u ic k p e r c e p t i o n o f v i s u a l
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s (an d p o s s i b l y r e a c t i o n t o t h e s e p e r c e p ­
tio n s ). The o u t s t a n d i n g r e a s o n f o r t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t
v a r i a n c e i n p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d m ig h t b e fo u n d i n t h e W-B
S c a l e was t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e D i g i t Symbol t e s t i n t h e
 49
sc a le * On an a p r i o r i b a s i s p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d w ould b e
e x p e c te d to be im p o rta n t i n t h i s , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e th e
t i m e l i m i t i s so s h o r t t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e o p p o rtu n ity
f o r le a r n in g to in f lu e n c e th e sco re* T here ap p e a re d t o be
l e s s j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r e x p e c tin g v a ria n c e in t h i s fa c to r
i n o t h e r o f t h e W-B s u b t e s t s , b u t o t h e r s o f t h e p e r f o r m ­
a n c e t e s t s , b e i n g s t r i c t l y t i m e d , m ig h t b e e x p e c t e d t o b e
i n f l u e n c e d t o some e x t e n t b y p e r c e p t u a l sp e ed * In lin e
w i t h t h i s r e a s o n i n g , a t e s t o f p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d was c o n ­
s t r u c t e d an d i n c l u d e d a s a r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e i n t h e
b a tte ry . I t s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e n o t e d h e r e , t h a t t h i s was
t h e o n l y o n e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e t e s t s w hose f a c t o r i a l com­
p o s i t i o n was n o t known fro m p r e v i o u s f a c t o r s t u d i e s .
A lth o u g h t h e A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n i n g , V o c a b u l a r y , a n d N um eri­
c a l O p e r a t i o n s t e s t s w ere a l s o c o n s t r u c t e d f o r t h i s
s p e c i f i c u s e b y t h e w r i t e r , t h e y w ere e s s e n t i a l l y d u p l i ­
c a t e s o f t e s t s t h a t had been f a c t o r a n a ly z e d p r e v i o u s l y .

e. R e aso n in g . T h e re seem s t o b e c o n c l u s i v e e v i ­
dence t h a t re a so n in g is not a s in g le a b i l i t y f a c t o r . In
1 9 3 # , T h u r s t o n e r e m a r k e d , " P e r h a p s t h e r e i s no p r i m a r y
i re a so n in g a b i l i t y a t a l l , so t h a t w hat we o r d i n a r i l y c a l l
! " r e a s o n i n g " i s a co m p lex o f more e l e m e n t a r y p o w ers no one
o f w h ich c a n b e c a l l e d " r e a s o n i n g " " ( 7 4 , P* 2 ) . In th is
 50
a n a l y s i s he f o l l o w e d h i s own s u g g e s t i o n and i d e n t i f i e d
i n d u c t i o n an d d e d u c t i o n f a c t o r s ( t e n t a t i v e l y ) b u t named
n e i th e r re a s o n in g . In t h i s c o n n e c tio n i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g
t o n o t e t h a t Spearm an (6 6 ) seemed p a r t i a l l y c o n v i n c e d
t h a t h is f g f and r e a s o n i n g w ere n o t g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t *
I n f a c t , he q u o t e s Webb a s f i n d i n g a c o r r e l a t i o n o f .94
b e tw e e n , g l a n d r e a s o n i n g . I n wiew o f S p e a rm a n ’ s d e f i n i ­
t i o n o f ’ g 1 a s t h e Tte d u c a t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s an d c o r r e l a t e s ”
(&&> P* 33) i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t h e saw a c l o s e r e ­
la tio n s h i p to re a s o n in g .
A i r F o r c e r e s e a r c h d u r i n g W orld War I I h e l p e d t o
v e r i f y th e s u sp ic io n t h a t re a so n in g i s n o t a s in g l e f a c t o r
b u t r a th e r in c lu d e s s e v e r a l. A g e n e ra l re a so n in g f a c t o r
w as f o u n d , i d e n t i f i e d b e s t b y a r i t h m e t i c r e a s o n i n g t e s t s .
Two o t h e r r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r s w e re f o u n d , a p p a r e n t l y b e s t
i d e n t i f i e d b y t e s t s t h a t w e re co m p lex en o u g h t o make
d e f i n i t i o n o f th e f a c t o r s v ery d i f f i c u l t . P ro b a b ly th e
m o s t r e c e n t an d m o st i n f o r m a t i v e s t u d y i n r e a s o n i n g h a s
b e e n r e p o r t e d by G re e n ( 3 6 ) . In a m a trix d e sig n e d
s p e c i f i c a l l y t o e x p l o r e r e a s o n i n g a b i l i t i e s , he f o u n d
no f e w e r t h a n se v e n f a c t o r s t h a t m ig h t b e i n c l u d e d u n d e r
i r
| th e g e n e r a l h ea d in g o f r e a s o n i n g . T h is e v id e n c e a p p e a rs
to c l i n c h t h e a rg u m e n t f o r a co m p lex i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
re a so n in g .
 51
As f a r a s t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e
a p p e a re d to be r a t i o n a l b a s e s f o r h y p o th e s iz in g th e
p r e s e n c e o f r e a s o n i n g i n t h e A r i t h m e t i c , C o m p re h e n s io n ,
an d P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t s u b t e s t s , a t l e a s t * S in c e t h e
b e s t t e s t i n th e A ir F o rc e b a t t e r i e s f o r th e i d e n t i f i c a ­
t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r was a r i t h m e t i c
re a s o n in g , i t appeared a p p r o p r ia te t o in c lu d e a t e s t of
t h i s t y p e u n d e r t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t c e r t a i n o f t h e W-B
t e s t s w ould em erge w i t h v a r i a n c e on su c h a f a c t o r * Such
a t e s t was c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e w r i t e r a l o n g l i n e s o f t h e
A i r F o r c e A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n in g t e s t ( 3 9 ) *

M e c h a n ic a l k n o w le d g e * F r e n c h (2 2 ) n o t e s t h a t
t h i s i s a w e ll- e s ta b lis h e d f a c t o r r e l a t e d t o a c q u ire d
k n o w le d g e r a t h e r t h a n t o i n n a t e a b i l i t y . He s u g g e s t s a l s o
t h a t th e f a c t o r i s p ro b a b ly a c o m b in a tio n o f f a c t o r s
r a t h e r th a n a u n ita r y a b i l i t y . Much o f t h e e v i d e n c e on
th is f a c t o r a l s o h i n g e s on A i r F o r c e r e s e a r c h . S ev eral
p r i n t e d t e s t s w e re fo u n d t o c o n t r i b u t e t o d e f i n i t i o n o f
t h e f a c t o r ( 3 9 , c h a p t e r 1 3 )*
T h e r e a p p e a r e d t o b e some r e a s o n f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t
some o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t s o f t h e W-B m ig h t h a v e some­
t h i n g i n common w i t h t h o s e t e s t s t h a t h a d h a d l o a d i n g s i n
t h e A i r F o r c e b a t t e r i e s on w h a t was c a l l e d m e c h a n i c a l
ex p e rien ce * T h is r a t i o n a l e a p p e a r e d t o be a p p l i c a b l e t o
t h e B lo c k D e s ig n t e s t . W ith t h i s r a t h e r s h a k y j u s t i f i c a ­
tio n , i t was d e c i d e d t o i n c l u d e a t e s t e s s e n t i a l l y t h e
same a s t h e M e c h a n ic a l I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t w h ich h a d y i e l d e d
t h e h i g h e s t m e ch an ic al e x p e rie n c e lo a d in g s i n t h e A ir
F o rce b a t t e r i e s . Some m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e A i r F o r c e
fo rm w ere made i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f m a k in g t h e t e s t more
s u i t a b l e f o r a group in c lu d in g b o th s e x e s .

g. Memory an d S p a c e r e l a t i o n s . Some a t t e n t i o n was

g i v e n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t memory an d s p a c e r e l a t i o n s
sh o u ld be r e p r e s e n te d in th e b a t t e r y by r e f e r e n c e v a r i ­
a b le s. S e v e r a l p r o b le m s i n t e r v e n e d , h o w e v e r . P ro b a b ly
m o s t i m p o r t a n t was t h e f a c t t h a t t e s t i n g tim e was l i m i t e d
and th e b a t t e r y a s c o n s t i t u t e d a l r e a d y r e q u i r e d t h r e e
te stin g se ssio n s. T h i s was j u s t a b o u t t h e l i m i t o f t i m e
t h a t c o u l d b e a s k e d o f t h e s c h o o l , e s p e c i a l l y when i t is
c o n s i d e r e d t h a t s e v e r a l who a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e W-B i n d i ­
v i d u a l l y w ere p r e s e n t i n t h e s c h o o l a n d c a l l i n g on t h e
tim e o f t h e s e s tu d e n ts o v e r a p e r io d o f s e v e r a l w eeks.
A n o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n was t h e f a c t t h a t s u i t a b l e t e s t s
w e re n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s a g e g r o u p f o r e i t h e r o f t h e
above f a c t o r s . P o s s ib le r e s u l t s o f th e s e o m is sio n s,
e s p e c i a lly t h a t o f a space r e la tio n s re fe re n c e v a r ia b le ,
 53
w ill be d isc u ss e d l a t e r .

3* O th e r p e r t i n e n t h y p o th e s e s » S e v e ra l o th e r
q u e s t i o n s p r e s e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s , h a v i n g t o do m a i n l y w i t h
c o m p a r a b i l i t y o f p r o p o s e d g r o u p t e s t s and t h e i n d i v i d u a l
te sts o f t h e W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e S c a l e .

a. R e c o g n itio n v s . r e c a l l . One o f t h e p ro b le m s
t h a t d o g s t h e f o o t s t e p s o f t h e m e n t a l t e s t e r a s he
a tte m p ts to ad h ere a s c lo s e ly as p o s s ib le to e x p e rim e n ta l
m e th o d o lo g y , i s t h e m a t t e r o f e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n t r o l . T h is
is e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t t o one who i s e n g a g in g i n f a c t o r
r e s e a r c h s i n c e d i f f e r e n c e s i n e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s may
i n t r o d u c e s p u r i o u s c o r r e l a t i o n o r l a c k o f c o r r e l a t i o n and
may ev en r e s u l t i n s p u r i o u s f a c t o r s . In th e p re s e n t r e ­
s e a r c h t h e m a t t e r o f t h e t y p e o f r e s p o n s e dem anded o f t h e
e x a m in e e seemed t o b e a v a r i a b l e t h a t c o n c e i v a b l y c o u l d
in tro d u c e a r t i f a c t s in to th e r e s u l t s .
I n v ie w o f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , i t a p p e a r e d a p ­
p r o p r i a t e t o make somewhat o f an i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e g a r d i n g
t h e r e s p e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s o f r e c o g n i tio n and r e c a l l ty p e s
o f resp o n ses. S t a l n a k e r (6 $ ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p ro b le m
s e v e r a l y e a r s a g o , a s d i d a l s o Andrew an d B i r d ( 2 ) . B o th
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d t h a t r e c a l l an d r e c o g n i t i o n c o r ­
r e l a t e h i g h l y an d t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s c o n c lu d e d t h a t b o t h
 54
t y p e s m e a s u r e d e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same f u n c t i o n i f a p p l i e d
to id e n tic a l m a te ria l. Spearm an (6 6 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t
n e i t h e r m ethod r e s u l t e d i n a g r o u p f a c t o r .
I n o r d e r t o ch e ck on t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t i n t h i s
b a t t e r y a n d w ith t h i s p o p u l a t i o n , r e c a l l and r e c o g n i t i o n
m e th o d s w ou ld n o t p r o d u c e f a c t o r d i f f e r e n c e s a s a f u n c t i o n
o f m e th o d , i t was d e c i d e d t o i n c l u d e t e s t s o f t h e two
t y p e s w i t h t h e same k i n d o f m a t e r i a l . V a r ia b le s 9 and 1 0 ,
v o c a b u l a r y r e c o g n i t i o n and v o c a b u l a r y r e c a l l , resp ec­
t i v e l y , w e re c o n s t r u c t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t e s t i n g t h i s
h y p o th e sis.

b* I n d i v i d u a l v s . g r o u p t e s t adm in i s t r a t i o n .
A n o th e r e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i a b l e t h a t n e e d s t o b e c o n t r o l l e d
o r a t l e a s t ta k e n i n t o acco u n t in such a stu d y as t h i s ,
i s t h e m ethod o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . S earch o f th e l i t e r a t u r e
r e v e a l e d no e v i d e n c e a lo n g t h e l i n e o f p o s s i b l e f a c t o r
d i f f e r e n c e s a s a f u n c t i o n o f m e th o d . N e i t h e r was a n y
e v i d e n c e f o u n d w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o m p a r a b le r e l i a b i l i t i e s
o f t h e tw o m e th o d s .
I n v ie w o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n i t was f e l t d e s i r a b l e t o
t e s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t f a c t o r d i f f e r e n c e s w ould n o t b e
i n t r o d u c e d b y d i f f e r e n c e i n m e th o d o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . In
o r d e r t o t e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i t was n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d
 55
f o rm s c o m p a ra b le t o t h e W-B S c a l e , Form I , s u b te sts but
w h ic h c o u l d b e a d a p t e d . A lth o u g h Form I and Form I I a r e
o f f e r e d by W e c h s le r a s a l t e r n a t e f o r m s , t h e r e i s r e a s o n t o
doubt t h e i r c o m p a ra b ility . F o r e x a m p le , G ib b y (2&) fo u n d
t h a t t h e C o m p re h e n sio n t e s t was h a r d e r i n Form I I t h a n i n
Form I . G e r b o th (2 7 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t when t h e two fo rm s a r e
a d m i n i s t e r e d w i t h i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n , Form I r e s u l t s i n
s i g n i f i c a n t p r a c t i c e e f f e c t i n c r e a s e i n s c o r e s on Form I I
o n l y f o r P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t s c o r e s , w h i l e i f Form I I i s
a d m in iste re d f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t sc o re in c re a s e s occur in
I n f o r m a t i o n , C o m p re h e n s io n , S i m i l a r i t i e s , A r i t h m e t i c ,
P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n , an d B lo c k D e s i g n . A lth o u g h t h i s e v i ­
d e n c e i s d i f f i c u l t t o e v a l u a t e w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e p r e s e n t
p r o b le m i t m ig h t b e t a k e n t o i n d i c a t e t h a t a t l e a s t t h e
tw o fo rm s c o u ld n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e p a r a l l e l i n t h e
s e n s e dem anded by G u i l f o r d (4 0 ) and b y G u l l i k s e n (4 3 )*
I n t h e h o p e , h o w e v e r, th a t „ s o m e l i g h t m ig h t b e th r o w n on
t h e m a t t e r o f m ethod o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e I n f o r m a t i o n ,
C o m p re h e n s io n , S i m i l a r i t i e s , an d D i g i t Symbol t e s t s o f
Form I I o f t h e W-B w ere p r i n t e d f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w ith t h e
g roup t e s t s o f th e b a t t e r y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , due t o t h e
l i m i t a t i o n s m e n tio n e d a b o v e , i t was n o t a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t
a n y r i g o r o u s t e s t o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s c o u l d b e m a d e.
 56
B. P re p a ra tio n o f th e T est B a tte ry

As a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d , p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e b a t t e r y
i n v o l v e d t h e a s s e m b l i n g o f a f a i r l y l a r g e num ber o f t e s t s
i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e l e v e n s u b t e s t s o f t h e W-B S c a l e • In
l i n e w ith th e h y p o th e se s d is c u s s e d in th e p re c e d in g s e c ­
tio n , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e t h e f o l l o w i n g (n u m b ers
r e f e r t o p o s i t i o n i n t h e b a t t e r y a s g i v e n i n s e c t i o n C):
1. Two v o c a b u l a r y t e s t s , on e r e c o g n i t i o n an d
one r e c a l l (9 and 10)
2. One n u m e r i c a l o p e r a t i o n s t e s t uj

3- One v i s u a l i z a t i o n t e s t (6 )

4• One p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d t e s t (3)

5* One r e a s o n i n g t e s t (5 )
6* One m e c h a n i c a l k n o w led g e t e s t (7 )
7* P r i n t e d fo rm s o f I n f o r m a t i o n , C o m p re h e n sio n
S i m i l a r i t i e s , an d D i g i t Symbol from Form I I
of th e W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e .
The w r i t e r c o n s t r u c t e d t e s t s 4 and 5 t o b e a s
n e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e l i k e t h e AAF N u m e r ic a l O p e r a t i o n s and
A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n in g t e s t s (39» P* $0 and p . 9 0 ,
re sp e c tiv e ly )• I n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n in g
te s t, h o w e v e r, i t was n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r t h e a g e o f t h e
p o p u l a t i o n t o b e t e s t e d and p i t c h . t h e d i f f i c u l t y a t t h e
 57
a p p ro p ria te le v e l. The v o c a b u l a r y t e s t s and p e r c e p t u a l
s p e e d t e s t s w ere a l s o c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e w r i t e r a s o u t ­
l i n e d in t h e fo llo w in g s e c t i o n . For a v is u a liz a ti o n t e s t ,
t h e M e c h a n ic a l P r i n c i p l e s t e s t o f t h e AAF b a t t e r y (39,
p . 302 f f ) was u s e d i n t h e e x a c t o r i g i n a l f o r m . For a
t e s t o f m e c h a n i c a l k n o w le d g e , t h e t w o - a l t e r n a t i v e form o f
t h e AAF M e c h a n i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n T e s t ( 3 9 , P* 3 2 7 ) was u s e d
a s a b a s e b u t. some i t e m s h a d t o b e e l i m i n a t e d an d s e v e r a l
a d d e d i n o r d e r t o make t h e t e s t s u i t a b l e f o r a p o p u l a t i o n
o f b o th s e x e s . F in a l c o n te n t o f each o f th e s e t e s t s i s
d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n on d e s c r i p t i o n o f
te sts.

G. D e sc rip tio n o f th e T est B a tte ry

As shown b y T a b l e I I I , th e b a t t e r y o r i g i n a l l y con­
ta in e d tw e n ty -six v a r i a b l e s . I t was n e c e s s a r y t o d e l e t e
tw o o f t h e v a r i a b l e s b e f o r e t h e f i n a l s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t ­
m ent o f t h e d a t a . E lim in a tio n o f th e s e v a r ia b le s i s
e x p la in e d e lse v iie re ( p . $5, $ 6 ). The f i r s t two v a r i a b l e s
(Age and O t i s B e ta ) w ere b a s e d on s c h o o l r e c o r d s . The
O t i s h a d b e e n a d m i n i s t e r e d p r e v i o u s l y t o a l l members o f
t h e s a m p le an d t h e s c o r e p r e s u m a b ly a s s i g n e d a c c o r d i n g t o
p r o c e d u r e o u t l i n e d i n t h e t e s t m a n u a l. The w r i t e r h ad
n o t h i n g t o do w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o r s c o r i n g o f t h e s e
 53
TABLE I I I

INFORMATION ON TEST BATTERY

Number S p e e d ( s ) o r Time
N o. Name o f V a r i a b l e o f ite m s Pow er (p ) l i m i t s*
1* Age m m _ m M M

2 . O tis B e ta SO s, p 30
3 - P e r c e p t u a l S p eed 1 5 0 , 150 s 4, 4
4* N u m e r ic a l O p e r a t i o n s 4 5 , 45 s 4, 4
5- A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n in g 1 0 , 10 s 6, 6
6 * M ech an ical P r i n c i p l e s 30 p 20
7 . M e c h a n ic a l I n f o r m a t i o n 20 p 6
S . S c ie n c e In fo rm a tio n 30 p 10
9 . V o c a b u la ry -re c o g n itio n 40 p 10
10. V o c a b u la ry -re c a ll 40 p 15
1 1 . W-B G roup I n f o r m a t i o n 27 p 7
1 2 . W-B G roup C o m p re h e n sio n 10 p 7
13 • W-B G roup S i m i l a r i t i e s 12 p 6
13 a . W-B G roup D i g i t Symbol 93 s 1 1 /2
14 •* *W-B I n f o r m a t i o n 25 p none
1 5 - W-B C o m p re h e n sio n 10 p n o ne
1 6 . W-B D i g i t S pan — —

1 7 . W-B A r i t h m e t i c 10 p, s v a rio u s
I S . W-B S i m i l a r i t i e s 12 p none
1 9 - W-B V o c a b u la r y 42 p none
2 0 . W-B P i c t u r e A rran g e m en t 6 p, s v a r i ous
2 1 . W-B P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n 15 p, s 20tf e a c h
2 2 . W-B B lo c k D e s ig n 7 p, s v a rio u s
23* W-B O b j e c t A ssem bly 3 p, s 2, 3 , 3
2 4 . W-B D i g i t Symbol 67 s 1 1 /2
24a W-B F u l l S c a l e IQ
. — —

* Time i n m in u te s * L i m i t s f o r s p e e d t e s t s a r e e x a c t ,
f o r p o w er t e s t s a p p r o x im a te *
** V a r i a b l e s 14 t h r o u g h 24 w ere a d m i n i s t e r e d i n d i v i d u a l l y
a c c o r d i n g t o i n s t r u c t i o n s i n W e c h sle r* s m an ual ( S 3 ) .
 59
te sts, and d a t e s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e n o t known*

1. A g e* Age o f e a c h c h i l d was com p uted t o t h e

n e a r e s t month an d t a b u l a t e d * In c o n v e rtin g to s ta n in e s ,
t h e s c a l e was r e v e r s e d , g i v i n g t h e y o u n g e s t q h i l d t h e
h i g h e s t a g e s c o r e and t h e o l d e s t t h e l o w e s t a g e s c o r e .

O tis B e ta * The O t i s B e t a s c o r e s , r e f e r r e d t o
a b o v e , w ere t a b u l a t e d a n d t r a n s m u t e d i n t o s t a n i n e s c o r e s .
The O t i s i s one o f t h e more p o p u l a r g r o u p i n t e l l i g e n c e
te sts* The t e s t i n c l u d e s f i v e a l t e r n a t i v e v e r b a l i t e m s
r e q u i r i n g k n o w led g e o f w o rd s and n u m e r i c a l an d r e a s o n i n g
a b ilitie s* A few f i g u r e s a r e i n c l u d e d b u t a l l q u e s t i o n s
a r e v e rb a l*

3* P e r c e p t u a l S p eed * T h is i s a new t e s t , d e v i s e d
by th e w r i t e r . The o r i g i n a l i d e a w as p r o p o s e d b y D r . L .
G. H u m ph rey s. Each i t an c o n s i s t s o f a k e y f i g u r e f o l l o w e d
by f iv e a l t e r n a t i v e fig u re s * The e x a m in e e f i n d s and m a rk s
t h e one o r m ore o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e f i g u r e s t h a t a r e i d e n ­
t i c a l to th e key fig u re * The t e s t s h e e t i s an o v e r p r i n t e d
IBM a n s w e r s h e e t and m ark s a r e made i n t h e s p a c e s p r o v i d e d .
The f i g u r e s u s e d a r e t a k e n fro m c a p i t a l l e t t e r s i n
"W edding G u e s t" t y p e ( s i m i l a r t o O ld E n g l i s h ) . The
l e t t e r s h a v e b e e n c u t o r m u t i l a t e d i n v a r i o u s w ays t o make
 60
th em r e s e m b l e o r d i f f e r fro m t h e k ey f i g u r e * As l i t t l e as
p o s s i b l e o f t h e fTl e t t e r tf c h a r a c t e r i s t i c was l e f t , in o rd er
t h a t a n y v e r b a l a s s o c i a t i o n s w o u ld b e h e l d t o a minimum*
As n o t e d i n T a b l e I I I t h e t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d i n two
s e p a r a t e l y t im e d p a r t s f o r p u r p o s e s o f a s c e r t a i n i n g r e ­
lia b ility . S c o r e i s t h e sum o f t h e p a r t s c o r e s .

N u m e r ic a l O p e r a t i o n s * T h is t e s t was d e s i g n e d
b y t h e w r i t e r a n d c o n s i s t s o f s i m p l e p r o b le m s i n a d d i t i o n ,
s u b t r a c t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , an d d i v i s i o n . The s u b j e c t
was g i v e n two f o r e - e x e r c i s e s , one i n a d d i t i o n and one i n
d iv is io n . F i v e a l t e r n a t i v e a n s w e rs a r e l i s t e d f o r e a c h
p r o b le m an d t h e e x a m in e e h a d o n l y t o c i r c l e t h e c o r r e c t
an sw er. Two p a r t s w e re s e p a r a t e l y t i m e d . The t e s t was
h ig h ly speeded.

5* A rith m e tic R e aso n in g . T h i s t e s t w as c o n ­

s t r u c t e d b y t h e w r i t e r a lo n g l i n e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l a r i t h ­
m e tic re a so n in g t e s t s (3 9 , C h a p te r 7 ) • I t e m s a r e w ord
p r o b le m s d e s i g n e d t o c a l l f o r s i m p l e a r i t h m e t i c p r o c e s s e s
w h i l e dem anding c o n s i d e r a b l e r e a s o n i n g . Two f o r e ­
e x e r c i s e s w ere p r o v i d e d . The e x a m in e e s e l e c t e d one o f
f i v e a l t e r n a t i v e a n s w e r s a n d m arked h i s a n s w e r on an
IBM s h e e t . Two p a r t s w ere s e p a r a t e l y t i m e d .
 6. M e c h a n ic a l P r i n c i p l e s * T h is t e s t i s a n a d a p t a ­
t i o n o f t h e AAF M e c h a n ic a l P r i n c i p l e s T e s t (3 9 ) • I te m s
p r e s e n t s im p le m e c h a n i c a l p r o b le m s s u c h a s a r e e n c o u n t e r e d
i n everyday l i f e . The p r o b le m s a r e p r e s e n t e d p i c t o r i a l l y
b y means o f l i n e d r a w i n g s . The q u e s t i o n s a r e v e r b a l , a s
a ls o a r e th e t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e an sw ers. E x a m in e e s e n t e r e d
t h e i r a n s w e r s on IBM a n s w e r s h e e t s . Time l i m i t s w ere
l i b e r a l and p r a c t i c a l l y a l l e x a m in e e s f i n i s h e d t h e t e s t .

7* M ech an ical I n f o r m a tio n . T h i s t e s t i s an

a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e AAF M e c h a n i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t ( 3 9 ) •
The t e s t i n c l u d e s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t a u t o m o b i l e e n g i n e s and
p a r t s and t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s , and a b o u t h o u s e h o ld m e c h a n i c a l
g a d g e ts. F i f t e e n o f t h e i t e m s h a v e two a l t e r n a t i v e s ,
w h ile t h e re m a in d e r have e i t h e r f iv e o r t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e s
Time l i m i t s w e re l i b e r a l and p r a c t i c a l l y a l l e x a m in e e s
fin ish e d .

S c ie n c e I n f o r m a tio n . T h is t e s t i n c l u d e s q u e s ­
t i o n s r e g a r d i n g p r e s e n t day s c i e n t i f i c d e v e lo p m e n ts i n
p h y s ic s , m e d ic in e , and o th e r s c ie n c e s . Q u e stio n s a r e
b a s e d on t h e k in d o f i n f o r m a t i o n fo u n d i n t h e s c i e n c e
s e c t i o n o f Newsweek m a g a z in e an d o t h e r s i m i l a r p u b l i c a ­
tio n s. Time l i m i t s w e re l i b e r a l a n d p r a c t i c a l l y a l l
e x a m in e e s f i n i s h e d .
 62
9* V o c a b u la r y R e c o g n i t i o n * The t e s t c o n s i s t s o f
a lis t o f w o r d s , e a c h o f w h ic h i s f o l l o w e d b y f i v e o t h e r
w o rd s • The ex a m in e e was r e q u i r e d t o s e l e c t one o f t h e
f i v e w h ich m ost n e a r l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e m ean in g o f t h e
t e s t word* IBM a n s w e r s h e e t s w e re p r o v i d e d f o r r e c o r d i n g
an sw ers* T h is t e s t , a s w e l l a s t h e f o l l o w i n g o n e , was
c o n s tr u c te d by th e w r i te r * The two t e s t s w e re e q u a t e d a s
n e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e , w ord f o r w o rd , b y s e l e c t i n g w o rd s o f
e q u a l d i f f i c u l t y a s i n d i c a t e d by T h o m d i k e f s Word L i s t
(7 3 )* On t h i s same b a s i s , w o rd s w e re p l a c e d a s n e a r l y a s
p o s s i b l e i n a sc en d in g o r d e r o f d i f f i c u l t y * Time l i m i t s
w e r e l i b e r a l an d p r a c t i c a l l y a l l s u b j e c t s f i n i s h e d *

10. V o c a b u la r y R e c a l l * T h is t e s t i s s i m i l a r i n
a l l r e s p e c t s t o t h e one j u s t d e s c r i b e d , e x c e p t t h a t t h e
e x a m in e e m u st g i v e a s a f r e e a n s w e r a d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e
w o rd l i s t e d * I n t h e d i r e c t i o n s , e x a m in e e s w e re a s s u r e d
t h a t m e an in g o n l y was i m p o r t a n t * They w e re u r g e d t o t r y
e v e r y i t e m an d t o s t a t e a s c l e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e w h at t h e y
m e a n t. Time l i m i t s w e re l i b e r a l and p r e s u m a b ly a l l
e x a m in e e s a n s w e re d a s many i t e m s a s t h e y knew .

11. In fo rm a tio n * T h is t e s t a n d num ber 1 2 , 1 3 ,

an d 1 3 a a r e g r o u p a d a p t a t i o n s o f W e c h s l e r - B e l l e v u e t e s t s
 63
fro m Form I I . They c o r r e s p o n d t o Form I v e r s i o n s , v a r i ­
a b l e s 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 $ , and 24 r e s p e c t i v e l y . T e st ite m s a re
a r r a n g e d i n a s c e n d i n g o r d e r o f d i f f i c u l t y an d c a l l f o r a
w id e v a r i e t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n (&3)*

12. C o m p re h e n s io n . G roup a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e Form

II te st ( s e e d e s c r i p t i o n o f v a r i a b l e 1 5 )*

13* S im ila ritie s♦ G roup a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e F o r a

II te st (see d e s c rip tio n o f v a ria b le I S ) .

13a. D i g i t S y m b o l. G roup a d a p t a t i o n o f Form I I

te st ( s e e d e s c r i p t i o n o f v a r i a b l e 2 4 )* As n o t e d e l s e ­
w h e r e , t h i s v a r i a b l e w as n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e f a c t o r
a n a ly sis *

14* W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e I n f o r m a tio n . T h is t e s t and

v a r i a b l e s 15 th r o u g h 24 a r e s u b t e s t s o f t h e W e c h s l e r -
B e lle v u e , a d m in iste re d in d iv id u a lly in th e p re s c rib e d
m anner. Ite m s a r e o f th e k in d d e s c r ib e d u n d e r 11, ab o v e.

15* Compr eh en s i on * T h is t e s t c o n t a i n s i t e m s o f
w h a t m ig h t b e c a l l e d p r a c t i c a l ju d g m e n t. E xam in ee i s
a s k e d w h at one s h o u ld do u n d e r d e s c r i b e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,
or is q u e s t i o n e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e a s o n s f o r w e ll- k n o w n
p ra c tic e s.
 64
-*-6* D ig it Span* T h is t e s t y i e l d s a s c o r e w h ich
i s t h e num ber o f d i g i t s t h a t t h e e x a m in e e can r e p e a t
f o r w a r d a f t e r - one h e a r i n g , p l u s t h e nu m b er he c a n r e p e a t
b a c k w a rd a f t e r one h e a r i n g * D ig its a re re p e a te d a t th e
r a t e o f one p e r se co n d *

17* A rith m e tic * T h is in v o lv e s a r i t h m e t i c p ro b ­

le m s i n a s c e n d i n g o r d e r o f d i f f i c u l t y . P ro b le m s 1 - 6 a r e
r e a d a l o u d b y t h e e x a m in e r an d m u st be a n s w e re d b y t h e
e x a m in e e w i t h i n r a t h e r l i b e r a l t i m e l i m i t s * P r o b le m s 9
a n d 10 a r e r e a d a l o u d by t h e e x a m in e e fro m a c a r d . Time
a s w e l l a s a c c u r a c y c r e d i t s a r e a l lo w e d on t h e s e l a s t
tw o* E x a m in e r c o n t i n u e s u n t i l 3 s u c c e s s i v e p r o b le m s a r e
fa ile d •

16* S im ila ritie s* I n t h i s t e s t , p a i r s o f w o rd s

a r e named and t h e e x a m in e e i s r e q u i r e d t o t e l l i n w hat
way t h e o b j e c t s , m a t e r i a l s , o r c o n c e p t s a r e a l i k e * The
t e s t i s n o t tim e d and t h e e x a m in e r c o n t i n u e s u n t i l f o u r
s u c c e s s iv e ite m s a r e f a i l e d .

19* V o c a b u la r y * E x a m in e r g i v e s w o rd s fro m a l i s t
o f w o rd s o f a s c e n d i n g d i f f i c u l t y * E xam inee i s r e q u i r e d t o
t e l l w h at e a c h w ord m e a n s . U nd er c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s
t h e e x a m in e r may q u e s t i o n o r a s k f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n . Words
 65
a re sco red 1 , l / 2 , or 0 . E x a m in e r c o n t i n u e s u n t i l f i v e
o r m ore s u c c e s s i v e w o rd s h a v e b e e n s c o r e d z e ro * The t e s t
i s n o t tim e d *

20* P i c t u r e A r r a n g e m e n t* A s e r i e s o f p i c t u r e s on
s e p a r a t e c a r d s i s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e ex am in ee* P ic tu re s
a re in d isa rra n g e d o rd e r but i f arran g ed c o r r e c tly th e y
w i l l make a s e n s i b l e s t o r y . E xam in ee i s d i r e c t e d t o
a r r a n g e them * Time l i m i t s a r e r a t h e r l i b e r a l . The f i r s t
f o u r s e t s a r e s c o r e d f o r a c c u r a c y o n l y ( w i t h i n t h e tim e
l i m i t s ) , w h i l e t h e l a s t tw o a r e s c o r e d f o r b o t h a c c u r a c y
and t i m e •

21. P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n * The e x a m in e r p r e s e n t s

l i n e - d r a w i n g p i c t u r e s one a t a t i m e . The e x a m in e e i s
i n s t r u c t e d t o r e p o r t w hat p a r t i s m i s s i n g . I te m s a r e i n
a scen d in g o rd e r o f d i f f i c u l t y . Time l i m i t s a r e l i b e r a l
an d few i f a n y m is s i t e m s b e c a u s e o f l a c k o f tim e *

22* B lo c k D e s i g n . T h is i s b a s e d on t h e w e l l -
known Kohs b l o c k s * Each b l o c k h a s a r e d , a w h i t e , a
y e l l o w , and a b l u e s i d e . Of t h e tw o r e m a i n i n g o p p o s i t e
s i d e s , o n e i s h a l f y e l l o w and h a l f b l u e and one i s h a l f
r e d and h a l f w h i t e . B e g in n in g w i t h s i m p l e p r o b le m s u s i n g
4 b l o c k s , t h e e x a m in e e a t t e m p t s t o make d e s i g n s l i k e t h o s e
 66

p i c t u r e d on c a r d s he i s show n. Time l i m i t s a r e f a i r l y
l i b e r a l , b u t e x a m in e e r e c e i v e s b o t h tim e an d a c c u r a c y
sco res* E x a m in e r c o n t i n u e s u n t i l e x a m in e e f a i l s t h r e e
su c c e ssiv e d e s ig n s.

O b j e c t A s s e m b ly . F a m i l i a r f i g u r e s , c u t up
i n j i g saw f a s h i o n , a r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e p a r t s p l a c e d
in a s p e c if ie d d isa rra n g e d o rd e r. The ex a m in e e i s
d i r e c t e d t o a r r a n g e th em so t h a t " t h e y w i l l form som e­
th in g " ( $ 3 , p* 1$2) . A l l i t e m s a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d an d i t e m s
a r e s c o r e d f o r b o t h s p e e d and a c c u r a c y .

P i g i b S y m b o l. D i g i t s fro m 1 t o 9 a r e shown i n
o r d e r a t t h e t o p o f t h e t e s t s h e e t , e a c h p a i r e d w i t h an
u n f a m i l i a r s y m b o l. Below t h i s key a r e row s o f b l a n k s
p a i r e d w i t h d i g i t s i n random o r d e r . E xam inee p r a c t i c e s
t h e f i r s t e i g h t i t e m s b y p l a c i n g t h e c o r r e c t sy m bo l u n d e r
e a c h d i g i t w i t h h e l p fro m t h e e x a m in e r a s n e e d e d . A fte r
t h i s p r a c t i c e , h e m arks a s many sym bols t o m atch d i g i t s
a s h e c a n w i t h i n t h e ti m e l i m i t o f 1 l / 2 m i n u t e s .

24a. W e c h sle r-B e lle v u e F u l l - S c a l e I n t e l l i g e n c e

Q u o tie n t. T h is i s a c o m p o s i t e , b a s e d on v a r i a b l e s 14
i t h r o u g h 24* T h is w as n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e f a c t o r a n a l y s i s .
 CHAPTER IV

ADMINISTRATION AND SCORING

T h is c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h t h e p ro b le m s o f a d m i n i s t r a ­
t i o n and s c o r i n g o f t h e t e s t s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r I I I .
The sa m p le i s d e s c r i b e d and t h e m ethod o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
e x p la in e d . S p e c i a l s c o r i n g p r o b le m s a r e d i s c u s s e d t o ­
g e t h e r w ith a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e a ssig n m e n t o f s t a n i n e
sco res. Raw s c o r e r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d and t h e d i f f i ­
c u lty of th e t e s t s c o n sid e re d .

A. The Sample

The g r o u p u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y was o r i g i n a l l y t h e
e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n o f g r a d e SA o f A l e x a n d e r H a m ilto n
J u n i o r H igh S c h o o l i n S e a t t l e , W a s h in g to n . The g r a d e
c o n s i s t e d o f 12 s e c t i o n s . T h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t r i ­
t i o n due t o a b s e n c e s and t h e l i k e . E v e n tu a lly th e s iz e
o f t h e sa m p le s t a b i l i z e d t o 356 s t u d e n t s who t o o k a l l t h e
group t e s t s . O b v i o u s l y some s e l e c t i o n t o o k p l a c e i n t h e
r e d u c t i o n fro m a p o p u l a t i o n num ber o f some 4&0 s t u d e n t s .
T h is s e l e c t i o n was n o t u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e w r i t e r ,
h o w e v e r, e x c e p t t h a t n o n - E n g l i s h s p e a k i n g a n d p h y s i c a l l y
h an d ic a p p e d s t u d e n t s w ere e l i m i n a t e d .
From t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f s o c io - e c o n o m i c l e v e l , t h e
s a m p le came fro m a s e c t i o n o f t h e c i t y t h a t i s l a r g e l y
 63

m id d le c l a s s * No e x t r e m e l y w e a l t h y s e c t i o n s an d no slum s
a r e in c lu d e d in th e t e r r i t o r y s e r v e d by t h e s c h o o l •
Age and t e s t s c o r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s b y s e x a r e sum­
m a riz e d i n T ab le IV . Age was co m p uted t o n e a r e s t month
on Ju n e 1 , 1 9 4 3 . Ages r a n g e d fro m 1 2 - 5 t o 1 6 - 1 0 , w ith
o n l y s i x s t u d e n t s b e lo w 1 3 - 0 and o n l y n i n e a b o v e 1 6 - 0 .
The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h e g r o u p was t h e r e f o r e i n t h e 1 4 t h ,
1 5 t h , and 1 6 t h y e a r s .

B. S e l e c t i o n o f W-B E x am in ees

The g ro u p t e s t s w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d w i t h i n a few
d a y s a n d t h a t p a r t o f t h e p ro g ra m was c o m p l e t e . In d i­
v i d u a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e W-B i s a l e n g t h y p r o c e s s ,
h o w e v e r , and t h i s p a r t o f t h e t e s t i n g p ro g ra m e x t e n d e d
o v e r s e v e r a l w eeks* C o u p le d w i t h t h i s , i s t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e num ber o f s t u d e n t s who t o o k t h e W-B was s u b s t a n t i a l l y
s m a l l e r t h a n t h e num b er who t o o k t h e g r o u p t e s t s . T h is
r a i s e d a n o t h e r p ro b le m o f s e l e c t i o n . In th e f i r s t p la c e ,
i t was n e c e s s a r y t o s p e c i f y t h a t b e f o r e a s t u d e n t was
g i v e n t h e W-B t h e e x a m in e r m u st a s s u r e h i m s e l f t h a t t h e
s tu d e n t h ad ta k e n a l l o f t h e group t e s t s * The o b v io u s
r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h e f a c t t h a t a t t r i t i o n among t h e
r e l a t i v e l y e x p e n siv e i n d i v i d u a l l y t e s t e d c a s e s c o u ld n o t
be a ffo rd e d . I n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , an a t t e m p t w as made t o
 TABLE IV
RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS AND DATA ON SEX DIFFERENCES

Boys (N= 169) G i r l s (N= 187) Mean t

V aria b le M SD M SD . D i f f e r e n c e r a t i o

1 . Age 1 4 .2 5 .78 14*08 •57 •17 2.3 2

2 . O tis B e ta 1 02 .41 1 2 .5 7 1 0 4 .9 9 1 0 .9 4 - 2.58 2.0 5
3* P e r c e p t u a l Speed 1 0 1 .8 9 2 8 .3 1 10 4.2 0 26-57 - 2 .3 1 .79
4* N u m erical O p e r a tio n s 35*50 1 3 .6 2 4 1-29 1 4 .1 1 -5 .7 9 3 .9 4
5* A r i th m e t ic ,R e a s o n in g 4*27 2.54 3 .2 9 2 .0 7 .98 3 .9 7
6* M e c h a n ic a l P r i n c i p l e s 1 2 .8 8 3 . 5 6 1 0 .3 2 2 .6 5 2 .5 6 7 .6 2
7* M e c h a n ic a l I n f o r m a t io n 8 .9 1 2.65 7*69 2 *44 1 .2 2 4 .5 0
S . S c ie n c e I n f o r m a t io n 14.72 4*34 1 2 .2 0 3 .4 6 2 .5 2 6 .0 0
9 . V o e a b u la r y -R e c o g n itio n 14-6 8 5 .8 7 15-88 6.11 - 1 .2 0 1 .8 7
1 0 . V o c a b u la r y -R e c a ll 7*95 6 .7 6 9*78 7.37 - 1 .8 3 2 .4 4
1 1 . W-B Group I n f o r m a t io n 12.36 2.6 3 1 2 .0 2 2 .6 7 •34 1 .2 1
1 2 . W-B Group Com prehension 7 .8 6 2 .3 1 8 .1 6 2 .4 4 -.3 0 1 .1 9
13• W-B Group S i m i l a r i t i e s 10.68 2 .4 0 10.5 5 2 .7 9 •13 • 47
13a.W-B Group D i g i t Symbol 3 ^ .7 6 8 .O3 41-79 7-35 -3 -0 3 3-69
1 4 . W-B I n f o r m a t i o n 13*55 2.85 12.65 2 .8 6 .90 2 .2 2
1 5 . W-B Com prehension 1 2.15 2 .5 6 1 1 .4 5 2 .8 1 .70 1 .8 3
1 6 . W-B D i g i t Span 1 0 .0 1 1 .6 4 10.4 5 1 .5 7 —. 1 .9 4
1 7 . W-B A r i th m e t ic 7*25 2 .2 0 6 .2 3 2 .0 8 1 .0 2 3*38
I S . W-B S i m i l a r i t i e s 1 1 .98 3 -1 8 11.73 3 .1 4 •35 • 56
19* W-B V o cab u lary 19*49 4 -1 1 1 9 .4 4 3*55 •05 .09
2 0 . W-B P i c t u r e A rrangem ent 12 .53 3 .8 3 1 2 .7 1 3*65 .18 •34
2 1 . W-B P i c t u r e C om p letio n 11*36 1 .6 8 1 0 .8 0 1.98 • 56 2 .1 5
(C o n tin u ed )
o\
vo
 TABLE 17 (Continued)
RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS AND DATA ON SEX DIFFERENCES

Boys (N= 169) G i r l s (N« 187) Mean' t

V a ria b le M SD . M SD D i f f e r e n c e R a tio

2 2 . W-B Block D esig n 25*11 5*91 23*23 5 .9 3 1 .8 8 2 .2 4

23* W-B O b je c t Assembly 19*41 2 .6 9 19*97 2*94 -.5 6 1*40
24* W-B D i g i t Symbol 39*27 6*36 42*63 7*63 -3 0 6 305
24a.W-B F u l l S c a le IQ 106*33 1 1 .0 3 105*14 11*66 1 .2 4 *77

"si
 71
k e e p t h e n u m b e rs o f b o y s an d g i r l s a s n e a r l y e q u a l a s was
p ra c tic a b ly p o ssib le . I n t h e t h i r d p l a c e , an a t t e m p t was
made t o k eep t h e num ber i n t h e s e c t i o n s t h a t t o o k the*
i n d i v i d u a l e x a m i n a t i o n r o u g h l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e num ber
who h a d a l l t h e g ro u p t e s t s . T h e se s t a n d a r d s w e re a p ­
p ro x im a te ly m a in ta in e d . Even a f t e r t h e s e dem ands w ere m et
t h e r e was s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l e l a t i t u d e i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f
e x a m in e e s who w e re t o h a v e t h e W-B i n d i v i d u a l e x a m in a tio n
i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e g ro u p t e s t s . Each e x a m in e r h a d a l i s t
o f t h o s e who ha.d t a k e n a l l t h e g ro u p t e s t s . U n til th e
q u o t a from a s e c t i o n was f i l l e d , e a c h e x a m in e r s e l e c t e d
s t u d e n t s more o r l e s s ra n d o m ly fro m t h e l i s t i n o r d e r t o
av o id any b i a s . T h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e no r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e
t h a t a n y s i g n i f i c a n t b i a s w as i n t r o d u c e d .

C. E x a m in e rs

The g r o u p t e s t s w ere a d m i n i s t e r e d b y t h e w r i t e r
w ith th e a s s i s t a n c e o f s e v e r a l p r o c to r s . A p p r o x i m a te ly
o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e W-B e x a m i n a t i o n s w e re g i v e n b y a c l a s s
i n i n d i v i d u a l t e s t i n g ^ u n d e r D r. L o u ise H e a th e rs o f t h e
U n i v e r s i t y of W a sh in g to n . The w r i t e r was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
ap p ro x im a te ly o n e -fo u rth a l s o . The r e m a i n d e r , o r a b o u t
o n e - h a l f , w ere g i v e n b y a c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t .
 72
D. G roup A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

« The t e s t m a t e r i a l s w ere a l l p r e p a r e d b e f o r e h a n d an d
t a k e n t o t h e s c h o o l a u d i t o r i u m w e l l b e f o r e t e s t i n g was t o
b e g in . The w r i t e r h a d a r r a n g e d t h e t e s t s i n t h r e e s u b ­
b a t t e r i e s w h ich w ould l a s t a p p r o x i m a t e l y f o r t y - f i v e
m in u te s in c lu d in g a l l p r e l i m i n a r i e s . A d m in is tra tiv e
d i r e c t i o n s w ere p r e p a r e d a c c o r d i n g l y . T hese d i r e c t i o n s
w ere fo llo w e d c a r e f u l l . Time l i m i t s w e re i n d i c a t e d a n d
heeded s t r i c t l y w ith th e tim e d t e s t s . Some l a t i t u d e was
a l l o w e d w i t h t h e u n tim e d t e s t s s i n c e some g r o u p s f i n i s h e d
s l i g h t l y m ore q u i c k l y t h a n o t h e r s . P ro p o rtio n s f in is h in g
r e m a in e d p r a c t i c a l l y c o n s t a n t .

E. S c o rin g

The g r o u p t e s t s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t e s t 1 0 ,
v o c a b u la ry r e c a l l , p re s e n te d l i t t l e i n t h e way o f s c o r i n g
p ro b le m s . T e s ts 3 , 5, 6 , 7, and 9 u t i l i z e d IBM a n s w e r
sh e e ts. T h e se w ere m a c h in e s c o r e d , y i e l d i n g p a r t - p a r t
sco res fo r te s ts 3, 5, an d 9* T e s t k 9 N u m e r ic a l O p e ra ­
t i o n s , was h an d s c o r e d s i n c e s t u d e n t s c i r c l e d t h e c o r r e c t
a n s w e r on t h e b o o k l e t . T e s t 10 p r e s e n t e d a v e r y s p e c i a l
p r o b le m i n s c o r i n g , in a sm u c h a s f r e e t y p e a n s w e r s w ere
re q u ire d . I t was n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p a r a t h e r c o m p le te
 73
s e t o f s c o r i n g s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e t e s t , b a s e d i n p a r t on
r e s p o n s e s g iv e n # T h e s e s t a n d a r d s w ere t h e n a p p l i e d t o a l l
t h e t e s t s and s c o r e s w e re a s s i g n e d * The g r o u p a d a p t a t i o n s
o f t h e W-B S c a l e , Form I I , t e s t s 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 3 a w e re
hand s c o re d and c o n v e rte d t o w e ig h te d s c o r e s a c c o r d in g to
W e c h s le r ’ s s ta n d a r d s (£ 4 )* No f o r m u l a s c o r e s w e re em p lo y­
e d , a l l o t h e r g r o u p t e s t s b e i n g s c o r e d s im p ly i n t e r m s o f
n u m b er r i g h t #
The W-B t e s t s p r e s e n t e d som ew hat o f a p r o b le m
s in c e s e v e r a l p e rso n s had ta lie n p a r t i n th e a d m in is t r a ­
tio n # P e r u s a l o f t h e t e s t b l a n k s r e v e a l e d some l a c k o f
u n ifo rm ity i n sc o rin g * I n v ie w o f t h i s , t t
v ie w e d a l l s c o r i n g b y W e c h s l e r ’ s s t a n d a r d s (£ 3 ) an d
a tte m p te d i n s o f a r a s p o s s i b l e t o a c h ie v e c o m p le te u n i ­
f o rm ity i n sc o rin g # Few c h a n g e s w ere n e c e s s a r y e x c e p t i n
C o m p re h e n s io n , S i m i l a r i t i e s , and V o c a b u la r y ( v a r i a b l e s

1 5 , 1 3 , and 1 9 ) .

F. D iffic u lty

A l l n e w ly d e s i g n e d t e s t s (n u m b ers 3 , 4 , 5 , 3 , 9 ,
10) w e re g i v e n some t y p e o f p r e - t e s t i n g a l t h o u g h i t w as
n o t p o s s i b l e t o p r e - t e s t on a s a m p le c o m p a r a b le t o t h e
ex p e rim e n ta l p o p u la tio n . T e s t 3 p r e s e n t e d no p r o b le m o f
 74
d iffic u lty * Time l i m i t s w e re m e r e l y s e t so a s t o g i v e an
a d e q u a t e n um b er o f r e s p o n s e s . T e s t 4 i s i n t h e same
c a te g o ry . T e s t 5 was c o n s t r u c t e d a n d p r e t e s t e d on c o l l e g e
fresh m en . I t p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t enough f o r th em so t h e
d i f f i c u l t y was c u t down. R e f e r e n c e t o t h e raw s c o r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n T a b l e IV w i l l show t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t y
s t i l l r e m a in e d t o o h i g h . T h is t e s t r e p r e s e n t s b y f a r t h e
p o o re st e s tim a te a s reg ard s d i f f i c u l t y . R eferen ce to t h e
ra w s c o r e d a t a i n T a b l e IV w i l l show a l s o t h a t t e s t s 6
a n d 7 w e re t o o h a r d . N o th in g c o u l d b e done a b o u t t e s t 6 ,
sin c e i t i s p i c t o r i a l an d , i f u s e d , had to be used a s i s .
A lth o u g h t h e mean s c o r e s a r e n e a r !,c h a n c e n t h e r e i s c e r ­
t a i n l y am ple r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e s u l t s a r e f a r
f ro m c h a n c e - d e t e r m i n e d . T e s t 7 was m o d i f i e d t o some
e x t e n t b u t was s t i l l som ew hat t o o h a r d . T h is c o n d i t i o n
i s l e s s s e r i o u s t h a n i n t e s t s 5 a n d 6*
The S c i e n c e I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t , num ber &, was
s l i g h t l y on t h e h a r d s i d e . T h is t e s t was i n c l u d e d
p r i n c i p a l l y a s a c o n c e s s io n to s c h o o l a u t h o r i t i e s and i s
n o t o f s p e c i a l im p o rta n c e a s a r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e . A l­
th o u g h t h e v o c a b u l a r y r e c o g n i t i o n a n d v o c a b u l a r y r e c a l l
t e s t s w ere c a r e f u l l y e q u a t e d f o r d i f f i c u l t y , t h e d i f f e r ­
e n c e i n t e s t i n g m ethod i n t r o d u c e d c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e
i n t e s t d i f f i c u l t y , a s m ig h t b e e x p e c t e d . F o rtu n a te ly ,
 75
ev en th o u g h t h e r e c a l l t e s t (num ber 1 0 ) i s much t o o h a r d ,

th e s c o r e s w ere d i s t r i b u t e d in s u c h a m an n er t h a t t h e y

c o u ld be n o r m a liz e d q u i t e a d e q u a te ly b y tr a n s fo r m a tio n to

sta n in e s c o r e s . T h is p r o c e s s w i l l b e d e s c r i b e d sh o r tly .

O t h e r v a r i a b l e s o f t h e b a t t e r y w e r e t a k e n d i r e c t l y fro m

t h e W-B and o f c o u r s e a l l o w e d no m o d i f i c a t i o n *
4

G. N o r m a liz a tio n

Raw s c o r e s o f t h e t e s t s i n t h e b a t t e r y h a d a v e r y
w id e r a n g e a s may b e i n f e r r e d fro m T a b l e I F . T h is f a c t
p lu s th e f a c t t h a t some o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e somewhat
skew ed s u g g e s t e d t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f n o r m a l i z i n g t h e
s c o r e s t o a s i n g l e s c a l e so t h a t a g iv e n s c o r e , on w h a t­
e v e r t e s t i t m ig h t b e , w ould h a v e u n i f o r m m e a n in g . It
was a l s o d e s i r a b l e , i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f economy o f l a b o r
i n c o m p u ta tio n , to h av e a l l s c o r e s s i n g l e - d i g i t nu m b ers.
The s t a n i n e s c o r e a d o p t e d b y t h e AAF A v i a t i o n P s y c h o lo g y
P ro g ram (3 9 ) f u l f i l l s t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s and w as d e c i d e d
upon. A c c o r d i n g l y , raw s c o r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s w e re d i v i d e d
an d s t a n i n e s c o r e s a s s i g n e d t o c o n f o r m a s c l o s e l y a s
p o s s ib le to th e fo llo w in g d i s t r i b u t i o n :
 76
h ig h e st 4 fo o f s c o r e s a s s i g n e d a s t a n i n e o f 9
next 7% ft ft tf tt tt tt $
next 1 2 # ft tt tt tt tt
tf 7
next 17% ft tt ff tt tt
n 6
5
next 2C% It tt ft tt tt tt

next 17 # tt ft tt tt tt Tr 4
next 1 2 fo ft tt ft ft Tt
" 3
next 1% ft tt tf ft Tt tT 2
lo w e s t 4# It Tt tf tt tt
” 1
I n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t e s t 1 6 , D i g i t S p a n , i t was
f o u n d t h a t t h i s num ber o f s t e p s and a p p r o x i m a t e d i v i s i o n
was n o t p o s s i b l e * I t w as n e c e s s a r y , t h e r e f o r e , t o
com bine s t a n i n e s 3 a n d 4 a n d g i v e a l l b e tw e e n 2 and 5
a s t a n i n e s c o r e o f 4* W ith t h i s s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n , i t was
p o s s i b l e t o c o n fo rm q u i t e w e l l t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n g iv e n
above. M eans an d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f s t a n i n e s c o r e s
a r e i n c l u d e d i n T a b l e V*
 CHAPTER V

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

A* C o m p u t a t io n o f I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s

W ith a l l t e s t s c o r e s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o s i n g l e - d i g i t
v a l u e s a s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , t h e d a t a w ere
re a d y f o r th e c o m p u ta tio n o f c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s .
The r o s t e r o f s t a n i n e s c o r e s c o n t a i n e d 26 s c o r e s f o r e a c h
o f 202 s t u d e n t s a n d 14 s c o r e s f o r an a d d i t i o n a l 1 5 4 s t u ­
d e n ts. T h is made a t o t a l o f 740& s c o r e s . The n e x t p r o b ­
le m was how t o r e d u c e t h e s e s c o r e s t o an i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n
m a t r i x o f 325 members*** i n t h e m o st e c o n o m ic a l m a n n e r .
T h i s was e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s i n c e a l l c o m p u t a t i o n h a d
t o b e made b y t h e w r i t e r . A s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b le m b y
means o f m a t r i x a l g e b r a s u g g e s t e d i t s e l f f o r two p r i n c i p a l
reaso n s. The w r i t e r h a d j u s t c o m p le te d a c o u r s e i n m a t r i x
a lg e b r a a p p lie d to p s y c h o lo g ic a l p ro b le m s. The m e th o d
a l s o recom m ended i t s e l f b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n t i n u a l c h e c k s
a v a i l a b l e d u rin g th e c o m p u ta tio n a l p r o c e s s . T h is l a t t e r
a d v a n t a g e was somewhat a t t e n u a t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e
b e c a u s e o f t h e f a c t t h a t NTs w e re n o t e q u a l f o r a l l

The num ber o f i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s i s e q u a l t o (n )

( n - l ) / 2 w h ere n i s t h e num ber o f v a r i a b l e s , i n t h i s c a s e ,
26. -
 73
v a ria b le s. The m ethod a p p e a l e d , h o w e v e r, a n d h a s b e e n
fo u n d t o b e c o n v e n i e n t l y a p p l i e d t o t h i s k i n d o f d a t a .
When N’ s a r e t h e same f o r a l l v a r i a b l e s i t i s t h e
w r i t e r ’ s o p i n i o n t h a t t h e m ethod w ould be f a s t e r t h a n
i n d i v i d u a l c o m p u ta tio n s o f c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s s in c e
th e ch eck s p re c lu d e th e n e c e s s ity o f re c o m p u ta tio n to
v e r if y accu racy . T h is w ould a p p l y , o f c o u r s e , o n l y i f

work m u st b e done b y h an d on c a l c u l a t i n g m a c h i n e s .
The b a s i c f o r m u l a s s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e g i v e n , a l ­
th o u g h no a t t e m p t w i l l b e made t o d e v e lo p p r o o f o f th em
h ere. E x p la n a tio n o f n o t a t i o n and th e s e v e r a l f o r m u li
fo llo w .
X = m a trix of t e s t sc o re s
Xfss t h e t r a n s p o s e o f m a t r i x X
N = num ber o f v a r i a b l e s
(1 )2 M* X' 1N 1N» X
N '
(2 ) UP = X* X - M
NDp = d i a g o n a l e l e m e n t o f m a t r i x NP
(3 ) (NDp"1 / 2 ) NP (ND -1 /2 ) = i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n m a trix
P ( a f t e r c h e c k colum n and
row a r e d r o p p e d )

2 The w r i t e r i s i n d e b t e d t o D r . P a u l H o r s t f o r t h i s
m a t r i x d e v e l o p m e n t • The f o r m u l a s a r e s i m p l y m a t r i x e x ­
p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e f a m i l i a r p r o c e s s e s i n th e c o m p u ta tio n
o f th e P earson c o r r e la tio n c o e f f i c i e n t . In o v e rs im p lifie d
 79
/
A f te r t h e c o m p u ta tio n o f th e i n t e r e o r r e l a t i o n
m a t r i x b y t h e m ethod d e s c r i b e d , one p ro b le m r e m a i n e d .
V a r i a b l e s 14 th r o u g h 24 a ( s e e T a b l e IV) w ere b a s e d on an
N o f o n l y 202* T h is m e a n t t h a t t h e r e c t a n g l e i n t h e
i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n m a tr i x bounded a t t h e to p by v a r i a b l e s
14 t h r o u g h 2 4 a and a t t h e l e f t b y v a r i a b l e s 1 t h r o u g h 1 3 a
c o n t a i n e d v a l u e s b a s e d p a r t i a l l y on an N o f 202 an d
p a r t i a l l y on a n N o f 356* E s s e n t i a l l y , th e M te rm o f
f o r m u l a (1 ) i n v o l v e s two d i f f e r e n t Nf s , and h e n c e , s o d o e s
t h e NP t e r n i n f o r m u l a ( 2 ) . The d i a g o n a l i s u n a f f e c t e d ,
h o w ev er, s i n c e th e r e c t a n g l e d e s c r ib e d above does n ot
in c lu d e any d ia g o n a l e le m e n t. When t h e p r o p e r c o r r e c t i o n
i s a p p l i e d , t h e r e s u l t i n g c o e f f i c i e n t i s b a s e d on a n u n ­
c h a n g e d c o v a r i a n c e t e r m and an u n c h a n g e d v a r i a n c e t e r m
f o r th e v a r i a b l e w ith N o f 2 0 2 . The v a r i a n c e o f t h e
v a r i a b l e w i t h t h e l a r g e r N m u st b e c o r r e c t e d , h o w e v e r .
A c tu a lly , i n fo rm u la (3 ) above th e l a t t e r v a r ia n c e i s
com posed o f t h e sum o f s q u a r e d s c o r e s d i v i d e d b y 202
in s te a d o f by 356. T h is e r r o r has th e e f f e c t o f i n c r e a s -

2 ( C o n tin u e d )
t e r m s , XfX r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o v a r i a n c e t e r m , M r e p r e s e n t s
t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e two m e a n s, and t h e ND t e r m s r e p r e s e n t
t t h e v a r i a n c e s o f t h e two v a r i a b l e s . I t can be p ro v ed
q u i t e e a s i l y t h a t fo rm u la (3) i s i d e n t i c a l l y e q u a l to t h e
s t a n d a r d raw s c o r e f o r m u l a f o r t h e P e a r s o n c o r r e l a t i o n c o ­
e f f i c i e n t ( 4 0 , p . 159) and h e n c e t o an y o t h e r e q u i v a l e n t
e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h a t c o e f f i c i e n t . ______________________________
 &0

in g t h e s i z e o f th e d e n o m in a to r and hen ce r e d u c in g th e
a b s o lu te s iz e of th e c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t* The p r o p e r
c o r r e c tio n i s th e r e f o r e equal to th e sq u are ro o t o f
3 5 6 /2 0 2 o r 1 * 3 2 $ . E ach member i n t h e o r i g i n a l i n t e r e o r -
r e l a t i o n , bounded a s d e s c r ib e d above, h a s b een m u l t i p l i e d
3
b y t h i s c o n s t a n t t o y i e l d t h e v a l u e s g i v e n i n T a b l e V.

B* R e lia b ilitie s

In fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g th e r e l i a b i l i t i e s of th e
t e s t s em p lo y ed i s i m p o r t a n t , e s p e c i a l l y when i t is d e s ir­
a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e s o m e th in g a b o u t t h e e x t e n t t o w h ich t h e
n o n - e r r o r v a r i a n c e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s i s common
i n th e b a tte r y r a t h e r th a n s p e c i f i c . In th e p re s e n t stu d y
it i s n e c e s s a r y t o co m prom ise t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t , s i n c e i t

3 D r . H o r s t w o rk ed t h i s p ro b le m t h r o u g h i n m a t r i x
te rm s f o r th e w r i t e r . I n m a t r i x t e r m s , t h e members i n t h e
bounds d e s c r ib e d pro v e to be
r12 (N2)1/ 2
(N]_ N2 ) l / 2
w h e re i s 154 a n d N2 i s 2 0 2 . The w r i t e r h a s a l s o w orked
t h e p r o b le m t h r o u g h i n te r m s o f t h e s t a n d a r d f o r m u l a f o r
P e a r s o n r and a r r i v e d a t a n i d e n t i c a l s o l u t i o n . As can b e
seen r e a d i l y , th e above v a lu e i s t h e sq u a re r o o t o f
2 0 2 /3 5 6 * M u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f t h e v a l u e i n e a c h c e l l o f t h e
a f f e c t e d p o r t i o n o f t h e m a trix by th e r e c i p r o c a l o f t h i s
v a lu e , as d e sc rib e d in th e t e x t above, y ie ld s c o r r e c t
c o rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts .
 TABLE V*
INTERCORRELATION MATRIX

T est 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 -
1 . Age 450 099 335 105 032 -038 206
2 . O tis B e ta 450 237 516 206 109 094 487
3 - P e r c e p t u a l Speed 099 237 359 160 067 076 135
4* N um erical O p e r a tio n s 335 516 359 227 052 012 233
5- A r i t h m e t i c R easo n in g 105 206 160 227 200 231 250
6 * M e ch an ical P r i n c i p l e s 032 109 067 052 200 253 245
7- M e c h a n ic a l I n f o r m a t io n -033 094 076 012 231 253 259
S . S c ie n c e I n f o r m a t io n 206 437 135 233 250 245 259
9 . V o c a b u la r y -R e c o g n itio n 241 629 185 374 178 082 177 549
10* V o c a b u la r y -R e c a ll 352 704 199 386 173 054 064 569
1 1 . W-B Git)up I n f o r m a t io n 233 602 147 410 247 125 147 521
1 2 . W-B Group Com prehension 153 417 177 326 215 128 101 393
13- W-B Group S i m i l a r i t i e s 249 539 171 320 187 101 151 441
13 a.W-B Group D i g i t Symbol 013 178 479 427 100 -0 2 8 013 064
14* W-B I n f o r m a t i o n 304 479 197 497 345 286 094 401
1 5 . W-B Com prehension 114 321 130 344 276 280 122 309
1 6 . W-B D i g i t Span 177 410 182 432 198 214 202 244
1 7 . W-B A r i th m e t ic 237 462 193 519 490 380 161 296
1 3 . W-B S i m i l a r i t i e s 337 430 039 321 224 309 073 339
1 9 . W-B V o cab u lary 171 550 167 369 232 223 093 503
2 0 . W-B P i c t u r e A rrangem ent 206 248 110 313 135 146 -10 0 073
2 1 . W-B P i c t u r e C om pletion 097 327 009 167 126 345 093 317
2 2 . W-B B lock D esig n 161 373 361 343 313 461 186 243
2 3 . W-B O b je c t Assembly -012 228 244 198 092 234 076 151
24* W-B D i g i t Symbol 120 286 368 604 165 101 -00 9 114
24a.W-B F u l l S c a le IQ 453 679 315 580 324 331 150 469
* D e c im a l p o i n t s o m i t t e d
 TABLE V (Continued)
INTERCORRELATION MATRIX

9 10 11 12 13 13 a 14 15 16 17 18

1« 241 352 283 153 249 013 304 114 177 287 337
1 2. 629 704 602 417 539 178 479 321 410 462 430
3* 165 199 147 177 171 479 197 130 182 193 039
4* 374 386 410 326 320 427 497 344 432 519 321
5* 176 173 247 215 187 100 345 276 198 490 224
6• 062 054 125 128 101 -028 286 280 214 380 309
7- 177 064 147 101 151 013 094 122 202 161 073
a. 549 569 521 393 441 064 401 309 244 296 339
i 9• 748 577 410 452 089 341 214 255 202 271
10. 748 620 495 510 138 323 266 274 224 356
11. 577 620 420 535 122 628 385 316 469 461
12. 410 495 420 404 256 506 483 474 473 425
13* 452 510 535 404 140 632 510 538 595 684
13a . 089 138 122 256 140 517 437 622 598 369
14. 341 323 628 506 632 517 339 238 492 436
15. 214 266 385 483 510 437 339 251 421 329
16. 255 274 316 474 538 622 238 251 206 202
17. 202 224 469 473 595 598 492 421 206 380
16. 271 356 461 425 684 369 436 329 202 380
19. 535 622 602 587 724 531 564 438 306 393 520
20. -0 0 8 O84 112 230 315 598 064 195 033 286 188
21. 139 203 377 425 456 571 295 260 147 246 248
22. 142 189 406 499 572 757 331 248 209 447 337
23. 131 189 228 296 382 637 184 119 132 143 168
24. 094 068 165 426 344 983 154 195 250 196 144
24a. 440 535 633 649 793 709 593 547 423 688 631

/
 TABLE V (Continued)
INTEECORRELATION MATRIX

19 20 21 22 23 24 24a ■M* SD rll

1. 171 206 097 161 -012 120 453 5 .0 1 1 .9 7
2. 550 248 327 373 228 286 679 5 .0 4 1 .9 2 . 96**
3- 167 110 009 361 244 368 315 4 .9 8 1 .9 6 .910
4* 369 313 167 343 198 604 580 4 .9 5 1 .9 8 •945
5- 232 135 126 313 092 165 324 4 .7 8 2 .0 1 • 533
6. 223 146 345 461 234 101 331 5 .0 1 1 .8 7 •466
7. 093 •-100 093 186 076 -009 150 4 .9 9 1 -9 7 •343
3. 503 073 317 243 151 114 469 4-96 1-96 •663
9- 535 ■-008 139 142 131 094 44O 5 .0 5 1 .9 1 .815
10. 622 084 203 189 189 068 535 5 .0 0 1-93 •924
11. 602 112 377 406 228 165 633 5.03 1 .9 4 .85**1
12. 587 230 425 499 296 426 649 4 • 84 2.03 •70
13- 724 315 456 572 382 344 793 5-09 1-97 •70
13 cl* 531 598 571 757 637 983 709 5 .0 0 1 .92 .80
14. 564 064 295 331 184 154 593 5 .0 4 1 .9 2 •85#
15- 43S 195 260 248 119 195 547 4-79 1 .7 9 .7 0
16. 306 033 147 209 132 250 423 5 .0 8 1 .7 4 .60
17. 393 286 246 447 143 196 688 4 .8 1 1 .8 9 .70
13. 520 188 248 337 168 144 631 4-94 2.00 •70
19. 216 404 333 282 166 685 4 .83 1 .9 6 •90
20. 216 277 255 105 094 454 5 .0 7 1 .8 8 •65
21. 404 277 372 232 079 535 5.12 1 .7 8 .75
22. 333 255 372 382 274 676 5.02 1 .9 7 .8 0
23. 282 105 232 382 159 418 5 .0 1 2 .1 1 .65
24- 166 094 079 274 159 397 5*07 1-97 .80
24a . 685 454 535 676 418 397 5 .0 1 1-94 •90
A OTTl 1 nf csi”..a m n o afnroc

^ A l t e r n a t e - f o r m combined c o r r e l a t i o n , g r a d e s 4 - 9 , r e p o r t e d i n Buros (7)

* * * B a se d on e s t i m a t e s f o r Form I t e s t s g i v e n i n T a b le I I , f o r v a r i a b l e s l l - 1 3 a c»
VjO
# C o m p o site e s t i m a t e s b a s e d on d a t a i n T a b le I I , f o r v a r i a b l e s 1 4 - 2 4 a
i s not p o s s ib le to o b ta in r e l i a b i l i t y e stim a te s th a t a re
a c c e p t a b l e fro m one a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e W-B v a r i a b l e s *
For th is reaso n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e p e n d on t h e e s t i - s

m a te s t h a t can b e o b t a i n e d fro m t h e f i n d i n g s o f o th e rs*

E s tim a te s have t h e r e f o r e b e e n b a s e d on T a b l e I I i n C h a p t e r
I I an d a r e e n t e r e d a lo n g w ith o th e r r e l i a b i l i t y e s tim a te s
a t t h e end o f T a b l e V.
>
F o r v a r i a b l e s 11 t h r o u g h 1 3 a , t h e r e i s much t h e
same p r o b le m a s t h a t d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s p a r a g r a p h *
R e lia b ilit y e stim a te s fo r th e s e v a ria b le s have, th e r e f o r e ,
b e e n b a s e d on e s t i m a t e s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e t e s t s i n Form I*
S i n c e t h e s e t e s t s w e re i n c l u d e d t o t e s t i n c i d e n t a l h y p o t h ­
e s e s , ex act r e l i a b i l i t y e s tim a te s fo r th e s e t e s t s a r e not
c ru c ia l•
R e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t e s f o r v a r i a b l e s 3 , 4 , and 5 ,
w h ich w e re h i g h l y s p e e d e d t e s t s , w e re s e c u r e d by c o r r e l a t ­
in g s e p a r a t e l y tim e d , p a r a l l e l h a lv e s* The r e s u l t i n g
c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w e re t h e n c o r r e c t e d by t h e
S pearm an -B row n f o r m u l a f o r d o u b l e l e n g t h .
V a r i a b l e s 6 t h r o u g h 10 w e re e s s e n t i a l l y u n tim e d
an d o d d - e v e n m ethod o f c o m p u tin g r e l i a b i l i t y is th e re fo re
a p p ro p ria te . T h i s m ethod was em ploy ed and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
c o rre c tio n a p p lie d . The r e s u l t i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s , a l o n g
w ith a l l o t h e r e s tim a te s o f r e l i a b i l i t y , a r e r e p o r te d a t
 35
t h e end o f T a b l e V .

C• H o m o g e n e it y o f S u b - g r o u p s

A l t h o u g h an e f f o r t w a s made t o a v o i d t h e i n t r o ­

d u c tio n o f b ia s in s e l e c t i o n o f th e 202 s t u d e n t s , fro m t h e

3 5 6 , t o t a k e t h e W-B s c a l e ( s e e p» 6 3 ) , no s t a t i s t i c a l

test had b e e n a p p l i e d t o t e s t th e h y p o th e sis o f homo­

g e n e ity . The f i r s t s u s p i c i o n w as a r o u s e d b y e x a m i n a t i o n

o f th e c o r r e la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts i n T a b le V . I t w i l l be

s e e n t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n v a r i a b l e s 13 a and 24 ,

t h e two f o r m s o f t h e W-B D i g i t S y m b o l t e s t , is .9 3 3 ♦ T h is

was r a th e r s u r p r i s i n g , s i n c e i t w o u ld i n d i c a t e a l m o s t

p erfect r e lia b ilit y fo r th e t e s t s . C o m p a r iso n o f t h e

c o r r e la t io n s o f t h e s e v a r ia b le s w ith o th e r v a r ia b le s in

t h e m a tr ix , v a r ia b le by v a r ia b le , r e v e a le d th a t d i f f e r ­

e n c e s w ere g r e a t e r th a n c o u ld p o s s i b l y o c c u r i f th e tru e

c o r r e la tio n o f t h e s e tw o v a r i a b l e s w e r e .9 3 3 * Computa­

t i o n s w e r e r e c h e c k e d and f o u n d t p b e c o r r e c t . T h is co n ­

d i t i o n c o u ld a r i s e o n ly i f t h e tw o s u b - p o r t i o n s o f t h e

v a r i a n c e o f 1 3 a ( t h a t p o r t i o n d e r i v e d fr o m 1 5 4 and t h a t

d e r iv e d from 2 0 2 ) w e r e n o t c o n s i s t e n t . S in c e u n d etected

e r r o r s m ig h t e x i s t a l s o in th e 1 4 -2 6 x 1 -1 3 a p o r tio n o f th e

ta b le , it w as deem ed n e c e s s a r y t o t e s t t h e h o m o g e n e i t y o f

t h e s u b - s a m p l e s ( 1 5 4 and 2 0 2 ) fo r each o f v a r ia b le s 1
 $6

th ro u g h 1 3 a . M eans, s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s and t - r a t i o s
w e re com p uted f o r e a ch o f t h e f o u r t e e n p a i r s o f v a l u e s .
T hese d a t a a r e g iv e n i n T a b le V I. I t w i l l be seen t h a t
o n l y v a r i a b l e 1 3 a y i e l d e d a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n
th e su b -sa m p le s, th e d i f f e r e n c e f o r 13a b e in g s i g n i f i c a n t
beyond th e 1 p e r c e n t l e v e l . S i n c e v a r i a b l e 1 3 a w as n o t
e s s e n t i a l to th e t e s t i n g o f any o f t h e h y p o th e s e s o f th e
s t u d y , i t was d e c i d e d t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s v a r i a b l e fro m c o n ­
s i d e r a t i o n in th e f a c t o r a n a l y s i s to f o llo w .

D. F a c to r A n a ly sis

The p l a n was t o f a c t o r a n a l y z e t h e m a t r i x o f i n t e r -
c o r r e l a t i o n s b y t h e T h u r s t o n e c o m p le t e c e n t r o i d m e th o d .
As a l r e a d y n o t e d , v a r i a b l e 1 3 a h a d b e e n e l i m i n a t e d . It
w as n e c e s s a r y a l s o t o o m it v a r i a b l e 24 a b e f o r e t h e
a n a ly s is , sin c e i t i s a su m m atio n o f v a r i a b l e s 1 4 - 2 4
( r a w s c o r e su m m a tio n , t h a t i s ) . As T h u r s to n e ( 7 7 ) ,
G u i l f o r d ( 4 1 ) , J o n e s ( 4 7 ) , an d McNemar (5 0) h a v e p o i n t e d
o u t , t h e i n c l u s i o n o f such a l i n e a r c o m b in a tio n o f o t h e r
s c o r e s w o u ld r e s u l t i n t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f on e o r m ore
sp u rio u s f a c t o r s . T h e s e e l i m i n a t i o n s l e f t a 24x24 m a t r i x
fo r fa c to riz a tio n .

1. E x tra c tio n o f f a c to r s . The e x t r a c t i o n was

 a?

TABLE VI

COMPARISON OF SUB-SAMPLES FOR HOMOGENEITY

S am p le I * * * S a m p le I I * * *
ir ia b le M SD M SD Md SEMd t

1. 4 .9 9 2 .0 $ 5 .0 3 1 .S 6 —.0 4 .2 0 9 ♦19
2. 5 .0 3 2 .1 3 5 .0 3 1 .3 $ .0 0 .2 1 1 .0 0
3* 4 .9 7 1 .9 9 4*99 1 .9 2 -.0 2 .2 0 9 .1 0
4* $ .0 2 2 .0 2 4 . a6 1 .9 2 .16 .2 1 0 ♦76
5. 4 .a 6 1 .S 7 4*66 2 .1 7 .2 0 .2 1 9 ♦91
6• 5 .1 4 1 .S 4 4 . a4 I .8 9 •30 .2 0 0 l.$ 0 *
7. 4 .9 7 1 .9 4 $ .0 1 2 .0 2 -.0 4 .213 ♦19
a. 4 .9 4 1 .S 9 4-99 2 .0 6 -.0 $ .213 ♦23
9• 4 .9 5 1 .9 0 $ .ia 1 .9 2 -.2 3 .2 0 $ 1 .1 2
10. 4 .9 1 1 .9 2 $ .1 2 1 .9 3 -.2 1 .2 0 6 1 .0 2
11. $ .0 4 1 .9 2 $ .0 0 1 .9 a .0 4 .2 0 9 ♦19
12. 4*94 2 .0 7 4 .7 1 1 .9 a .23 .2 1 7 1 .0 6
13- 5 .2 2 2 .0 1 4 .9 2 1 .9 0 •30 .2 0 9 1 .4 4 *
13 a . 5 .3 2 1 .9 2 4 .5 a l.$ 3 ♦74 ♦199 3 .7 2 ^ :

* S i g n i f i c a n t a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7% l e v e l *

** S i g n i f i c a n t beyond t h e .1 % l e v e l , very s ig n if ic a n t .

*** Sample I, N=202, Sample II, N=154.

 S3
c a r r i e d out by th e w r i t e r . A l l c o m p u t a t i o n s w ere d on e on
a M onroe c a l c u l a t o r . The c o m p le t e c e n t r o i d m ethod (7 9 )
was f o l l o w e d and a l l c h e c k s v e r i f i e d a t e a c h s t e p t o
in su re accuracy. A c c o r d in g t o T h u r s t o n e f s s u g g e s t i o n ,
t h e h i g h e s t a b s o l u t e v a l u e i n t h e co lu m n was t a k e n a s t h e
e s t i m a t e d c o m m u n a lity . T h u r s t o n e r e n a r k s , tTI f t h e f a c t o r ­
i n g i s t o b e done b y a m ethod w i t h a d j u s t m e n t i n t h e
d i a g o n a l a f t e r e a c h f a c t o r and i f t h e b a t t e r y i s l a r g e ,
s a y , more t h a n t w e n t y o r t h i r t y v a r i a b l e s , t h e n one may
r e c o r d t h e h i g h e s t c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e r e s i d u a l colum n i n
e a c h d i a g o n a l c e l l . ” ( 7 9 , P* 307) S in c e th e p r e s e n t
m a t r i x f a l l s w e l l b ey o n d h i s s u g g e s t e d minimum f o r t h i s
p r o c e d u r e , one s e t o f e x t r a c t i o n s w as deemed a d e q u a t e .

a* C r i t e r i a fo r c e a sin g e x t r a c tio n . The p ro b le m

o f when t o s t o p e x t r a c t i n g f a c t o r s a lw a y s o f f e r s some
d i f f i c u l t y w ith e x p e rim e n ta l d a t a , s i n c e th e co m m u n alitie s
a r e unknow n. As T h u r s t o n e p o i n t s o u t , i f e x a c t communal­
i t i e s a r e known t h e d i a g o n a l r e s i d u a l s w i l l v a n i s h
i d e n t i c a l l y a f t e r t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f t h e c o r r e c t num b er
of fa c to rs. The s o l u t i o n i s n e v e r so s i m p l e w i t h e x p e r i ­
m e n t a l d a t a , so t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r m u st d e t e r m i n e b y some
m eans t h e p o i n t a t w h ic h he h a s r e a c h e d a p o i n t o f s u f ­
f i c i e n t l y d i m i n i s h i n g r e t u r n s t o j u s t i f y him i n s t o p p i n g
 S9

e x tr a c tio n . S e v e r a l c r i t e r ia have been s u g g e s te d . In th e

AAF p r o g r a m t h e c r i t e r i o n w as a d o p t e d t h a t i f th e c r o ss -

p r o d u c t o f t h e tw o h i g h e s t f a c t o r l o a d i n g s (o f th e fa cto r

o n w h ic h t h e t e s t i s b e in g a p p lie d ) is s m a lle r th an th e

sta n d a rd e r r o r o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t b etw een

t h o s e tw o v a r i a b l e s , e x t r a c t i o n may c e a s e a f t e r t h a t

fa cto r. A n oth er c r i t e r i o n i s t h e r eq u ire m en t t h a t t h e

d is tr ib u tio n o f r e s i d u a l s b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y n o r m a l a n d su c h

a s c o u l d l o g i c a l l y b e a ssu m e d t o h a v e a r i s e n b y c h a n c e .

The i m p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n o f t h i s c r ite r io n , th a t tru e

v a r ia n c e i s ex tra cted f i r s t and e r r o r v a r ia n c e l e f t u n til

la st, is p ro b a b ly n ot ju s tifie d . I t h as a lso been su g­

g e s t e d t h a t e x t r a c t i o n sh o u ld c o n tin u e u n t i l no lo a d in g s

a r e g r e a t e r th an .2 0 . G u ilfo r d s u g g e s t s t h a t th e sp rea d

o f r e sid u a ls o f .30 o r l e s s may s i g n i f y a g o o d p o i n t a t

w h ic h t o sto p e x tr a c tio n .

In th e p r e s e n t p ro b lem , i t w a s fo u n d t h a t t h e AAF

c r i t e r i o n w as s a t i s f i e d a t th e e ig h th fa c to r (cro ss-

p r o d u c t o f tw o h i g h e s t l o a d i n g s : .0 5 6 s t a n d a r d e r r o r o f

c o r r e la tio n c o e ffic ie n t: .0 6 2 ). The c r i t e r i o n w a s a g a i n

sa tisfie d a t t h e n i n t h an d w i t h s u b s e q u e n t f a c t o r s .

A fte r th e te n th f a c t o r , th e d is t r ib u t io n o f r e s i d u a l s was

n e a r norm al i n a p p e a r a n c e b u t s l i g h t l y l e p t o k u r t i c . The

c r ite r ia o f m a g n i t u d e o f h i g h e s t f a c t o r l o a d i n g and o f
 90
s p r e a d o f r e s i d u a l s w e re a p p r o x i m a t e l y m e t a f t e r t h e t e n t h
e x tra c tio n . The c e n t r o i d f a c t o r l o a d i n g s an d communal -
i t i e s a f t e r e le v e n e x t r a c t i o n s a r e g iv e n i n T a b le V II .

b. C o m m u n a litie s. C o m p a riso n o f t h e s e communal -

itie s i n T a b le V II w ith th e h ig h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s i n t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e ro w s i n T a b l e V, show s t h a t m o st o f t h e d i s ­
c re p a n c ie s a re sm a ll. Two v a l u e s e x c e e d .2 0 ( 4 N u m e r ic a l
O p e r a t i o n s , an d 17 W-B A r i t h m e t i c ) . One v a l u e , 13* G roup
S im ila ritie s, is .3$* T h i s d i s c r e p a n c y i s v e r y l a r g e and
w a r r a n t s some com ment. I n v ie w o f t h e c h a n c e t h a t some
c o m p u t a t i o n a l e r r o r h a d b e e n m ade, t h e o r i g i n a l c o r r e l a ­
tio n s fo r th is v a r i a b l e w e re re c o m p u te d a n d f o u n d t o b e
c o rre c t. S in c e th e e x t r a c t i o n s had been checked c a r e ­
f u l l y , th e c o n c lu sio n i s fo rc e d t h a t t h i s l a r g e d i s ­
c r e p a n c y a n d t h e i m p o s s i b l e c o m m u n a lity o f 1 . 1 1 r e s u l t
f ro m a s p u r i o u s i n f l a t i o n o f a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e num ber o f
t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s i n column 13* T h is o c c a s io n ­
a l l y o c c u r s and c a n n o t b e p r e d i c t e d from t h e d a t a . T h is
s i t u a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o v a r i a b l e 13 c r e a t e d som ew hat o f
a p r o b le m o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a s w i l l b e n o t e d i n C h a p t e r
V I.

2. R o ta tio n o f a x e s . The s u b j e c t o f c r i t e r i a o f
r o t a t i o n in th e T h u rsto n e -ty p e f a c t o r s o lu tio n has
 TABLE VII*
CENTROID FACTOR LOADINGS AND COMMUNALITIES

I II III IV V VI V II V III IX X XI h2
1 374 -229 102 -31 7 -027 175 -076 -190 -113 033 106 4015
2 753 -3 6 1 137 -0 6 4 038 145 034 -105 -1 2 4 088 043 7798
3 336 -1 6 4 -369 078 088 090 -1 1 0 232 -1 1 8 -1 1 8 -066 3960
4 634 -329 -372 -3 2 1 078 102 076 126 207 -1 2 4 100 858O
5 420 150 -1 8 8 -060 -3 3 4 -093 056 132 -1 5 2 063 -081 4122
6 375 388 -162 222 -226 167 -171 -240 075 -237 170 6232
7 213 072 -0 8 0 268 -29 4 -133 -146 -041 -105 077 -041 2745
8 602 -1 1 4 236 228 -211 -077 029 -059 -045 -027 -121 5552
9 588 -4 5 4 285 239 -122 -094 098 110 -0 7 8 -06 7 070 75H
10 646 -4 4 7 359 209 050 -0 4 4 199 041 -148 -0 9 8 123 8820
11 722 -116 286 038 -1 1 8 113 049 165 140 131 -035 7123
12 695 077 -075 146 192 -2 2 8 217 -071 188 187 153 7506
13 809 184 238 -159 302 -2 2 8 -32 4 196 -182 667 128 1 .1 1 0 8
14 673 061 154 -139 -1 7 4 114 -077 193 306 149 086 7094
15 542 171 -047 -080 -072 -206 175 -055 097 -0 8 0 054 4316
16 493 -107 -1 5 4 063 072 -2 2 8 -125 -162 076 213 143 4528
17 657 250 -143 -309 -261 081 164 140 -1 5 1 153 210 8216
18 607 164 250 -2 2 2 036 -086 -19 4 -095 042 -126 102 5905
19 746 055 306 080 140 -127 135 120 115 -133 047 7611
20 299 151 -0 64 -230 226 196 283 -183 -214 -1 0 8 048 4320
21 468 284 123 128 129 171 154 -200 088 144 -127 4854
22 615 295 -247 150 136 272 -146 062 -145 139 039 7083
23 363 129 -084 228 264 155 -09 7 139 -0 2 2 -069 -066 3395
24 396 -174 -462 -1 3 1 255 -119 -049 046 167 043 -155 5552

* D e cim a l p o i n t s o m i t t e d vo
H
 92
e l i c i t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c u s s i o n a n d c r i t i c i s m by t h o s e
who p r e f e r o t h e r m e th o d s o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . T h e se
c r i t i c i s m s w i l l n o t b e d i s c u s s e d b u t i t may b e p o i n t e d
out th a t th e re is a d m itte d ly c o n s id e ra b le s u b je c tiv e
ju d g m e n t i n v o l v e d i n d e c i d i n g w h a t r o t a t i o n s a r e t o b e
made an d how. E v id e n c e , such a s t h a t r e p o r te d by G u ilf o r d 3
e t . a l. ( 4 2 ) , h o w e v e r, i n v o l v i n g s i m i l a r b u t i n d e p e n d e n t
s o l u t i o n s o f t h e r o t a t i o n p r o b le m , c e r t a i n l y s u g g e s t s
t h a t o b j e c t i v i t y need no t b e la c k in g i n th e e x e c u tio n
of ro ta tio n s.
I n t h e p r e s e n t p r o b le m o r t h o g o n a l r o t a t i o n w as
e m p lo y e d , u t i l i z i n g t h e g r a p h i c m etho d d e v e l o p e d b y
Zimmerman ( 9 1 ) * T h u rsto n e ’ s c r i t e r i a o f sim p le s t r u c t u r e
an d p o s i t i v e m a n i f o l d w ere a d o p t e d a s g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s .
T w e n t y - f i v e r o t a t i o n s p r o d u c e d e s s e n t i a l l y p o s i t i v e m a n i­
f o l d b u t many m ore w e re r e q u i r e d b e f o r e an a p p a r e n t l y
s t a b l e s o l u t i o n and an a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o s im p le s t r u c t u r e
w e re a c h i e v e d .
I n v ie w o f t h e d e s i g n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t and t h e
h y p o th e s e s s e t f o r t h i n C h a p te r I I I , it appeared e n t i r e l y
l o g i c a l t o u t i l i z e k n o w le d g e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s
i n g iv in g c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n to t h e r o t a t i o n o f a x e s .
T h e se v a r i a b l e s ( 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 10) w ere t h e r e f o r e
g iv e n s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n in c r e a s i n g l y a s th e r o t a t i o n s
 93
p rogressed . By r o t a t i o n 6 4 , six o f th e f a c t o r s (A , B ,

C, E , F , J ) h a d r e a c h e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e f i n a l s t r u c t u r e .

O th er f a c t o r s w ere n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y , how ever, so f a c t o r L

i
w as e x t r a c t e d i n t h e h o p e t h a t t h i s m i g h t f a c i l i t a t e th e
i
r e a c h i n g o f a f i n a l s o l u t i o n on o t h e r f a c t o r s . F a cto r L i
i
proved to be o f l i t t l e o r no h e l p i n t h e f u r t h e r r o t a ­

tio n s, how ever. A f t e r r o t a t i o n 77 th e p l o t s w ere a l l

e x a m in e d f o r p o s i t i v e m a n i f o l d , sim p le s t r u c t u r e , and

o b v io u s i n t e r p r e t i v e o b j e c t i v e s , e s p e c i a l l y w ith r e s p e c t

to th e r e fe r e n c e v a r ia b le s . T h e s e e v a l u a t i o n s w e r e em­

p lo y e d in g iv in g d ir e c t io n to fu rth er r o ta tio n s . Up t o

about t h i s p o in t v ery l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n had b e e n g i v e n t o

t h e W-B v a r i a b l e s . In g e n e r a l t h e y w ere a llo w e d t o f a l l

w h e r e t h e y w o u ld a f t e r r o t a t i o n i n t e r m s o f t h e r e f e r e n c e

v a r ia b le s. I n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n was g i v e n t o t h e s p e c i f i c

con ten t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e se v a r ia b le s as w e ll as o f

th e r e fe r e n c e v a r ia b le s in ord er to b r in g about a p sy ­

c h o l o g i c a l l y m ea n in g fu l s o l u t i o n . W ith t h e o n e - h u n d r e d -

fir st r o t a t i o n t h e s o l u t i o n had s t a b i l i z e d and a p p r o x i­

m a t e l y s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e an d p o s i t i v e m a n i f o l d h a d b e e n

a c h ie v e d . O u tsid e o f th e r e s i d u a l f a c t o r (L ) o n l y o n e

l o a d i n g r e m a in e d b e l o w - . 1 0 , (-.1 1 4 ). P in a l r o ta te d fa c to r

lo a d i n g s a r e g iv e n i n T a b le V I I I . C o m p a r iso n o f com -

m u n a l i t i e s c o m p u te d a f t e r r o t a t i o n , w ith th o s e o f th e
 TABLE VIII*
FINAL ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS

A B C D E F .G H J K L
1 218 -028 320 082 135 -022 -092 -070 396 181 -153 4025
2 53 6 022 304 230 073 -007 046 243 474 213 -029 7727
3 000 136 303 083 -0 0 8 024 -0 7 0 515 018 -009 000 3884
4 294 154 740 -077 -032 078 146 311 O89 158 -169 6503
5 066 104 243 315 -0 3 8 436 -0 3 8 096 020 074 160 4071
6 028 641 094 393 126 031 -0 1 8 -092 -0 5 0 -043 -0 7 8 6110
7 091 052 006 436 072 080 -056 057 -0 97 -075 170 2630
8 •572 138 016 317 096 114 -032 125 135 046 193 5434
9 751 -086 049 206 073 080 -0 5 8 310 129 -021 -061 7482
10 795 -028 -0 4 2 124 103 048 026 288 372 -053 -139 9070
11 ■609 122 109 229 005 141 045 174 112 439 026 7082
12 375 200 152 246 054 140 625 200 093 103 009 7367
13 240 126 056 183 651 320 237 378 267 437 -0 4 1 I .O 993
14 423 194 254 230 078 180 092 033 -0 6 4 • 560 -062 7036
15 282 263 224 110 112 331 '280 -009 060 030 065 4203
16 195 -0 0 9 279 336 219 -051 369 147 069 042 017 4440
17 104 198 359 340 -043 571 104 029 218 318 -158 8077
18 310 274 151 089 470 188 092 -0 5 0 195 274 -029 5830
19 601 294 -020'. 027 222 256 252 230 125 211 -006 7402
20 -0 1 8 280 120 -11 4 -063 174 141 008 494 010 -117 4181
21 195 ■364 -096 174 -0 78 000 280 -009 272 260 160 4767
22 -0 7 2 439 110 411 030 081 154 385 224 305 -032 7026
23 039 336 -0 5 4 072 057 -04 5 086 415 068 150 015 3361
24 000 066 524 -053 039 -0 6 4 304 366 O il 066 171 5474

vO
* D ecim al p o i n t s o m itte d
 95
c e n t r o i d m a tr i x (T a b le V II) shows t h a t t h e r e i s no d i s ­

c r e p a n c y a s l a r g e a s *03 • On t h i s b a s i s t h e a c c u r a c y o f
th e r o t a t i o n i s c o n sid e re d a c c e p ta b le .
 CHAPTER VI

INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS

The s t a t i s t i c a l r e su lts of th is stu d y are p re­

s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r V* O f p r im a r y i n t e r e s t o f course i s

T a b l e V I I I i n w h ic h t h e f i n a l r o t a t e d f a c t o r l o a d i n g s a r e

g iv e n . E ven w i t h t h e g r e a t e r s i m p l i c i t y t h a t h a s b e e n

a c h i e v e d b y t h e r e d u c t i o n o f some 6&00 s c o r e s t o an

1 1 x 24 f a c t o r t a b l e o f 2 6 4 e n t r i e s (many o f th e m z e r o s ) ,

th e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e p i c t u r e dem and s s t i l l f u r t h e r

a n a ly s is . In t h i s c h a p t e r an a t t e m p t i s made t o g iv e

m e a n in g t o t h e f i n d i n g s b y i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e in d iv id u a l

f a c t o r s i n term s o f t h e t e s t s t h a t ap p ear w ith s i g n i f i c a n t

lo a d in g s. The f i n d i n g s w i l l a l s o b e e x a m in e d i n t h e

lig h t o f h y p o t h e s e s p r o p o s e d i n C h ap ter I I I .

In r e p o r tin g and in te r p r e t in g f a c t o r a n a ly s is r e ­
s u l t s , some a r b i t r a r y d e c i s i o n s m u st b e m ade. S in c e th e
s t a n d a r d e r r o r o f a f a c t o r l o a d i n g i s n o t known t h e
d e c i s i o n a s t o w hat l o a d i n g s s h a l l b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s l a r g e l y one o f p r e f e r e n c e . McNemar (51)
c r i t i c i z e s t h i s p ro ced u re b u t o f f e r s n o th in g c o n s tr u c tiv e
b y way o f r i g o r o u s c r i t e r i a . In th e p r e s e n t stu d y i t
seem s t h a t *30 i s a c o n v e n i e n t c u t t i n g p o i n t . M ost o f t h e
f a c t o r s h a v e enough v a r i a b l e s w i t h l o a d i n g s a b o v e t h i s
 97
p o i n t so t h a t t h e f a c t o r can b e i n t e r p r e t e d q u i t e r e a d i l y .
i
I n a few c a s e s w h ere t h i s i s n o t t r u e , v a r i a b l e s w ith
lo a d in g s in th e .2 0 *s a r e i n c l u d e d , b u t w i t h i n t e r p r e t i v e
re se rv a tio n s. T h is p o l i c y a v o id s th e q u e s t i o n a b l e p r a c ­
t i c e o f a t t e m p t i n g t o r a t i o n a l i z e l a r g e n u m b ers o f l o a d ­
i n g s , many o f w h ich may a c t u a l l y r e s u l t fro m c h a n c e .
One o t h e r a s p e c t o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h o u l d b e men­
tio n e d . I n l i n e w i t h t h e a b o v e r e m a r k s , one m u st c o n c lu d e
t h a t i t i s n o t known w hat l o a d i n g s may a c t u a l l y b e c o n ­
sid e re d as z e ro . T h is o b v i o u s l y d e p e n d s t o q u i t e an
e x t e n t upon t h e s t a b i l i t y of th e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f ic ie n ts
and h e n c e u p o n t h e N o f t h e s a m p le . I n a s t u d y b a s e d on
a n N o f 5 0 , f a c t o r l o a d i n g s o f .3 0 o r ev en *40 m ig h t
c e r t a i n l y be of q u e stio n a b le s ig n if ic a n c e . W ith a minimum
N o f 202, i t s h o u ld b e e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e p r e s e n t f a c t o r
l o a d i n g s w ould b e m ore s t a b l e a n d t h a t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e
l e v e l w ould b e c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r . W ith t h e s e c o n s i d e r a ­
t i o n s i n m in d , t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a n d a r d s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f f a c t o r lo a d in g s have been e s ta b lis h e d : a . lo a d in g s
w i t h i n .1 0 o f z e r o a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e z e r o l o a d i n g s ,
b . l o a d i n g s b e tw e e n .1 0 1 a n d .2 0 0 a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e
m e re ly s u g g e s tiv e b u t d e f i n i t e l y n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , c .
l o a d i n g s b e tw e e n .2 0 1 and .3 0 0 a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e p o s ­
s i b l y s i g n i f i c a n t b u t n o t o f s u f f i c i e n t im p o rta n c e to
 93

d e te rm in e th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of f a c t o r s , d . lo a d in g s
a b o v e *300 a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t and t h e o n l y
o n e s upon w h ich i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may s a f e l y b e b a s e d *

A* I n te r p r e ta tio n o f F a cto rs

f a c t o r A, v e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s i o n * F a cto r A in
th e f i n a l r o ta te d m a trix i s i d e n t i f i e d by th e fo llo w in g
te s ts :
10. V o c a b u la ry -re c a ll • 795
9* V o c a b u la ry -re c o g n itio n • 751
11* W-B G roup I n f o r m a t i o n .6 0 9
19- W-B V o c a b u la r y .6 0 1
6. S c ie n c e In fo rm a tio n • 572
2. O tis B e ta • 53#
14* W-B I n f o r m a t i o n •423
12. W-B G roup C o m p re h e n sio n •375
1$. W-B S i m i l a r i t i e s *310
T h is f a c t o r i s q u i t e c l e a r l y v e r b a l c o m p re h e n s io n
a s i t h as been i d e n t i f i e d in a m u ltitu d e of a n a ly s e s .
The l e a d i n g l o a d i n g s i n v o c a b u l a r y a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l s i g n ­
p o s t s i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b u t much o t h e r s u b s t a n t i a t i n g
e v id en ce i s a v a i l a b l e . The W-B I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t s a r e
t e s t s o f g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e ex a m in e e p r e s u m a b ly
h a s g a th e r e d l a r g e l y by v e r b a l m eans. In fo rm a tio n t e s t s
o f t h i s s o r t have a p p e a re d r e p e a t e d l y w ith h ig h lo a d in g s
i n v e r b a l c o m p re h en sio n . F i v e o f t h e AAF (39) a n a l y s e s ,
i n w h ich g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f a m ore r e s t r i c t e d k i n d was
i n c l u d e d , show l o a d i n g s r a n g i n g fro m *37 t o .7 1 on t h e
 99

v e rb a l fa c to r* I n h i s a n a l y s i s , B a l i n s k y (3 ) r e p o r t e d
t h e I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t w i t h a l o a d i n g o f *49 i n h i s v e r b a l
fa c to r. A lth o u g h t h e S c i e n c e I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t i s some­
w h a t d i f f e r e n t fro m t h e o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n t e s t s i n t h a t
t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c a l l e d f o r i s more t e c h n i c a l , i t s a p p e a r ­
a n c e on t h i s f a c t o r was e x p e c t e d a n d t h e m a g n itu d e o f t h e
l o a d i n g i n d i c a t e s t h a t v e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s io n p l a y s an
im p o rta n t r o l e i n th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t e c h n i c a l in fo rm a ­
t i o n a s w e l l a s i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f com m onplace f a c t s .
A p p e a ra n c e o f t h e O t i s B e t a w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l l o a d i n g i s
f u l l y j u s t i f i e d in t e r n s of th e fu n c tio n s in c lu d e d in
v e r b a l co m p re h e n sio n . The t e s t c o n t a i n s SO i t e m s , a l l o f
w h ic h a r e p r e s e n t e d i n v e r b a l t e r m s . A p p r o x i m a te ly 60 p e r
c e n t o f t h e i t e m s r e q u i r e some s o r t o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e ­
tw e e n a l t e r n a t i v e r e s p o n s e s c o n s i s t i n g o f s i n g l e w o r d s .
T h is f a c t a l o n e w o uld l e a d t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f a r e l a ­
t i v e l y h ig h v e r b a l lo a d i n g . F r e n c h (2 2 ) r e p o r t s f i v e
d i f f e r e n t a n a l y s e s i n w h ich some fo rm o r p a r t o f O t i s
t e s t s a p p e a re d w ith s u b s t a n t i a l lo a d in g s i n a v e r b a l f a c ­
t o r , w h ile o n l y one f a i l e d t o show a v e r b a l l o a d i n g . In
t h e l a t t e r c a s e , t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e t e s t i n c l u d e d was o n l y
D i r e c t i o n s , i n v o l v i n g m a k in g m arks a c c o r d i n g t o i n s t r u c ­
tio n s . The B e t a fo rm i n c l u d e s no c o n t e n t o f t h i s p a r t i c u ­
l a r k in d .
 100
The tw o t e s t s w i t h l o a d i n g s i n th e *30f s, W e ch sler -

B e l l e v u e Group C o m p r e h e n s io n a n d S i m i l a r i t i e s o f f e r no

p r o b le m o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e ith e r . B o th r e q u i r e v e r b a l

r e s p o n s e s t o v e r b a l q u e s t i o n s and demand some f a c i l i t y in

l a n g u a g e and e x p r e s s i o n . It is o f i n t e r e s t th a t b oth th e

G roup S i m i l a r i t i e s and C o m p r e h e n s io n t e s t s h a v e l o a d i n g s

o n l y s l i g h t l y b e lo w t h e i r t w in t e s t s i n t h e l i s t above.

T h is te n d s to v e r ify th e p resen ce o f th o s e t e s t s in th e

above l i s t o f s ig n ific a n t lo a d in g s.

2. F a cto r B, v i s u a l i z a t i o n . F a cto r B in c lu d e s

o n ly fo u r t e s t s w ith s ig n if ic a n t lo a d in g s , as fo llo w s:

6. M e c h a n ic a l P r i n c i p l e s .6 4 1
22. W-B B l o c k D e s i g n *439
21. W-B P i c t u r e C o m p le t i o n • 384
23* W-B O b j e c t A s s e m b ly •338
T h is f a c t o r i s id e n t if ie d by th e p resen ce o f

M e c h a n ic a l P r i n c i p l e s w ith a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h l o a d i n g .

The t e s t w as i n c l u d e d a s a r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e f o r v i s u a l ­

i z a t i o n and e v i d e n c e , fr o m t h e a b o v e f a c t o r l o a d i n g s se em s

to f u r n i s h am ple j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r th e in te r p r e ta tio n of

th is as th e v is u a liz a t io n fa cto r.

The l o a d i n g o f t h e M e c h a n i c a l P r i n c i p l e s t e s t on

th is fa cto r is som ew h at h i g h e r t h a n w as t y p i c a l l y r e p o r t e d

i n t h e AAF a n a l y s e s (39)« It is p o s s i b l e t h a t m ore o f t h e

v a r ia n c e o f t h is test th an s h o u ld be h a s b een c o n c e n t r a t e d
 N

101

on t h i s fa c to r. T h is h y p o t h e s i s f i n d s some s l i g h t s u p ­
p o r t i n th e lo w e r - th a n - u s u a l lo a d in g of M ech an ical
P r i n c i p l e s on t h e m e c h a n i c a l o r t e c h n i c a l k n o w le d g e f a c ­
to r. S p a c e v a r i a n c e may a l s o b e i n c l u d e d on t h i s f a c t o r .
The p r e s e n c e o f t h e t h r e e W-B p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t s
on t h i s f a c t o r i s not s u r p r is in g a lth o u g h p re v io u s
a n a l y s e s o f t h e W-B h a v e made no m e n tio n o f a v i s u a l i z a ­
tio n fa c to r. B irren (6 ) fo u n d one f a c t o r w i t h t h e f i v e
p erfo rm an ce t e s t s a p p e a rin g to g e t h e r and c a lle d i t
C lo su re . Cohen (16 ) r e p o r t s a n o n - v e r b a l f a c t o r w i t h t h e
same f i v e t e s t s a p p e a r i n g a l t h o u g h D i g i t Symbol h a s a low
lo a d in g . S im p k in (6 3 ) r e p o r t e d a v i s u a l - m o t o r f a c t o r b u t
th e s p e c i f i c f in d in g s of h i s stu d y a r e n o t y e t a v a i l a b l e
fo r p e ru sa l. I n h i s p i o n e e r s t u d y , B a l i n s k y (3 ) r e p o r t e d
a p e r f o r m a n c e f a c t o r a t y e a r s 12 a n d 15 w hich a r e o f
sp e c ia l in te r e s t. At a g e 1 2 , t h i s f a c t o r h a d l o a d i n g s i n
O b j e c t A sse m b ly , B lo c k D e s i g n , an d D i g i t S y m b ol. At 1 5 ,
it in c lu d e d a l l f i v e o f t h e P erfo rm an ce t e s t s .
G u i l f o r d (3 9 ) r e p o r t s v i s u a l i z a t i o n a s s t r o n g e s t
in t e s t s t h a t p re s e n t a stim u lu s e i t h e r p i c t o r i a l l y or
v e r b a l l y , w i t h some i m p l i c i t m a n i p u l a t i o n r e q u i r e d ( s e e
C h a p te r I I I ) . I n t h e t h r e e W-B t e s t s , o n l y P i c t u r e
C o m p le tio n i n v o l v e s p i c t o r i a l p r e s e n t a t i o n . The e s s e n t i a l
c h a ra c te ristic of v is u a liz a ti o n ap p e ars to be re q u ir e d ,
U niv ersity o f S o u t h e r n C alifornia Library
 102
h o w e v e r . I n t h e B lo c k D e s ig n t e s t , t h e e x a m in e e i s r e ­
q u ire d t o c o n s t r u c t d e s ig n s w ith t h e b lo c k s a c c o rd in g to
a v i s u a l p a t t e r n b e f o r e h im . W ith n o r m a l s u b j e c t s , t h e
p r o b le m o f c o l o r i s u n i m p o r t a n t , b u t t h e p ro b le m o f r o t a ­
t i o n and t h e a r r a n g i n g o f s o l i d - c o l o r e d an d h a l f - c o l o r e d
b l o c k s i s o f p r im e im p o r ta n c e * The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t r a p i d
m a n ip u la tio n o f b lo c k s i n t o p ro p e r p la c e in v o lv e s im a g in a l
m a n i p u l a t i o n seem s t o b e e n t i r e l y t e n a b l e .
The P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n t e s t r e q u i r e s t h e ex a m in e e
t o p o i n t o u t m i s s i n g p a r t s i n p i c t u r e s p r e s e n t e d on e a t a
tim e . T h is t e s t a p p e a r s h a r d l y t o demand m a n i p u l a t i o n o f
th e v is u a l m a te r ia l, b u t r a t h e r a v is u a l i z a t i o n of th e
m issin g p a r t i n i t s p ro p e r p la c e . T h is r a i s e s t h e q u e s ­
t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h i s f a c t o r i n v o l v e s t h e m ovem ent, p e r s e ,
o r r a th e r th e re s u ltin g re la tio n s h ip s (w h ic h a r e u s u a l l y
a c h i e v e d v i a m o v e m e n ts} • C lo se e x a m in a tio n o f t h e
M e c h a n ic a l P r i n c i p l e s t e s t l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t

^ I t s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e AAF
b a t t e r i e s d i d n o t c o n t a i n t e s t s i n w h ic h p a r t s ( e . g .
b l o c k s o r j i g - s a w p i e c e s } w e re p r e s e n t e d and t h e ex a m in e e
m a n i p u l a t e d th em a c c o r d i n g t o some v i s u a l i z e d o r i m p l i c i t ­
l y d e t e r m i n e d p l a n . The f i n g e r D e x t e r i t y t e s t ( 3 9 , P* ^ 1 0 j
w as s t r i c t l y m a n i p u l a t i v e . N e i t h e r t h i s t e s t n o r o t h e r
a p p a r a t u s t e s t s y i e l d e d a p p r e c i a b l e l o a d i n g s on t h e
v isu a liz a tio n fa c to r. I n v ie w o f t h e s e f a c t s , i t s h o u l d
n o t do v i o l e n c e t o G u i l f o r d ’ s d e f i n i t i o n i f i t b e e x t e n d e d
to in c lu d e im p l i c i t m a n ip u la tio n o f a c t u a l o b je c ts a s w e ll
a s of p i c t o r i a l l y or v e r b a lly p re s e n te d stim u lu s m a te r ia l.
 103
th e l a t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is th e c o r r e c t one. The P i c t u r e
C o m p le tio n t e s t seem s t o f i t in w ith t h i s i n te r p r e t a ti o n *
The O b j e c t A sse m b ly t e s t a p p e a r s on t h i s f a c t o r
w i t h m o d e r a te l o a d i n g . I t is of in te re s t, h o w e v e r, t h a t
m ore t h a n o n e - t h i r d o f t h e common v a r i a n c e o f t h i s t e s t
(in th is b a tte ry ) i s a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e v i s u a l i z a t i o n
fa c to r. H igh s c o r e i n t h e t e s t c e r t a i n l y d e p e n d s on
r a p i d i m a g i n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e f i n a l o b j e c t fro m t h e
jig -sa w p a r ts . S in c e t h e p e r c e p tu a l sp eed f a c t o r a c c o u n ts
f o r even m ore o f t h e v a r i a n c e , i t may b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t
r a p i d r e c o g n i t i o n :‘i s ev en m ore i m p o r t a n t .
Below t h e *30 p o i n t , a p p e a r W-B V o c a b u l a r y , P i c t u r e
A r r a n g e m e n t, S i m i l a r i t i e s , and C o m p re h e n s io n , i n d e s c e n d ­
in g o rd e r. The f i r s t o f t h e s e and t h e l a s t two a r e a l l
p r e s e n te d v e r b a l l y b y a u d i to r y m eans, n o t i n w r i t i n g .
T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a u d i t o r y p r e s e n t a t i o n may c a l l i n t o
p l a y v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t a r e i n some way u t i l i z e d
i n s o lv in g t h e p ro b le m . D e c id e d ly lo w er lo a d in g o f t h e
group a d a p ta tio n s o f th e s e t e s t s ( v a r i a b l e s 13 a n d 1 2 ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y ) w ould t e n d t o s u p p o r t t h i s v i e w . The P i c ­
t u r e A rra n g e m e n t t e s t o b v i o u s l y r e q u i r e s some v i s u a l i z a ­
t i o n , a l t h o u g h r e a s o n i n g a p p e a r s t o b e much m ore i m p o r t a n t ,
a s w i l l b e seen l a t e r .
 104
3. .F a c t o r £ , n u m e r i c a l f a c i l i t y * F a c to r C con­
t a i n s s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s on s i x t e s t s :
4* N u m e ric a l O p e r a t i o n s *740
24* W-B D i g i t Symbol *524
17* W-B A r i t h m e t i c *359
1* Age *320
2• O tis B e ta *304
3* P e r c e p t u a l S p eed *303
On t h i s , a s on t h e p r e v i o u s f a c t o r s , t h e r e f e r e n c e
v a r ia b le i s th e o u tsta n d in g id e n tif y in g s ig n . The nu m er­
i c a l o p e r a t i o n s t e s t i s p a t t e r n e d a f t e r t h e AAF t e s t s b y
t h e same name and i s s i m i l a r t o o th e r t e s t s t h a t have
i d e n t i f i e d t h e num ber f a c t o r * F r e n c h (2 2 ) l i s t s 35
a n a l y s e s i n w h ic h a num ber f a c t o r h a s b e e n s u r e l y o r
te n ta tiv e ly id e n tifie d * T e s ts such a s n u m e ric a l o p e ra ­
tio n s , a d d itio n , s u b tra c tio n , m u ltip lic a tio n , d iv is io n ,
d i a l and t a b l e r e a d i n g , p l o t t i n g a c c u r a c y , an d many
o t h e r s a p p e a r on t h e f a c t o r * The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
f a c t o r a s num ber f a c i l i t y seem s t o b e v e r y c e r t a i n a l ­
th o u g h t h e r e a r e some p r o b le m s o f r a t i o n a l i z i n g l o a d i n g s ,
as w i l l be seen p re s e n tly *
A p p r o x i m a te ly 65 p e r c e n t o f t h e common v a r i a n c e
o f t h e N u m e r ic a l O p e r a t i o n s t e s t i n t h i s b a t t e r y i s
a c c o u n t e d f o r b y f a c t o r G* T h is i s a s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n
t h a n was t y p i c a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e num ber f a c t o r i n
t h e AAF f i n d i n g s , w h e re SO p e r c e n t t o 90 p e r c e n t was
 105
not u n u su a l. In any c a s e , e v e n t h e 65 p e r c e n t in d ic a te s

t h a t th e referen ce t e s t is a r e l a t i v e l y p u re m easure o f

th e fa c to r . The o n l y o t h e r l o a d i n g o f t h e t e s t t h a t i s

c o n sid e r e d s i g n if i c a n t is on t h e p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d f a c t o r .

The a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e D i g i t Sym b ol t e s t w i t h sig ­

n ific a n t l o a d i n g i n n u m b e r, came som ew h at a s a s u r p r i s e .

No s e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s t e s t a n d n u m e r i c a l o p e r a t i o n s was
p o s s i b l e d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f r o t a t i o n , so one i s f o r c e d
t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e y b e l o n g t o g e t h e r , n o t o n l y on
t h e p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d f a c t o r b u t a l s o on t h e n u m e r i c a l f a c ­
to r. T h u rsto n e (7 5 ) h o l d s t h a t t h e m ere p r e s e n c e o f num­
b e r s in th e ta s k does n o t c o n s t i t u t e s u f f i c i e n t re a s o n f o r
t h e num ber f a c t o r t o a p p e a r . He i d e n t i f i e s t h e f a c t o r w i t h
sim p le n u m e ric a l t a s k s b u t s a y s t h a t t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l
n a t u r e o f t h e f a c t o r i s l e s s w e l l known t h a n a r e o t h e r s o f
h is p rim a rie s. T h is le a v e s l i t t l e to t i e to psycho­
l o g i c a l l y a s one a t t e m p t s t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e p r e s e n c e o f
t e s t s s u c h a s D i g i t Symbol on t h e num ber f a c t o r . F re n c h
(22) does not c l a r i f y th e m a tte r a g r e a t d e a l, b u t he does
s a y t h a t t h e f a c t o r i n v o l v e s m a n i p u l a t i o n o f n u m b e rs and
t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e am ount o f num ber h a n d l i n g t h e h i g h e r
th e lo a d in g . The D i g i t Symbol t e s t d o e s n o t i n v o l v e a n y
co m p u ta tio n b u t i t c e r t a i n l y does in v o lv e m a n ip u la tio n and
q u ic k r e c o g n i t i o n o f n u m b ers.
 106
The a p p e a r a n c e o f W-B A r i t h m e t i c on t h i s f a c t o r i s
e n t i r e l y in l i n e w ith o th e r f in d in g s re g a rd in g th e f a c t o r
co n te n t o f a r ith m e tic s c o re s . The l o a d i n g i s s l i g h t l y
l o w e r t h a n t h a t t y p i c a l l y r e p o r t e d i n AAF a n a l y s e s (3 9 )
b u t i s a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l t o l o a d i n g s i n num ber r e p o r t e d b y
M i c h a e l (3 3 ) an d G a r r e t t (2 4 ) f o r a r i t h m e t i c t e s t s .
As e x p l a i n e d e a r l i e r , t h e s c a l e f o r ag e was r e ­
versed . The l o a d i n g o f . 3 2 0 on num ber m e a n s, t h e r e f o r e ,
t h a t h i g h num ber f a c t o r s c o r e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h y o u th i n
t h i s sa m p le . F re n c h ( 2 2 ) r e p o r t s f o u r a n a l y s e s i n w h ich
a g e h a s b e e n i n c l u d e d b u t t h e s e th r o w l i t t l e l i g h t on t h e
p ro b le m . In th e T h u rs to n e s 1 a n a ly s is o f i n t e l l i g e n c e (7 5 )
i n v o l v i n g s t u d e n t s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same a g e a s t h o s e
in th e p re s e n t s tu d y , th e y r e p o r t n e g a tiv e lo a d in g s o f
about .2 0 i n i n d u c t i o n and a se c o n d v e r b a l f a c t o r . The
w rite r is i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p re s e n c e o f b o th
a g e ( r e v e r s e d ) and O t i s B e ta s c o r e s on t h e num ber f a c t o r
i s a r e f le c tio n of th e s e le c tio n c r i t e r i a th a t la rg e ly
d e t e r m i n e t h e ag e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a c l a s s . The s t u d e n t s
o f t h i s sa m p le came u p , i n t h e m a in , t h r o u g h t h e S e a t t l e
P u b lic S c h o o ls. U n t i l r e c e n t l y t h e p o l i c y was t o a l l o w
u n d e r - a g e c h i l d r e n t o e n t e r i f t h e y made c e r t a i n s c o r e s on
t e s t s a d m in iste re d fo r t h i s p u rp o se . The s i m i l a r t r e n d
o f a g e and O t i s B e t a l o a d i n g s t h r o u g h o u t T a b le V I I I m e r e l y
 107
v e r i f i e s w hat one w ould e x p e c t , n a m e ly , t h a t t h e y o u n g e r
s t u d e n t s t e n d t o b e t h e b r i g h t e r o n es* The h i g h e s t l o a d ­
i n g s o f a g e on t h e v e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s io n ( . 2 1 3 ) , number
( 3 2 0 ) , and a s e c o n d r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r ( -3 9 6) s u g g e s t t h a t
t h e s e a r e t h e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g when t h e
s t u d e n t r e a c h e s a c e r t a i n a c a d e m ic l e v e l .
The a r g u m e n ts o f t h e l a s t p a r a g r a p h may b e e x t e n d e d
b y p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e r e i s a f a i r s p r i n k l i n g o f n u m e r i­
c a l p r o b le m s i n t h e O t i s B e t a a l t h o u g h t h e s e h a v e a r e a s o n ­
in g fla v o r in g e n e ra l. Number s e r i e s , c o u n t i n g o r c a n c e l ­
l i n g n u m b e rs a c c o r d i n g t o r u l e s , and s i m p l e a r i t h m e t i c
r e a s o n i n g p r o b l e m s , a l l o f w hich a p p e a r i n t h e O t i s , w ould
b e e x p e c t e d t o g i v e r i s e t o some num ber v a r i a n c e .
The o t h e r l o a d i n g a b o v e .3 0 0 i s on t h e P e r c e p t u a l
Speed t e s t . T h is t e s t i n v o l v e s t h e p r o b le m o f f i n d i n g
i d e n t i c a l sym bo ls on an IBM a n s w e r s h e e t and m a rk in g t h e
s p a c e u n d e r t h o s e t h a t a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e key s y m b o l.
A lth o u g h t h i s t e s t h a s n e v e r b e e n f a c t o r a n a l y z e d b e f o r e ,
s i m i l a r t e s t s su c h a s T h u r s t o n e ’ s I d e n t i c a l Forms t e s t
have been. In t h e i r a n a ly s is of in t e l l i g e n c e , th e
T h u r s t o n e s (7 5 ) u s e d two t e s t s s i m i l a r t o t h e p r e s e n t
p e r c e p tu a l speed t e s t . T h e se w e re I d e n t i c a l Numbers and
Id e n tic a l P ic tu re s . I n a n a l y s i s o f b o t h t h e lo n g and t h e
 106
s h o r t b a t t e r y th e y fo u n d b o th t e s t s t o y i e l d lo a d in g s
around *40 i n a p e r c e p t u a l f a c t o r . In b o th c a s e s a l s o ,
h o w e v e r , t h e y fo u n d t h a t I d e n t i c a l Numbers y i e l d e d some
a p p r e c i a b l e l o a d i n g i n n um ber. I n t h i s t e s t no m a n i p u l a ­
t i o n o f n u m b ers seems t o be i n v o l v e d , b u t m e r e l y t h e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f n u m b e rs i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e one a t t h e
h e a d o f t h e c o lu m n . T h is ta s k i s c e r t a i n l y s i m i l a r in
m o st r e s p e c t s t o t h a t i n t h e P e r c e p t u a l S p eed t e s t , w i t h
t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t n u m b e rs a r e u s e d i n one an d m u t i l a t e d
le tte rs in th e o t h e r .
A re m a rk s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e made r e g a r d i n g t h e
n u m b er l o a d i n g o f t h e W-B D i g i t Span t e s t ( . 2 7 9 ) * T h is
t e s t w ould b e e x p e c t e d t o show up on t h e num ber f a c t o r
and t h e l o a d i n g seem s a p p r o p r i a t e .
I n v ie w o f t h e l a c k o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y - f r a m e d
f o r m u l a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e num ber f a c t o r ,
t h e w r i t e r i s te m p te d t o o f f e r a h y p o t h e s i s . I t m u st b e
o b v io u s t h a t n um bers a r e i m p o r t a n t p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y o n l y a s
t h e y r e p r e s e n t some c l a s s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l t a s k s . T here
i s no r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h i s c la ss
lie a lo n g c u l t u r a l or t r a d i t i o n a l l i n e s . In f a c t , th e
o p p o s i t e v i e w p o i n t i s p r o b a b l y m ore t e n a b l e . The h y p o t h ­
e s is is o ffe re d , th e r e f o r e , th a t th e c la s s e l i c i t i n g th e
 109
f u n c t i o n a l u n i t y o f r e s p o n s e known a s num ber f a c t o r i s a
c l a s s o f s im p le sy m b o ls* F i n d i n g s s u c h a s Coombs (1 7 )
have p re v io u s ly su p p o rte d t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . D iffe r­
e n t i a t i o n fro m v e r b a l sy m b o ls seem s t o l i e in th e f a c t
t h a t t h e s e sym bo ls h a v e no n a t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o e a c h
o t h e r , t h e r e b e i n g a l m o s t c o m p le te f re e d o m i n how t h e y
may b e a s s e m b l e d o r m a n i p u l a t e d . We s h a l l n o t e l a b o r a t e
f u r t h e r b u t n o t e t h a t l o a d i n g s s u c h a s t h e s e on t h e
P e r c e p t u a l S peed t e s t and e . g . G r e e n ’ s on t h e Symbol
M a n ip u la tio n t e s t in h i s b a t t e r y (3 6 ) w ould f i t much
b e t t e r i n t o su c h a g e n e r a l i z e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e
n u m b er f a c t o r .

4* F a c t o r D, m e c h a n i c a l k n o w le d g e . F a c to r D
i n c l u d e s s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s on t h e f o l l o w i n g :
7* M e ch an ical I n f o r m a tio n *436
22. W-B B lo ck D e s ig n .4 1 1
6* M e c h a n ic a l.P rin c ip le s *393
17* W-B A r i t h m e t i c *340
16. W-B D i g i t Span *336
5* A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n in g *315
S. S c ie n c e I n fo r m a tio n *317
The t h r e e l o a d i n g s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y *40 an d a b o v e
su g g est q u ite stro n g ly th a t th i s f a c to r i s e s s e n tia lly
t h e same a s t h e m e c h a n i c a l e x p e r i e n c e f a c t o r i d e n t i f i e d
r e p e a t e d l y i n AAF a n a l y s e s . Comrey ( 1 $ ) , Dudek ( 2 0 , 2 1 ) ,
an d M ic h a e l (5 3 ) h a v e a l s o r e p o r t e d s u c h a f a c t o r i n
 110
t h e i r a n a ly se s. E x a m i n a ti o n o f t h e r e p o r t s o f t h e s e r e ­
s e a r c h e s r e v e a l s t h a t no f e w e r t h a n 13 s e p a r a t e t e s t s a r e
l i s t e d w i t h l o a d i n g s on t h i s f a c t o r o f .30 o r a b o v e .
T h e s e r a n g e d a l l t h e way fro m p h y s i c s a n d d i f f i c u l t
a r i t h m e t i c p r o b le m s w i t h l o a d i n g s o f a r o u n d -30 t o
m e c h a n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n an d t o o l f u n c t i o n t e s t s w i t h
l o a d i n g s o f a b o u t *75 •
The w id e v a r i e t y o f t e s t s t h a t a p p e a r w i t h s i g ­
n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s on t h i s f a c t o r , i n b o t h t h i s and p r e ­
v io u s a n a ly s e s , s u g g e s ts t h a t th e f a c t o r h a s a r a t h e r
bro ad b a s e . I t ap p ears a lso th a t th i s i s w h at F r e n c h (22)
c a l l s an e x p e r i e n t i a l f a c t o r r a t h e r t h a n a g e n e t i c f a c ­
to r. The nam ing o f t h e f a c t o r i n t h e AAF a n a l y s e s (3 9 )
w h e re i t f i r s t a p p e a r e d was b a s e d on t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f th e f u n c tio n s co v ered by th e f a c t o r .
The a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e two a r i t h m e t i c t e s t s w i t h
lo a d in g s in th e . 3 0 f s h a r d ly a p p e a rs c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e
name m e c h a n i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , ev e n th o u g h Comrey (1 3 ) a t
l e a s t h a s r e p o r t e d a s i m i l a r l o a d i n g on a s i m i l a r t e s t .
I t a p p e a r s t o t h e w r i t e r t h a t t h e f a c t o r i s m ore o f a
g e n e r a l t e c h n i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n t h a t makes t h e e x a m in e e
f a m i l i a r and p r o f i c i e n t i n su c h t h i n g s a s m e c h a n i c s ,
p h y s i c s , m a th e m a tic s, and o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c p u r s u i t s .
 I ll
A lth o u g h n o t d e s i g n e d p a r t i c u l a r l y t o accom m odate a
sp e c ific t e s t , th is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w ould o f c o u r s e accom­
m o d a te t h e s c i e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n t e s t , w i t h i t s m o d e r a t e
l o a d i n g on t h e f a c t o r .
The p r e s e n c e o f W-B D i g i t Span i n t h e l i s t of
t e s t s a p p e a r i n g on t h i s f a c t o r , i s d i f f i c u l t to r a t i o n a l ­
iz e . The t e s t c o n s i s t s o f s im p l e r e p e t i t i o n o f d i g i t s
a f t e r one h e a r i n g . R e p e t i t i o n s f o r w a r d and b a c k w a rd a r e
in c lu d e d . D i g i t Span h a s shown up i n s t r a n g e p l a c e s ,
ho w ev er. At a g e 1 2 , B a l i n s k y (3 ) r e p o r t e d l o a d i n g s on
b o t h " V e r b a l " and " S e e i n g R e l a t i o n s h i p s " f a c t o r s . B irre n
i d e n t i f i e d one f a c t o r l a r g e l y b y D i g i t Span and c a l l e d i t
m em ory. T h u r s t o n e and T h u r s t o n e (7 5 ) r e p o r t D i g i t Span
on t h e i r memory f a c t o r b u t w i t h a l o a d i n g o f o n l y .19*
S tr a n g e ly enough, B ir r e n c i t e s t h i s stu d y i n s u p p o rt o f
h i s s t a t e m e n t t h a t D i g i t Span h a s b e e n shown t o m e a s u r e
memory b u t no o t h e r f a c t o r . G a r r e t t (24) r e p o r t s l o a d i n g s
o f fro m .0 6 t o .14 f o r D i g i t S pan on t h e memory f a c t o r .
J o n e s (47 ) p r o b a b l y o f f e r s t h e b e s t e v i d e n c e t h a t D i g i t
S pan ca n b e t i e d down t o a f a c t o r . He r e p o r t s l o a d i n g s o f
.6 0 t o .65 on a memory f a c t o r . T h is d i s c u s s i o n i s i n ­
c l u d e d h e r e i n o r d e r t o show t h a t t h e r e i s p r e c e d e n t f o r
u n c e r t a i n ty in i n t e r p r e t i n g th e ap p earan ce of D ig it Span.
T h i s a r i s e s p a r t l y no d o u b t fro m t h e u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e
 112
te s t. I t w i l l b e n o t e d fro m T a b le I I t h a t e s t i m a t e s o f
r e l i a b i l i t y h a v e r a n g e d fro m a b o u t .45 to *75, ev e n t h e
l a t t e r o f w h ic h w ould h a r d l y b e c o n s i d e r e d s a t i s f a c t o r y .
I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e one m ig h t v e n t u r e t o go a l o n g
w i t h B i r r e n and J o n e s a n d add t h a t p o s s i b l y some r e t e n t i o n
i s i n c l u d e d i n *t h e f a c t o r u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . C e rta in ly a
t e r n su c h a s m e c h a n i c a l e x p e r i e n c e o r m e c h a n i c a l k n o w led g e
i m p l i e s memory a s an i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e , b u t t h i s
s p e c i f i c a t i o n w o u ld f i t many o t h e r f a c t o r s a s w e l l . If,
h o w e v e r , t h e im m e d ia te memory b e r e l a t e d t o o t h e r t e s t s
i n t h e l i s t b y m e a n s . o f c o n t e n t r a t h e r t h a n p r o c e s s , one
may b e on f i r m e r g r o u n d . I f th e h y p o th e sis of g e n e ra l
te c h n ic a l s o p h is tic a tio n is c o r r e c t , D i g i t S pan may a p p e a r
h e r e more b e c a u s e o f t h e u s e o f n u m b e rs t h a n b e c a u s e o f
a n y memory f u n c t i o n i n v o l v e d •
One q u i t e o b v io u s e f f e c t i n t h e p r e s e n t r e s u l t s
h a s t o do w i t h s e x d i f f e r e n c e s . I t w i l l be n o te d t h a t
b o t h M e c h a n ic a l P r i n c i p l e s and M e c h a n i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n
t e s t s showed s i g n i f i c a n t s e x d i f f e r e n c e s (T a b le I V ) .
Dudek (2 1 ) r e p o r t s a n a l y s e s o f t h e same b a t t e r y a d m i n i s t e r ­
ed t o m a le s and f e m a l e s s e p a r a t e l y . He fo u n d no m e c h a n i c a l
e x p e rie n c e f a c t o r i n th e a n a l y s i s o f s c o r e s o f fe m a le s a l ­
th o u g h su c h a f a c t o r em erged fro m t h e s c o r e s o f t h e m a l e s .
I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t v ery l i t t l e v a ria n c e in t h i s f a c to r
 113
o ccu rs in th e s c o r e s o f g i r l s i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , so
t h a t th e s c o re s o f th e boys a re l a r g e l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r
th e f a c t o r . I n su c h a c a s e , lo w e r l o a d i n g s on t h e f a c t o r
w o uld b e e x p e c t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f s e x d i f f e r e n c e s h a d n o t
r e s u lte d in a p p re c ia b le i n f l a t i o n o f in te r e o r r e l a ti o n s o f
th e v a r ia b le s in v o lv e d . The c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e two im­
p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s i n t h i s c a s e ( M e c h a n ic a l P r i n c i p l e s and
M e c h a n i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n ) i s so m o d e r a te ( . 2 5 ) t h a t i t
c o u l d h a r d l y b e a s su m e d t o h a v e b e e n m a t e r i a l l y i n f l a t e d
by sex d iffe re n c e s .
P o s s ib ly to o g r e a t p a in s have been ta k e n to r a t i o n ­
a l i z e th e p r e s e n t lo a d in g s w ith o th e r f i n d i n g s . The
o b v io u s f a c t i s t h a t an n e x p e r i e n t i a l ” f a c t o r ( 2 2 ) , su c h
a s m e c h a n i c a l k n o w le d g e , i s bound t o r e f l e c t m ark ed a g e
d iffe re n c e s . I t w ould b e e x p e c t e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a n y
s u c h f a c t o r w ould b e much b e t t e r s t r u c t u r e d i n a d u l t s
th a n in c h ild r e n . In e a rly ad o lesc en ce , th e in d iv id u a l
h a s had a lim ite d p r o p o r tio n o f th e e x p e rie n c e t h a t
e v e n tu a lly is to c r y s t a l l i z e th e f a c to r as a fu n c tio n a l
u n ity in a d u lth o o d . From t h i s s t a n d p o i n t i t i s n o t r e ­
m a r k a b le t h a t t h e f a c t o r a p p e a r s a s m ore g e n e r a l t h a n i t
h a s i n a n a l y s e s b a s e d on p e r f o r m a n c e o f a d u l t s .
 114
5* F a c to r E, s i m i l a r i t i e s d o u b l e t * F a c to r E is
i d e n t i f i e d b y o n l y two s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s :
13* W-B G roup S i m i l a r i t i e s *651
1§. W-B S i m i l a r i t i e s *470
T h is f a c t o r ap p eared q u ite e a r l y in th e r o t a t i o n s
w ith s ig n s t h a t su g g e ste d a p o s s ib le d o u b le t. As r o t a ­
t i o n s c o n t i n u e d , t h e two t e s t s c o n t i n u e d t o c l i n g t o ­
g e t h e r and i t was p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e a l l b u t two o t h e r
l o a d i n g s b e lo w .1 5 • As a r e s u l t , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s
q u i t e c o m p e llin g t h a t t h i s f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t s a d o u b le t
r e s u l t i n g fro m t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e two s i m i l a r i t i e s t e s t s
in th e b a tte ry . A lth o u g h b o t h t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f i t e m s
and t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e two fo rm s ( .6 $ 4 ) w ould
h a r d l y s u g g e s t t h i s o u tc o m e , one i s re m in d e d t h a t
T h u r s t o n e (7 7 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h i s c a n b e e x p e c t e d i f
l i n e a r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f s c o r e s , o r p a r a l l e l fo rm s o f t e s t s
a r e i n c l u d e d i n an a n a l y s i s •

6* F a c to r F, g e n e ra l re a s o n in g . F a c to r F has fo u r
s i g n i f i c a n t lo a d in g s , a s fo llo w s:
17* W-B A r i t h m e t i c -571
5* A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n in g *436
1 5• W-B C o m p re h e n sio n *331
13* W-B G roup S i m i l a r i t i e s *320
T h is f a c t o r a p p e a r s t o be th e g e n e r a l re a s o n in g
f a c t o r t h a t , h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d i n many o f t h e AAF a n a l y s e s
 115
(3 9 ) • I n a m ore r e c e n t a n a l y s i s d e s i g n e d t o s e p a r a t e
r e a s o n i n g i n t o i t s com ponent f a c t o r s G re e n ( 3 6 ) s t i l l
r e p o r te d a g e n e ra l re a so n in g f a c t o r . H is l e a d i n g t e s t
on t h e f a c t o r w as P ro b le m S o l v i n g w i t h a l o a d i n g a l m o s t
i d e n t i c a l t o t h e a b o v e A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n in g l o a d i n g . H is
P ro b le m S o l v i n g t e s t i s d e s c r i b e d a s a s t a n d a r d a r i t h m e t i c
r e a s o n i n g t e s t i n s t r u c t u r e and c o n t e n t . S i n c e t h e two
l e a d i n g t e s t s on t h e f a c t o r , i n t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s , a r e
a r ith m e tic re a so n in g t e s t s , it appears t h a t th e i d e n tity
o f th e f a c t o r i s p r e t t y w e ll clin c h e d #
As n o t e d e a r l i e r i n t h e s e c t i o n on h y p o t h e s e s , t h e
a r i t h m e t i c r e a s o n i n g t e s t was d e s i g n e d a f t e r t h e AAF t e s t s
b y t h e same name an d was i n c l u d e d a s a r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e
fo r th is fa c to r. The a r i t h m e t i c r e a s o n i n g ( o r M a th e m a tic s
B) t e s t s w ere c o n s i s t e n t la n d m a r k s i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f t h e g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r i n t h e AAF a n a l y s e s a l ­
th o u g h t h e t e s t s w e re q u it.e com p lex f a c t o r i a l l y (39,
p . 122) # The t e s t s t y p i c a l l y h a d l o a d i n g s o f a r o u n d *50
i n n u m b e r, . 4 7 i n g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g , an d *30 i n v i s u a l i z a ­
tio n . I t is o f i n t e r e s t to n o te t h a t t e s t 5 in th e
p r e s e n t b a t t e r y h a s l o a d i n g s o f . 2 4 3 , « 4 3 6 , and .104 on
t h e s e t h r e e f a c t o r s r e s p e c t i v e l y w h i l e t e s t 17 h a s l o a d ­
in g s o f *359, *571, an d .1 9 $ r e s p e c t i v e l y . I t w i l l be
seen t h a t in th e p re s e n t a n a ly s is th e re a so n in g lo a d in g s
 116
t e n d t o b e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e num ber l o a d i n g s i n
th e a r i t h m e t i c re a so n in g t e s t s .
T h is s h i f t o f v a r ia n c e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f re a s o n ­
in g i s p ro b a b ly in p a r t a f u n c tio n o f d i f f i c u l t y . As
d i f f i c u l t y o f it e m s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s i n c r e a s e s , t h e i t e m s
t e n d t o b e s o l v e d by r e a s o n i n g r a t h e r t h a n b y n u m b e r,
v is u a liz a tio n , sp a c e , or o th e r p e r t i n e n t f a c t o r s (39,
p . 5 1 0). As r e m a rk e d e a r l i e r , t e s t 5 was n o t p r e - t e s t e d
on a sa m p le o f t h e same a g e o r e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l a s t h a t
o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p . As a r e s u l t , i t t r a n s p i r e d
t h a t t h e t e s t w as much t o o h a r d , i n f a c t i t was t h e m o st
d i f f i c u l t o f a l l t e s t s o f t h e b a t t e r y , h a v i n g an a v e r a g e
p r o p o r ti o n o f c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s o f o n ly a p p ro x im a te ly
.2 0 . The h y p o t h e s i s i s o f f e r e d t h a t t h e n o t i c e a b l e s h i f t
o f t e s t 5 i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f m ore r e a s o n i n g a n d l e s s
n u m b er v a r i a n c e i s a t l e a s t i n p a r t a f u n c t i o n o f i t s
e x t reme d i f f i c u l t y .
The l o a d i n g s o f W-B C o m p re h e n sio n and W-B G roup
S i m i l a r i t i e s a p p e a r t o be e n t i r e l y in l i n e w ith th e
in te r p r e ta tio n o f t h i s f a c to r as g e n e ra l re a s o n in g . The
C o m p re h e n s io n t e s t c o n t a i n s it e m s o f t h e t y p e s o m e tim e s
c a lle d ’ p r a c t i c a l re a so n in g * an d r e a s o n i n g i s o b v i o u s l y
dem anded i n s u c c e s s f u l s o l u t i o n . A lth o u g h t h e p r e s e n c e
 117
o f S i m i l a r i t i e s on t h e f a c t o r c a n b e r a t i o n a l i z e d w i t h
s '

a p p ro x im a te ly eq u al e a s e , i t s h o u ld be n o t e d t h a t t h i s is
t h e g r o u p form t h a t h a s a c o m m u n a lity g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y
in th e a n a ly sis * For th is r e a s o n i t w o uld b e e x p e c t e d
t h a t t h e t e s t w ould a p p e a r w i t h a p p r e c i a b l e l o a d i n g s on
many f a c t o r s * I t d o e s show u p , i n f a c t , w i t h f o u r l o a d ­
i n g s a b o v e *30 an d t h r e e m ore b e tw e e n *20 a n d *30* T h is
s t a t e o f a f f a i r s f o r c e s one t o d i s c o u n t t h e l o a d i n g o f
*3 2 0 , w h ic h a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t s som ew hat l e s s t h a n 10 p e r
c e n t o f t h e common f a c t o r v a r i a n c e o f t h e t e s t i n t h i s
b a tte ry •
One o t h e r ite m o f i n t e r e s t h a s t o do w i t h t h e
a b s e n c e o f t h e g ro u p fo rm o f t h e C o m p re h e n sio n t e s t fro m
t h e l i s t o f t e s t s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s on t h e f a c t o r *
T h is f a c t r e q u i r e s a t t e n t i o n * The f i r s t p o s s i b l e s o u r c e
o f d i f f e r e n c e t h a t s u g g e s t s i t s e l f h a s t o do w i t h d i f f i ­
c u lty * G ib b y (2&) r e p o r t e d t h a t Form I I C o m p re h e n sio n
( t e s t 12 i s a g r o u p a d a p t a t i o n o f t h i s ) is d is tin c tly
h a r d e r t h a n Form I C o m p re h en sio n * The p r e s e n t d a t a seem
t o co n firm t h i s q u ite d e fin ite ly * Maximum s c o r e on b o t h
fo rm s i s 20* The mean s c o r e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l l y ad m in ­
is te re d te s t (15* Form I ) was 11*&2, w h i l e t h a t f o r t h e
group a d m in is te r e d t e s t (12* Form I I ) was 8*02* T h is
d if f e r e n c e i s l a r g e and i n d i c a t e s th e c o n s id e ra b ly g r e a t e r
 nd
d i f f i c u l t y o f Form I I a t l e a s t u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f
a d m in is tra tio n in th e p re se n t b a t t e r y • E x a m i n a ti o n o f
t h e two fo rm s r e v e a l s t h a t an i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n
t h e two l i e s i n t h e s c o r i n g s t a n d a r d s . O n ly one i t e m i n
Form I dem ands m u l t i p l e a n s w e r s f o r f u l l c r e d i t . I n Form
I I , h o w e v e r, m u l t i p l e a n s w e r s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r f u l l c r e d i t
in f iv e of th e te n ite m s. The h y p o t h e s i s i s s u g g e s t e d
t h a t t h e g i v i n g o f m u l t i p l e a n s w e r s d o e s n o t d ep e n d on t h e
re a so n in g f a c to r p r im a r ily . I f t h i s h y p o th e sis b e c o r­
r e c t , t h e much s m a l l e r l o a d i n g o f r e a s o n i n g on t e s t 12
seems j u s t i f i e d . F u rth e r d isc u ssio n of th e d iffe re n c e
b e tw e e n t h e s e two t e s t s w i l l b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a ­
t i o n o f f a c t o r G.

7* F a c t o r G, f l u e n c y . F a c to r G i s id e n tif ie d by
o n ly th r e e t e s t s w ith l o a d i n g s ab o v e *3 0 , a s f o l l o w s :
12. W-B Group C o m p r e h e n s io n *625
16* W-B D i g i t Span *369
24* W-B D i g i t Symbol *304
T h i s f a c t o r o f f e r s one o f t h e m o st d i f f i c u l t p r o b ­
le m s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I t w i l l be n o te d t h a t t h i s f a c ­
t o r , i n common w i t h f a c t o r s E an d K, h a s o n l y W e c h s l e r -
B e lle v u e v a r i a b l e s w ith s i g n i f i c a n t lo a d in g s . T h is
la r g e ly d e n ie s th e a n a ly s t th e a s s is ta n c e o f p re v io u s
e x p e r i e n c e , s i n c e one o f t h e o u t s t a n d i n g s h o r t c o m i n g s o f
 119
p r e v i o u s W-B a n a l y s e s h a s b e e n t h e i r f a i l u r e t o d i f f e r ­

e n t i a t e f a c t o r s on a n y b u t v e r y g r o s s b a s e s t
S e v e ra l h y p o th e se s have o c c u rre d to th e w r i t e r in
th e p ro c e ss of a tte m p tin g in te r p r e ta tio n * One o f t h e
f i r s t in v o lv e d th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s i s e s s e n t i a l l y
a n o t h e r d o u b l e t on t h e c o m p r e h e n s io n t e s t s * I t w i l l be
n o t e d fro m T a b l e V I I I t h a t t e s t 1 5 , C o m p re h e n s io n , h a s a
l o a d i n g o f *2$0 on t h e f a c t o r * The much l o w e r c o m m u n a lity
o f t e s t 15 b r i n g s t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f common v a r i a n c e o f 12
a n d 15 c l o s e r t o g e t h e r (*50 and *19 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) b u t ev en
th e s e fig u re s a re q u ite d isp a ra te * The p r e s e n c e o f D i g i t
S pan and D i g i t Symbol c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e c o n f u s i o n an d
seem s t o make t h e d o u b l e t h y p o t h e s i s e n t i r e l y u n t e n a b l e *
The p r e s e n c e o f b o t h t e s t s 16 an d 24 on t h e f a c t o r
w ould n a t u r a l l y s u g g e s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s i s a
memory f a c t o r . The w r i t e r i s u n a b l e t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e
h i g h l o a d i n g o f t h e g ro u p C o m p re h e n sio n t e s t w i t h s u c h an
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , h o w e v e r, and i t i s o b v io u sly a b s o lu te ly
n e c e s s a r y t o d e f e r t o a l o a d i n g o f t h i s m a g n itu d e i n any
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t is a c c e p te d . A s i m i l a r w eakness
e x is ts in in te r p r e tin g th e f a c to r as d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y , a
f a c t o r r e p o r t e d b y Cohen (1 6 ) h a v i n g l o a d i n g s on b o t h
D i g i t Span and D i g i t S y m b o l. A f o u r t h h y p o t h e s i s t h a t was
c o n s i d e r e d w ould d e n o m in a te t h i s fa c to r as a tte n tio n *
 120
F r e n c h (2 2 ) l i s t s f o u r a n a l y s e s i n w h ich s u c h a f a c t o r i s
id e n tifia b le * T e s t s a p p e a r i n g on t h e f a c t o r i n c l u d e
d ig it se rie s , le tt e r l i s t , p a i r e d n u m b e rs , d i g i t l i s t ,
an d f o l l o w i n g d i r e c t i o n s , a l l o f w h ic h a p p e a r t o i n c l u d e
t h e p r o b le m o f a t t e n d i n g and a d h e r i n g t o r e l a t i v e l y un­
c o m p lic a te d i n s t r u c t i o n s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , f a l s e
p r e m i s e s , r e a s o n i n g , and s y l l o g i s m s t e s t s p r o b a b l y i n v o l v e
t h e above f u n c tio n s p lu s e v a l u a t i v e o r ju d g m e n ta l r e ­
a c t i o n s o f some s o r t . Even m ore t h a n t h e d o u b l e t h y p o t h ­
e s i s , t h e a t t e n t i o n h y p o t h e s i s w o u ld f o r c e one t o r a t i o n ­
a l i z e t h e h i g h l o a d i n g o f t h e g r o u p C o m p re h e n sio n t e s t and
t h e r e l a t i v e l y low l o a d i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l f o r m . The
w r i t e r c a n n o t s e e how t h e a t t e n t i o n h y p o t h e s i s c a n r e a d i l y
accom m odate t h e s e d e m an d s.
The f i n a l h y p o t h e s i s and t h e one t h a t a p p e a r s t o
t h e w r i t e r t o f i n d t h e m ost a d e q u a t e s u p p o r t , w ould
i n t e r p r e t t h i s as a flu e n c y f a c t o r . In h is stu d y of
f l u e n c y , F r u c h t e r (2 3 ) i d e n t i f i e d two v e r b a l f l u e n c y f a c ­
t o r s , w o r d - f l u e n c y and s p e e d - o f - a s s o c i a t i o n . He d i d n o t
i d e n t i f y a g e n e ra l flu e n c y f a c t o r . T a y lo r (7 2 ), i n a
stu d y o f flu e n c y i n w r i t i n g , fou nd a f a c t o r t h a t he c a l l e d
TfV e r b a l V e r s a t i l i t y ’1. I n h i s r e p o r t , F r e n c h (2 2 ) c a l l s i t
’’F lu e n c y o f E x p r e s s i o n ” , u n d e r w h ich he a l s o i n c l u d e s
F ru c h te r’s sp e e d -o f-a sso c ia tio n . I n T a y l o r ’ s s t u d y tw o

i
 121
o f t h e h i g h e s t l o a d i n g s on t h e f a c t o r a r e i n S i m i l e s an d
S e n t e n c e F lu e n c y 1 B o th demand t h e f r a m in g o f m u l t i p l e
re sp o n se s t o stim u lu s m a te ria l*
C a r r o l l ’ s stu d y of v e rb a l a b i l i t i e s (1 1 ) th r o w s
some f u r t h e r l i g h t on t h e f l u e n c y h y p o t h e s i s . He i d e n t i ­
f i e d one f a c t o r a s h a n d w r i t i n g s p e e d , a l t h o u g h t h i s h e
a d m i t t e d was an i n c o m p l e t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n * F r e n c h (2 2 )
i d e n t i f i e s t h e f a c t o r w i t h f l u e n c y o f e x p r e s s i o n a s men­
tio n e d above. S p eed o f h a n d w r i t i n g a p p e a r s on t h e f a c t o r
w i t h a l o a d i n g o f *37* Two p i c t u r e d e s c r i p t i o n t e s t s ,
r e l e v a n t w o rd s and q u a l i t y , a p p e a r w i t h l o a d i n g s o f *32
an d *53 r e s p e c t i v e l y . F r e e w r i t i n g , q u a l i t y and num ber o f
p e r t i n e n t w o rd s a l s o a p p e a r s w i t h m o d e r a te l o a d i n g .
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e a b o v e e v i d e n c e and m u l t i p l e -
a n s w e r r e q u i r e m e n t f o r g o o d s c o r e on t e s t 1 2 , r e f e r r e d t o
i n th e d is c u s s io n of f a c t o r F, th e fo llo w in g fo rm u la tio n
is o ffered . T e s t 12 o b v i o u s l y r e q u i r e s some r e a s o n i n g .
P art a t le a s t of th is i s a c c o u n te d f o r by f a c t o r F . It
a l s o , m ore t h a n t e s t 1 5 , r e q u i r e s b o t h t h e a b i l i t y an d
t h e t e n d e n c y t o c a l l f o r t h num erous r e s p o n s e s . I t seems
p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e p e r s o n w hose s u c c e s s i n t e s t 12 i s
l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e d by t h i s f a c t o r , t e n d s t o b e a b l e t o
s e e q u i c k l y and t o b e u n i n h i b i t e d i n e x p r e s s i n g s e v e r a l
o r many a d d i t i o n a l o r a l t e r n a t e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e s t i m u l u s
 122
m a te ria l* One who d o e s p o o r l y may do so b e c a u s e h e i s
p o o r i n r e a s o n i n g o r b e c a u s e he e v a l u a t e s h i s r e s p o n s e s
i m p l i c i t l y and s e l e c t s o n l y t h e b e s t t o b e o v e r t . I f th e
flu e n c y h y p o th e s is i s c o r r e c t , q u a l i t y i s i n f l u e n c e d by
q u a n t i t y , s i n c e t h e more p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h e e x a m in e e can
c a l l up t h e more l i k e l y w i l l i t b e t h a t h i s l i s t i n c l u d e s
c o r r e c t o r good q u a l i t y r e s p o n s e s .
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e a b o v e f o r m u l a t i o n , t h e r e a s o n
f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f D i g i t Span on t h e f a c t o r i s n o t imme­
d i a t e l y o b v io u s . P o s s i b l y one who i s f l u e n t i n t h e a b o v e
s e n s e e n c o u n te r s l e s s i n t e r f e r e n c e i n b r in g in g t o ex­
p r e s s i o n h is r e s p o n s e s , w h e th e r t h e r e s p o n s e i s re fle c te d
b a c k v i a im m e d ia te memory o r i s o r i g i n a t e d in sp o n ta n e o u s
resp o n se to th e s tim u lu s . I t m ig h t b e r e m a r k e d , p a r e n ­
t h e t i c a l l y , t h a t t h e common o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t d i s t u r b e d
e x a m in e e s o f t e n do p o o r l y i n D i g i t Span w o uld f i t i n w e l l
w ith t h i s e x p la n a tio n .
The p r e s e n c e o f D i g i t Symbol on t h i s f a c t o r , even
th o u g h w i t h o n l y m a r g i n a l l o a d i n g , c a n c e r t a i n l y b e
r a t i o n a l i z e d i f s p e e d o f h a n d w r i t i n g h a s l o a d i n g on t h e
fa c to r. A lth o u g h t h i s d o e s n o t mean t h a t s p e e d o f m a rk in g
t h e sy m b ol i s t h e o n l y f u n c t i o n r e q u i r e d , i t is c e rta in ly
tru e th a t f a c i l i t y i n m a rk in g t e n d s t o i n c r e a s e s p e e d on
th e t e s t , and h e n c e t o i n c r e a s e t h e s c o r e . I t may b e
 123
a s s u m e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t s p e e d i n D i g i t Symbol t e s t a s s o ­
c i a t e d w ith t h i s f a c t o r a r i s e s fro m t h e e x a m in e e ’ s a b i l i t y
t o a p p r e h e n d s t i m u l i i n q u ic k s u c c e s s i o n w i t h a minimum
o f i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d i n h i b i t i o n i n c h a n g in g fro m one t o
t h e n e x t*
W-B C o m p re h e n sio n and W-B P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n o c c u r
on t h e f a c t o r w i t h l o a d i n g s s l i g h t l y b e lo w *30* B oth
te sts f it in q u ite e a s i l y w ith th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e
f a c t o r g iv e n a b o v e .
The c o n c l u s i o n fro m t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i s t h a t h e r e i s
a f l u e n c y f a c t o r t h a t ca n h a r d l y b e r e s t r i c t e d a s a r e
T h u r s to n e A s (74) and F r u c h t e r ’ s (2 3 ) f l u e n c y f a c t o r s . In
t h e p r e s e n t f a c t o r n e i t h e r q u a n t i t y n o r q u a l i t y ca n b e
assu m ed t o b e e n t i r e l y u n i m p o r t a n t . The f a c t o r seems t o
s i g n a l a r a t h e r g e n e r a l te n d e n c y t o b e r e s p o n s i v e and u n ­
i n h i b i t e d , w i t h c o n s e q u e n t r e l a t i v e l y d i r e c t f l o w b e tw e e n
s t i m u l u s and r e s p o n s e . W h a te v e r i n t h e way o f h e s i t a t i o n
o r i n h i b i t i o n d o e s o c c u r i s p r e s u m a b ly a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e
p e rc e p tio n or e v a lu a tio n o f th e stim u lu s o r th e resp o n se
i t s e l f r a t h e r th a n w ith e x tra n e o u s in f lu e n c e s . In th e
w r i t e r ’ s o p i n i o n , t h i s comes c l o s e a t l e a s t t o t h e t y p e
o f f a c t o r t h a t W e c h s l e r ($ 1 ) c a l l s n o n - i n t e l l e c t i v e .
 124
' f
F a c t o r H, p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d * S ig n if ic a n t lo a d ­
i n g s on f a c t o r H a r e :
3* P e r c e p t u a l S p eed *515
23- O b j e c t A ssem b ly -415
22* B lo c k D e sig n -3$5
13• W-B Group S i m i l a r i t i e s -3 7$
24- D i g i t Symbol *366
4* N u m e r ic a l O p e r a t i o n s *311
9* V o c a b u la ry -re c o g n itio n *310
T h is seems q u i t e c l e a r l y t o b e t h e p e r c e p t u a l
s p e e d f a c t o r t h a t h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d i n a l a r g e number o f
a n a ly se s* I n h i s m on o g rap h , F r e n c h (2 2 ) l i s t s 34
a n a l y s e s i n ^diich t h e f a c t o r can b e i d e n t i f i e d . T e sts
o f p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d a r e t y p i c a l l y s p e e d e d and a c h e c k o f
t h e a b o v e l i s t r e v e a l s t h a t a l l b u t G roup S i m i l a r i t i e s
and V o c a b u la r y a r e s p e e d e d * Of p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d , F re n c h
s a y s , " T h is f a c t o r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e t a s k o f f i n d i n g

i n a m a ss o f d i s t r a c t i n g m a t e r i a l a g i v e n c o n f i g u r a t i o n
w h ich i s b o r n e i n m ind d u r i n g t h e s e a r c h . T h is i n c l u d e s
t h e a b i l i t y t o co m pare p a i r s o f i t e m s o r t o l o c a t e a
u n iq u e ite m i n a g r o u p o f i d e n t i c a l i t e m s * ------------------i n no
c a s e i s t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o u g h t a f t e r so h i d d e n a s t o
cause d i f f i c u l t y i f p l e n t y o f t i m e w ere a v a i l a b l e . " (22,
p . 227) As G re e n (36 ) h a s p o i n t e d o u t , t h e p e r c e p t u a l
speed f a c t o r i s b ro u g h t out b e s t by m a te r ia l t h a t i s not
to o - d i f f i c u l t . I t seem s t o t h e w r i t e r t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e
 125
t e s t f o r t h i s f a c t o r (3* P e r c e p t u a l S p e e d ) m ig h t h a v e
p r o v e d a b e t t e r m e a s u re o f t h e f a c t o r i f , f o r e x a m p le ,
t h e f i g u r e s h ad b e e n l a r g e r * T h is w ould p r o b a b l y h a v e
e l i m i n a t e d w h at may b e v a r i a n c e i n v is u a l a c u ity * As i t
is, su c h v a r i a n c e p r o b a b l y comes o u t a s s p e c i f i c i n t h e
p re s e n t a n a ly sis * In s p i t e o f t h i s p o s s i b le sh o rtc o m in g
i n t h e r e f e r e n c e t e s t , h o w e v e r, i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e f a c t o r
i s r e l a t i v e l y w e ll i d e n t i f i e d in th e a n a ly s is *
The p r e s e n c e o f O b j e c t A ssem b ly on t h i s f a c t o r i s
of in te re st. P a r t o f F re n c h * s d e f i n i t i o n , a s q u o te d
a b o v e , seems t o b e p e r t i n e n t h e r e * T h e r e a r e a num ber of
p a r t s t h a t m u st b e f i t t e d t o g e t h e r in to a w h o le . The
e x a m in e e l o o k s a t t h e p a r t s one a t a tim e and m u st r e t a i n
o r Tfb e a r i n m in d M t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f one p i e c e a s he
l o o k s among t h e o t h e r s f o r a p i e c e w i t h w h ic h t h i s w i l l
fit. I t w o u ld a p p e a r t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d
f u n c t i o n h a s t o do w i t h t h e f i t t i n g of th e m a te r ia l t o ­
g e t h e r i n t o a w h o le , w i t h r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e re fe re n c e to
w h a t t h e w h o le i s . U n d o u b te d ly t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t e s t i s
s p e e d e d h a s much t o do w i t h d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e p e r c e p t u a l
s p e e d v a r i a n c e fro m t h a t o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n .
The p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d v a r i a n c e i n t h e B lo c k D e s ig n
t e s t p r o b a b l y h a s t o do w i t h t h e t a s k o f t r a n s f e r r i n g o r
 126
c h e c k in g fro m t h e p r i n t e d p a t t e r n t o t h e a c t u a l b l o c k
d e s ig n * Once a g a i n , t h e p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d v a r i a n c e p r o b ­
a b l y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x a m in e e ’ s s p e e d and a c c u r a c y
in th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e o r ie n ta tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l
b lo c k s r a t h e r th a n in th e p e r c e p tio n o f o r o r i e n t a t i o n to
t h e w h ole#
I t seem s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f W-B G roup
S i m i l a r i t i e s on t h i s f a c t o r i s an a r t i f a c t r e s u l t i n g from
t h e i n f l a t e d c o m m u n a lity o f t h e t e s t # On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
th e ap p earan ces o f V o c a b u la ry -re c o g n itio n #310, V o c a b u la r y
re c a ll .2 6 6 , W-B V o c a b u la r y #230, a n d O t i s B e t a #243,
r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f an i n t e l l e c t i v e a s p e c t o f t h e f a c ­
to r. P e r u s a l o f F r e n c h ’ s (2 2 ) r e v i e w r e v e a l s a l m o s t no
l o a d i n g s on t h e f a c t o r f o r s i m i l a r t e s t s , a l l o f w h ic h ,
e x c e p t t h e O t i s , a r e e s s e n t i a l l y pow er t e s t s # F ru c h te r
( 2 3 ) in h is s tu d y of flu e n c y re p o rte d a s im ila r lo a d in g
( # 2 0 ) , h o w e v e r, f o r t h e T h o r n d ik e V o c a b u la r y t e s t an d a
much higher* l o a d i n g ( # 4 7 ) f o r t h e C o m p le tio n t e s t w h ic h
he d e s c r i b e s a s w h o l l y v e r b a l . P e r h a p s su ch t e s t s i n v o l v e
t r u e , a l t h o u g h s l i g h t , v a r i a n c e i n p e r c e p t u a l sp eed *
F r u c h te r s u g g e s ts speed of re a d in g a s a p o s s ib le source*
The D i g i t Symbol and N u m e ric a l O p e r a t i o n s t e s t s
h a v e m o d e r a te l o a d i n g s on t h e f a c t o r a s one m ig h t e x p e c t#
 127
In b o th t e s t s t h e ex a m in ee i s fo rced to sen se v is u a lly

an d p e r c e i v e q u i c k l y t h e i d e n t i t y o f s y m b o l s . B o th t e s t s

a r e h i g h l y s p e e d e d and c o n s i s t o f r e l a t i v e l y easy ta sk s,

and th u s con form t o F r e n c h ’ s c r i t e r i o n a s m e n tio n e d a b o v e .

9. F a cto r J , e d u c tio n o f c o n c ep tu a l r e l a t i o n s .

F a cto r J i s d is t in g u is h e d by th e f o llo w in g lo a d in g s:

20. W-B P i c t u r e A r r a n g e m e n t . 494

2. O tis B eta . 474
1. A ge .396
10. V o e a b u la r y -R e c a ll •372
A t f i r s t g la n c e t h i s a p p ea rs t o be a h e te r o g e n e o u s

group o f t e s t s th a t c o u ld h a r d ly be f i t t e d in to a sin g le

fa c to r ia l in te r p r e ta tio n . As t h e f a c t o r b e g a n t o e m e rg e

d u rin g r o t a t i o n , a t t e m p t s w e r e made t o b r i n g a b o u t a c o n ­

f i g u r a t i o n t h a t w o u ld make some p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e n s e . In

sp ite o f th ese e f f o r t s , how ever, th e le a d in g lo a d in g s

underw ent l i t t l e s h i f t and t h e a b o v e g ro u p em erged a s t h e

fin a l id e n tify in g t e s t s f o r th e f a c t o r . T h is p o s e s th e

p r o b le m o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e s u l t s a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e n o t

a t a l l w h at h a d b e e n e x p e c t e d .

S e v e r a l h y p o t h e s e s w e r e e x a m in e d a n d r e j e c t e d b u t

o n ly th e one f i n a l l y a d o p ted w i l l be d i s c u s s e d . B e g in ­

n i n g w i t h t h e l e a d i n g l o a d i n g on t h e f a c t o r , i t may b e
fI
n o ted th a t t h i s is th e o n ly lo a d in g above .30 f o r t h e
P ic t u r e A rrangem ent t e s t . The l o a d i n g on O t i s B e t a i s th e
 12S
se c o n d h i g h e s t f o r t h a t t e s t , b e i n g s u r p a s s e d o n l y by i t s
l o a d i n g on t h e v e r b a l c o m p re h e n s io n f a c t o r . The O t i s h a s
a l i b e r a l s p r i n k l i n g o f v e r b a l a n a l o g i e s and num ber
s e r ie s ite m s. A h y p o th e s is h e ld by th e w r i t e r opens th e
way t o t h e n e x t s i g n i f i c a n t o b s e r v a t i o n . The h y p o t h e s i s
was t h a t P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t s h o u ld show up w i t h c o n ­
s i d e r a b l e l o a d i n g on r e a s o n i n g . As r o t a t i o n s p r o g r e s s e d
i t became m ore and more e v i d e n t t h a t t e s t 20 w ould n o t
a p p e a r to g e th e r w ith th e a r ith m e tic re a s o n in g t e s t s on a
f a c t o r th a t c o u ld be i n t e r p r e t e d a s g e n e ra l re a s o n in g .
The p r e s e n c e o f a g e and v o c a b u l a r y - r e c a l l on f a c t o r J
a l s o had to b e ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t. The s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­
f e r e n c e i n l o a d i n g s b e tw e e n t h e tw o v o c a b u l a r y t e s t s t h a t
o c c u r s o n l y on t h i s f a c t o r a p p e a r e d a l s o t o b e a m e a n in g ­
f u l sig n •
One o f t h e f i r s t c l u e s t h a t l e d t o t h e i d e n t i f i c a ­
t i o n o f t h e f a c t o r a s a s e c o n d r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r was t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e T h u r s t o n e s ( 75) r e p o r t e d an a p p r e ­
c ia b le n e g a tiv e lo a d in g ( - . 2 2 ) on a g e f o r a f a c t o r t h e y
c a lle d in d u c tio n . The same s t u d y r e p o r t e d a p o s i t i v e
l o a d i n g o f .3 5 on m e n t a l a g e . T hese f a c t s s u g g e s te d t h a t
a g e and O t i s B e t a c o u l d b e f i t t e d i n t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of a f a c to r s im ila r to T h u rs to n e s1 I n d u c tio n . T h is p r e ­
p a r e d t h e way f o r i n t e g r a t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s i s a b o u t P i c t u r e
 129
A rra n g e m e n t i n t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . As a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d ,
P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t seem s d e f i n i t e l y t o demand r e a s o n i n g .
Does i t r e q u i r e i n d u c t i o n ? Not n e c e s s a r i l y s o , i n t h e
w r i t e r * s ju d g m e n t a l t h o u g h t h e g e n e r a l a p p e a r a n c e may be
a d m itte d t o be i n d u c t i v e . L ac ey a n d T a i t r e m a rk i n t h e
AAP R e p o r t c h a p t e r on r e a s o n i n g , ,fT h e s e l o g i c a l r u b r i c s
( d e d u c t i o n a n d i n d u c t i o n ) seem n o t t o y i e l d v a l i d d e s -
s c ip tio n s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s ” (39, p . 12 2 ). F ren ch
(2 2 ) n o t e s a l s o t h a t i n d u c t i o n a s a p r o c e s s i n r e a s o n i n g
i s not v ery r e l i a b l y p r e d ic te d . He h o l d s t h a t t h e p r o c e s s
v a r i e s n o t o n l y w i t h t h e p r o b le m b u t a l s o w i t h t h e exam­
i n e e ^ approach to i t .
W ith t h i s fra m ew o rk o f p r e v i o u s f i n d i n g s , t h e t a s k
o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e f a c t o r i s made c o n s i d e r a b l y e a s i e r .
T a k in g t h e c u e fro m G re e n * s (3 6 ) i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e a s o n ­
in g f a c t o r s t h i s f a c t o r h as been c a l l e d e d u c a tio n o f con­
c e p tu a l r e l a t io n s . A c tu a lly th e p r e s e n t b a t te r y i s n o t
e x t e n s i v e en ou gh t o a l l o w o f t h e f i n e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n
e d u c a t i o n f a c t o r s t h a t G re e n m a k e s. In h is d isc u ssio n of
t h e e d u c a t i o n o f c o n c e p t u a l p a t t e r n s f a c t o r , h e re m a rk s
t h a t t h i s i s p r o b a b l y t h e same a s T h u r s t o n e ’ s i n d u c t i o n
fa c to r. In th e p r e s e n t c a s e , e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e e x a c t
s h a d e o f d i f f e r e n c e w o uld seem t o r e q u i r e a l a r g e r num ber
o f t e s t s on t h e f a c t o r . I n a n y c a s e m o st i f n o t a l l t h e
 130
t e s t s a p p e a r i n g on t h e f a c t o r , i n c l u d i n g G roup S i m i l a r ­
itie s , (* 2 6 7 ) and P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n ( . 2 7 2 ) , seem t o c a ll
f o r t h e e d u c tio n o f c o n c e p tu a l r e la tio n s r a t h e r th a n
p a tte rn s. F o r t h i s r e a s o n and o t h e r s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d ,
t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has been a d o p te d .
One o t h e r re m a rk s h o u l d no d o u b t b e m ad e. The
p r e s e n c e o f v o c a b u l a r y - r e c a l l may n o t a p p e a r t o f i t i n
w ith t h e above p i c t u r e . If it i s n o t e d , h o w e v e r, t h a t
t h e t a s k subsum ed u n d e r t h e f a c t o r i s t h a t o f d i s c o v e r i n g
c o n c e p t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and t h a t t h e v o c a b u l a r y t e s t i s
a h a r d v o c a b u l a r y t e s t d em an d in g f r e e a n s w e r s , t h e r e l a ­
tio n s h ip i s c le a r e r . The s t u d e n t i s f a c e d w i t h t h e n e c e s ­
s i t y o f f o r m u l a t i n g d e f i n i t i o n s t o d i f f i c u l t w o r d s , many
o f w h ich he d o e s n o t know . U n d er t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , may
one n o t b e j u s t i f i e d i n a s s u m in g t h a t he s e e k s f o r v e r b a l
o r c o n c e p t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r a s s o c i a t i o n s t o g u i d e him
t o a d e f i n i t i o n t h a t he j u d g e s s a t i s f a c t o r y . As G reen
r e m a r k s , i t may w e l l b e t h a t i t i s th e se e k in g t h a t i s
im p o rta n t in t h i s f a c t o r .

10. F a c t o r K, i n f o m a t i o n . F acto r K is i d e n tif ie d

by th e fo llo w in g v a r ia b le s :
14* W-B I n f o r m a t i o n -560
11. W-B G roup I n f o r m a t i o n *439
13 * W-B G roup S i m i l a r i t i e s *437
17* W-B A r i t h m e t i c *313
22. W-B B lo c k D e s ig n *305
 131
T h is f a c t o r p r o v e d t o b e t h e m ost d i f f i c u l t t o
id e n tify s a tis fa c to rily . As i n . t h e c a s e o f f a c t o r G, no
r e f e r e n c e t e s t s a p p e a r on t h e f a c t o r . T h is f a c t d e p riv e s
one o f c l u e s t h a t m ig h t o t h e r w i s e b e a v a i l a b l e i n t h e way
o f in te r p r e tiv e su g g e stio n s. T h is i s n o t t h e o n l y r e ­
s tr ic tio n th a t is face d in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e f a c t o r ,
ho w ev er. In h i s d is c u s s io n of th e reaso n s f o r in c lu s io n
o f an i n f o r m a t i o n t e s t i n h i s s c a l e , W e c h s l e r ( $ 3 , P* 77)
s a y s t h a t su c h i t e m s h ad n o t b e e n i n c l u d e d i n s t a n d a r d i z e d
i n t e l l i g e n c e e x a m in a tio n s u n t i l he in tr o d u c e d h i s s c a l e .
He p o i n t s o u t t h a t p s y c h i a t r i s t s h a v e u ^ e d su c h i t e m s v e r y
w id e ly in e s tim a tin g th e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f p a t i e n t s , b u t
t h a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e g e n e r a l l y a v o i d e d th e m . A g en eral
i n f o r m a t i o n t e s t was i n c l u d e d i n t h e Army A lp h a a n d ,
a c c o rd in g to W e ch sler, proved v ery p r e d i c t i v e . I t i s not
c l e a r , h o w e v e r, t o w h at e x t e n t i t s v a l i d i t y d e p e n d e d on
f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n v e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s io n . G u i l f o r d (3 7 )
r e p o r t s a n a n a l y s i s t h a t i n c l u d e d e i g h t Army A lp h a t e s t s .
M o st o f t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t e s t i s a c c o u n t e d
f o r b y o n e f a c t o r t h a t a p p e a r s t o b e q u i t e c l e a r l y one o f
v e r b a l c o m p re h en sio n . The l i m i t e d num ber o f t e s t s a n d
f a c t o r s f a i l e d to y i e l d any f i n e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f th e
f a c t o r i a l c o n te n t of th e in fo rm a tio n t e s t .
 132

W e c h s l e r * s e x a m in e r s made c e r t a i n re m a rk s a b o u t
th e In fo rm a tio n t e s t t h a t a r e o f i n t e r e s t : **The t e s t i s
o f v a lu e b ecau se i t g iv e s th e s u b j e c t ’ s g e n e ra l rang e of
in fo rm a tio n * * * **It o f t e n i n d i c a t e s t h e a l e r t n e s s o f t h e
p e r s o n t o w a r d s t h e w o r ld a b o u t him.** ( $ 3 , P» 79) T h e se
r e m a rk s may w e l l h a v e b e e n t h e b a s i s o f B a l i n s k y ’ s nam ing
o f one o f h i s f a c t o r s a s a w a r e n e s s o f e n v ir o n m e n t (3 ) ♦
T h is f a c t o r i n h i s a n a l y s i s h a d m a jo r l o a d i n g s on O b j e c t
A sse m b ly , B lo c k D e s i g n , a n d I n f o r m a t i o n *
B i r r e n ’ s (6 ) a n a l y s i s b a s e d on h i s n o rm a l sa m p le
y ie ld e d fo u r f a c t o r s b u t th e I n fo r m a tio n t e s t had a lo a d ­
i n g o n l y on t h e v e r b a l f a c t o r * Cohen ( 1 6 ) r e p o r t s t h e
I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t w i t h l o a d i n g s on t h e v e r b a l f a c t o r o n ly ,
i n h i s t h r e e g r o u p s ( p s y c h o n e u r o t i c , s c h i z o p h r e n i c , and
b r a i n dam aged)• The f r a g m e n t a r y r e p o r t t h a t i s a v a i l a b l e
o f S im k in ’ s (6 3 ) s t u d y f a i l s t o f u r n i s h s i g n i f i c a n t i n ­
f o r m a t i o n on t h e I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t * A lth o u g h , a s i n d i c a t e d
i n C h a p t e r I I , t h e m ethod o f a n a l y s i s l i m i t s t h e i n t e r ­
p r e t i v e u s e f u l n e s s o f G o l d f a r b ’ s (3 2 ) s t u d y , i t i s i n t e r ­
e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t he r e p o r t s I n f o r m a t i o n h i g h e s t on a
f a c t o r t h a t he. i n t e r p r e t s a s w isdom o r e x p e r i e n c e . S in c e
g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n t e s t s w e re i n c l u d e d i n many o f t h e
AAF a n a l y s e s (3 9 ) some a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d a l s o b e g iv e n t o
f a c t o r f in d in g s o f th e s e a n a ly se s* In g e n e ra l th e f a c t o r
 133
l o a d i n g s ' f o r t h e g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n t e s t s w ere h i g h e s t
on t h e v e r b a l f a c t o r . O t h e r l o a d i n g s a p p e a r e d on m ech­
a n i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , p i l o t i n t e r e s t , and v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c ­
to rs. One i m p o r t a n t p o i n t m akes t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n o f
l i m i t e d use in th e p r e s e n t c o n n e c tio n . The AAF g e n e r a l
i n f o r m a t i o n t e s t s h a d t o do a l m o s t e n t i r e l y w i t h s p e c i a l ­
iz e d in fo rm a tio n about v a rio u s a s p e c ts of f l y i n g . The
i n f o r m a t i o n was i n no way g e n e r a l i n t h e s e n s e t h a t
W e ch sler’ s in fo rm a tio n t e s t i s g e n e ra l in i t s scope.
The c o n s e n s u s o f i n t u i t i v e r e p o r t s and su c h f a c t o r
f i n d i n g s a s a r e a v a i l a b l e seem s t o b e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a .
t h e I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t h a s a l a r g e l o a d i n g on t h e v e r b a l
f a c t o r , b . th e In fo rm a tio n t e s t sc o re i n d ic a t e s th e
d e g r e e o f t h e e x a m in e e ’ s a w a r e n e s s o f t h e w o r l d a b o u t h im ,
a n d may i d e n t i f y a f a c t o r t h a t ca n b e d e n o m in a te d i n t h e s e
o r s i m i l a r te r m s *
A n o th e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n m u st b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f a c t o r K* T h is i s t h e
p r e s e n c e o f two p r e s u m a b l y p a r a l l e l t e s t s i n t h e b a t t e r y .
As m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f f a c t o r E , t h i s
f a c t c o u l d l e a d t o t h e e m e rg e n c e o f an a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r
r e p r e s e n tin g e s s e n t i a l l y th e s p e c i f i c v a ria n c e o f th e
in fo rm a tio n m a te r ia l. The p o s s i b i l i t y o f a d o u b l e t
 134
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was c o n s i d e r e d an d i s n o t e n t i r e l y r e j e c t ­
ed* I f t h e a r t i f i c i a l l y i n f l a t e d l o a d i n g o f t h e G roup
S i m i l a r i t i e s t e s t i s d i s c o u n t e d o n l y two a p p r e c i a b l e
l o a d i n g s r e m a i n t h a t a r e a b o v e *30. I f one w ere t o
a c c e p t a s a p r e c e d e n t t h e t y p e o f 1d o u b l e t ’ f a c t o r r e p o r t ­
ed b y some ( C a r r o l l (1 2 ) f o r e x a m p le ) , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f
f a c t o r K a s a d o u b l e t w ould b e e n t i r e l y a c c e p t a b l e . In
fa c t, if one c o n s i d e r s t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e common
v a r i a n c e o f t h e s e v e r a l t e s t s t h a t i s c o n t r i b u t e d by t h i s
f a c t o r , th e d o u b le t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ap p e ars te n a b le . The
fo llo w in g v a lu e s a r e o b ta in e d by s q u a rin g t h e f a c t o r lo a d ­
i n g o f each t e s t an d d i v i d i n g by t h e r e s p e c t i v e com munal-
itie s :
1 4- W-B I n f o r m a t i o n *45
11. W-B G roup I n f o r m a t i o n .2 7
13 * W-B G roup S i m i l a r i t i e s .1 7
21. W-B P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n .14
22. W-B B lo c k D e s ig n .13
1$. W-B S i m i l a r i t i e s .13
17• W-B A r i t h m e t i c .12
The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e ab o v e f i g u r e s i s t h a t no t e s t s
o u t s i d e o f t h e I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t s h a v e more t h a n a p p r o x i ­
m a t e l y o n e - s i x t h o f t h e i r c o m m o n -fa c to r v a r i a n c e c o n ­
t r i b u t e d by t h i s f a c t o r .
I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e ab o v e d i s c u s s i o n , t h e d e c i s i o n
t o c a l l f a c t o r K an i n f o r m a t i o n f a c t o r , seems t o t h e
w r i t e r to be j u s t i f i e d . So nam ing t h e f a c t o r d o e s n o t
 13 5
p re c lu d e th e p o s s i b i l i t y th a t i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a d o u b le t*
The t e r n i s more g e n e r a l t h a n B a l i n s k y ’ s ”A w a re n e ss o f
E n v ir o n m e n t” b u t w ou ld c e r t a i n l y i n c l u d e h i s c o n c e p t . It
h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e a l s o o f b e i n g e x p r e s s e d i n somewhat more
o b je c tiv e te rm s.
Of t h e t e s t s l i s t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s s e c ­
t i o n , o n l y A r i t h m e t i c and B lo c k D e s ig n o f f e r a n y p r o b le m
o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w ith th e above i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e
fa c to r. I t a p p e a r s r e a s o n a b l e , h o w e v e r, t o a s su m e t h a t
th e se t e s t s (as w e ll a s S i m i l a r i t i e s , .2 7 4 and P i c t u r e
C o m p le t io n , .2 6 0 ) h a v e i n common w i t h t h e I n f o r m a t i o n
t e s t s a f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h common o b j e c t s an d s y m b o l s . One
m ig h t h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t a b i l i t y t o u s e and m a n i p u l a t e s u c h
sy m b o ls i s c o v e r e d b y t h e f a c t o r s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , w h ile
m e re f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h th e m i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e i n f o r m a ­
tio n fa c to r.

B. E v a l u a t i o n o f H y p o th e s e s

1. F a c to rs. In C h a p te r I I I a s e r i e s o f h y p o th e se s
was p r e s e n t e d . T h ese h y p o t h e s e s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e e x p e c t a ­
t i o n s o f t h e w r i t e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e outcom e o f t h e
stu d y . I t is im p o rta n t, th e r e f o r e , t h a t th e r e s u l t s be
e v a lu a te d i n te rm s o f th e s e h y p o th e s e s . In th e f i r s t

p l a c e , a s e r i e s o f f a c t o r s was h y p o th e s iz e d * . F o llo w in g
 136
i s t h e l i s t a b s t r a c t e d fro m C h a p t e r I I I :
1. V e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s io n
2. N u m e r ic a l f a c i l i t y
3* V isu a liz a tio n
4* P e r c e p tu a l speed
5* R e a s o n in g
6• M e c h a n i c a l k n o w led g e
7• (? ) Memory
(? ) S p a c e r e l a t i o n s
F o r c o n v e n ie n c e i n m a k in g c o m p a r is o n , t h e l i s t of
o b ta in e d f a c t o r s i s g iv e n i n s i m i l a r o rd e r:
A. V e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s io n
C. N u m e r ic a l f a c i l i t y
B. V isu a liz a tio n
H. P e r c e p tu a l speed
F. G en eral re a s o n in g
J. E d u c tio n o f c o n c e p tu a l r e l a t i o n s
D. M e c h a n i c a l k n o w le d g e
E. D o u b le t on S i m i l a r i t i e s
G. F lu e n c y
K. In fo rm a tio n
I t w i l l b e seen t h a t t h e e x p e c ta tio n s a r e r e a l i z e d
in th e f i r s t fo u r f a c to r s p re d ic te d * In g en eral th e f a c ­
t o r s a s d e s c r i b e d by t h e t e s t s i n t h e p r e s e n t b a t t e r y
a g re e v ery c l o s e l y w ith f in d in g s p r e v io u s ly r e p o r t e d .
The p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e em erg en ce o f a r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r was
m ore t h a n f u l f i l l e d , i n a s e n s e , i n t h a t two d e f i n a b l e
r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r s came o u t o f t h e a n a l y s i s • The f i r s t
(F) i s t h e g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r a t w h ich t h e p r e d i c ­
t i o n was a c t u a l l y a im e d . The s e c o n d ( J ) i s c l e a r l y
i d e n t i f i a b l e b y t h e two l e a d i n g t e s t s , P i c t u r e A r r a n g e ­
ment and O t i s B e t a . The p r e d i c t i o n o f a m e c h a n i c a l
 137
k n o w le d g e f a c t o r i s f u l f i l l e d b u t w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n s
and r e s e r v a t i o n s . The f a c t o r t h a t em erg ed shows much
m ore m o d e r a te l o a d i n g s on t h e r e f e r e n c e t e s t s t h a n h ad
been re p o rte d p re v io u s ly . I t ap p ears a ls o th a t a t th is
a g e l e v e l , a t l e a s t , t h e b a s e o f t h e f a c t o r i s somewhat
b ro a d e r th a n i s i m p l i e d b y t h e te rm m e c h a n i c a l e x p e r i e n c e
o r k n o w le d g e . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t a t e r m t h a t would
im p ly g e n e r a l t e c h n i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n m ig h t b e more
a p p ro p ria te . T here a p p e a rs to be re a s o n to b e lie v e t h a t
t h e s m a l l e r l o a d i n g s and t h e b r o a d e r b a s e o f t h i s f a c t o r
may w e l l b e a r e s u l t o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e sam ple c o n t a i n e d
b o th s e x e s . I t i s n o t im p o s s ib le t h a t c u l t u r a l e x p e c ta ­
t i o n s h a v e some b e a r i n g on t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l p e r f o r m a n c e
o f t h e s e x e s i n t h e a r e a o f f a c t o r D.
I t w i l l b e n o t e d t h a t n e i t h e r memory n o r s p a c e
f a c t o r s em erged fro m t h i s a n a l y s i s . I t i s u n fo rtu n a te
t h a t th e b a tte r y d id not c o n ta in a re fe re n c e v a r ia b le f o r
sp a c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y , s in c e i t i s q u ite p ro b a b le t h a t in
th e p r e s e n t r e s u l t s th e sp ace v a ria n c e i s d i s t r i b u t e d to
o th e r f a c to r s . V i s u a liz a tio n e s p e c i a ll y i s p ro b a b ly a
m a jo r r e c i p i e n t o f t h i s s h i f t . I n v e s ti g a ti o n s o f th e r e ­
l a t i o n s h i p o f s p a t i a l and v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r s , r e p o r te d
s i n c e t h i s s t u d y was b e g u n , show t h a t i n c l u s i o n o f t h e
p r o p e r t e s t s ca n l e a d t o s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e two f a c t o r s
 13 S
ev en i n a d o l e s c e n t p o p u l a t i o n s ( 5 4 , 7 0 , 9 2 ) * The a p p e a r ­
a n c e s o f t h e d o u b l e t on S i m i l a r i t i e s t e s t s an d t h e
t e n t a t i v e l y d e f i n e d f l u e n c y an d i n f o r m a t i o n f a c t o r s w e re
not p re d ic te d . The r e s u l t s do n o t o f f e r a f i n a l a n s w e r
a s t o w h e th e r o r n o t t h e s e f a c t o r s r e f l e c t m e r e ly t h e
i n c l u s i o n o f two fo rm s o f S i m i l a r i t i e s , C o m p re h e n s io n , an d
In fo rm a tio n t e s t s .

2. C o m p le x ity . The p r e d i c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g co m p lex ­

i t y c a n n o t b e p o s i t i v e l y v e r i f i e d o r r e f u t e d on t h e b a s i s
of re s u lts . E x a m i n a ti o n o f t h e f a c t o r l o a d i n g s o f t h e
t e s t s i n T a b le V I I I i n d i c a t e s , h o w e v e r, t h a t t h e W-B
v a r i a b l e s t e n d t o b e m ore c o m p le x . The f o l l o w i n g f i g u r e s
make c o m p a r is o n e a s y :
A B
R eferen ce t e s t s 1 .8 6 *57
W-B T e s t s 2 .0 9 2 .0 0
Column A g i v e s mean c o m p l e x i t y i n t e r m s o f l o a d i n g s o f
•30 and a b o v e , w h i l e colum n B i s i n te r m s o f l o a d i n g s
b e tw e e n .2 0 and *30. The r e f e r e n c e t e s t s a r e 3 , 4., 5 , 6 ,
7, 9 , 10. I t w i l l b e s e e n t h a t b o t h r e f e r e n c e t e s t s and
W-B t e s t s h a v e a mean o f a b o u t two s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e W-B t e s t s c o n t a i n many m ore l o a d ­
i n g s b e tw e e n .20 an d .3 0 t h a n do t h e r e f e r e n c e t e s t s .
T h is m ig h t b e t a k e n a s c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e f o r g r e a t e r
 139
c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e W-B t e s t s w e re i t n o t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t
r o t a t i o n s w ere made p r i m a r i l y t o t h e r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s .
T h i s f a c t a l o n e w ould t e n d t o r e d u c e m in o r l o a d i n g s w h i l e
i n c r e a s i n g m a jo r l o a d i n g s on t h e r e f e r e n c e t e s t s , b u t
w o uld n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c h a n g e t h e s i t u a t i o n a s f a r a s t h e
W-B t e s t s a r e c o n c e r n e d * U n d er t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e
m o s t t h a t ca n b e s a i d i s t h a t t h e d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t p r o b ­
a b l y t h e W-B t e s t s a r e more co m p lex t h a n a r e t h e r e f e r e n c e
v a ria b le s.

3* R e c a ll v s . r e c o g n itio n . T h is h y p o t h e s i s was
s t a t e d i n n e g a t i v e t e r m s , n a m e ly , t h a t u n d e r t h e e x p e r i ­
m e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y , r e c a l l and r e c o g n i t i o n
t e s t s w ould n o t p r o d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n f a c t o r
c o n te n t. E x a m i n a ti o n o f t h e f a c t o r l o a d i n g s i n T a b l e V I I I
re v e a ls th a t th is is su p p o rte d e x c e p t in th e c a se o f f a c ­
to r J. T h is i s t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d f l u e n c y f a c t o r an d t h e
much h i g h e r l o a d i n g on t h e r e c a l l fo rm t h a n on t h e r e c o g ­
n i t i o n fo rm o f v o c a b u l a r y can b e r a t i o n a l i z e d r e a d i l y a s
a lr e a d y su g g e ste d in th e d is c u s s io n o f th e f a c t o r . I t can
b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t i n o t h e r f a c t o r s on w h ich t h e s e t e s t s
a p p e a r t h e e v id e n c e does n o t i n d i c a t e t h a t r e c a l l and
r e c o g n i t i o n in d u c e d i f f e r e n c e s i n f a c t o r c o n t e n t .
 140
«*

4- I n d i v i d u a l v s* g ro u p a d m i n i s t r a t i o n * As
p r e d i c t e d , a r i g o r o u s t e s t o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s was n o t
p o ssib le . Of t h e t h r e e p a i r s o f t e s t s i n c l u d e d i n t h e
b a t t e r y , o n l y t h e I n f o r m a t i o n t e s t s em erg ed w i t h c o m p a r a b le
co m m u n a litie s. The f a c t o r l o a d i n g s on t h e s e two t e s t s a r e
i n good g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t . L a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n
c o m m u n a l i t i e s o f t h e p a i r s o f t e s t s make c o n c l u s i o n s b a s e d
on t h e S i m i l a r i t i e s and C o m p re h e n sio n t e s t s r i s k y . As
n o t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f f a c t o r G, t h e l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e
i n l o a d i n g s b e tw e e n t h e tw o fo rm s o f C o m p re h e n sio n i s
a t t r i b u t e d t o t e s t c o n t e n t r a t h e r t h a n t o m ethod o f
a d m in istra tio n . In th e case o f th e S im ila r itie s t e s t s ,
t h e c o m m u n a lity o f t h e g r o u p form i s a l m o s t t w i c e t h a t
o f th e in d iv id u a l form . M ost o f t h e l o a d i n g s o f t h e two
fo rm s a r e a p p ro x im a te ly p r o p o r t i o n a l , h ow ever. O nly on
f a c t o r H d o e s an o b v i o u s l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t .
T h is d i f f e r e n c e i s h a r d l y e x p l a i n a b l e a s a f u n c t i o n o f
m e th o d , h o w e v e r. I n summary, i t m u st b e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e
e v i d e n c e i s i n c o n c l u s i v e a s t o w h e t h e r t h e m ethod o f
a d m in is tra tio n in flu e n c e s fa c to r c o n te n t. The e v i d e n c e
t h a t i s p r e s e n t i n t h e d a t a d o e s n o t i n d i c a t e t h a t such
d i f f e r e n c e o f m ethod e x e r t s an y s y s t e m a t i c i n f l u e n c e on
th e f a c to r c o n te n t.
 CHAPTER V I I

FACTORIAL CONTENT OF WECHSLER-BELLEVUE SUBTESTS

C h a p t e r VI c o n t a i n s a c o m p r e h e n s iv e d i s c u s s i o n o f
th e f a c to r f in d in g s of th e stu d y , in c lu d in g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f each o f th e f a c t o r s * The p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s
s t u d y , h o w e v e r, was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e f a c t o r i a l c o n t e n t
i n s o f a r a s p o s s i b l e o f e a ch o f t h e s u b t e s t s o f t h e
W e c h s le r-B e lle v u e S c ale* I n v ie w o f t h i s o b je c tiv e , th e
p r e s e n t c h a p t e r i s d e v o te d t o d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f i n d i n g s
fro m t h i s s t a n d p o i n t *
One o f t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f a s t u d y su ch
a s t h i s i s t h e e x t e n t t o w h ich t h e v a r i a n c e s o f t e s t
s c o r e s a r e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y t h e f a c t o r s t h a t em erge fro m
t h e s tu d y * In o rd e r to a r r i v e a t c o n c lu sio n s in t h i s
area i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e com puted c o m m u n a l i t i e s and
e s tim a te s of r e l i a b i l i t y * I f p o s s i b l e su c h e s t i m a t e s
s h o u l d b e b a s e d on t h e same g r o u p on w h ich t h e f a c t o r s and
c o m m u n a litie s a r e b ased * In th e p re se n t c a se t h i s i s
i m p o s s i b l e , s i n c e t h e d e s i g n d i d n o t i n c l u d e c o m p u ta t io n
o f r e l i a b i l i t i e s f o r t h e W-B v a r i a b l e s . In th e absence
o f th e b e s t e s tim a te , th e r e f o r e , r e l i a b i l i t y e s tim a te s
h a v e b ee n b a s e d on t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d o f v a l u e s i n T a b le K .
T a b le IX h a s b e e n p r e p a r e d t o show how t h e c o m m u n a l itie s
o f t h i s and o t h e r s t u d i e s com pare w i t h r e a s o n a b l e e s t i -
 142
TABLE IX

COMMUNALITIES AND ESTIMATED RELIABILITIES

FOR WECHSLER-BELLEVUE SUBTESTS

B a lin sk y B irren Cohen*

1 5 -y ear e ld e rly p o o le d P resen t
T est group group e stim a te stu d y
h2 h2 h2 h2 rl l :

In fo rm a tio n •41 •S3 *77 • 70 • S5

C o m p re h e n s io n •36 *61 .6 0 • 42 • 70
D i g i t S p an •13 •3d • 50 *44 .6 0
A rith m e tic • 56 •61 .6 0 .S i • 70
S im ila ritie s — • 76 •65 • 5S • 70
V o c a b u la r y — .SO .7 0 • 74 .9 0
P ic tu re •43 *63 • 42 •65
A rra n g e m e n t
P ic tu re •43 •73 •60 •4S •75
C o m p le tio n
B lo c k D e s ig n •40 •65 • 75 • 70 .SO
O b je c t •44 •45 •65 •34 •65
A ssem bly
D i g i t Symbol *16 •74 • 55 • 55 •SO

* Rough a v e r a g e fro m t h r e e s u b g r o u p s
* * C o m p o s ite b a s e d on t h e v a r i o u s e s tim a te s i n T a b le I I
 143
m a te s o f r e l i a b i l i t y of th e su b te s ts * I t w i l l be n o te d
t h a t co m m u n alitie s i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y a r e h ig h e r th a n
t h o s e r e p o r t e d b y B a l i n s k y f o r h i s 15 y e a r o l d sam ple i n
a l l b u t two i n s t a n c e s ( P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t and O b j e c t
A s s e m b ly ) . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t w i l l b e n o t e d t h a t com­
m u n a l i t i e s r e p o r t e d b y B i r r e n (6 ) and Cohen (16) a r e i n
g e n e ra l h ig h e r th a n th o s e o f th e p re s e n t s tu d y . B irre n fs
p o p u l a t i o n was e l d e r l y n o r m a l s . C o h e n ’ s w e re a d u l t
p s y c h o n e u r o t i c s , s c h i z o p h r e n i c s , an d b r a i n damaged c a s e s .
The v a l u e s fro m t h e s e t h r e e g ro u p s w e re r o u g h l y a v e r a g e d
f o r t h e v a l u e s i n T a b le IX .

A* S u b te st F a c to r D e sc rip tio n s

In th is s e c tio n th e f a c t o r f in d in g s w i l l be p re ­
s e n t e d g r a p h i c a l l y , f o l l o w e d by b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n s . In
o r d e r t h a t t h e g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s may b e i n t e r p r e t ­
a b l e i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e a l p h a b e t i c a l key
t o th e f a c t o r s , f a c t o r s w i l l be s i g n i f i e d a c c o rd in g to
t h e fo llo w in g key:
V: F acto r A v e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s io n
V z: F acto r B v isu a liz a tio n
N: F a c to r C n u m e ric a l f a c i l i t y
Ms* F acto r D m e c h a n i c a l k n o w led g e
GH: F a c to r F g e n e ra l re a so n in g
F: F acto r G flu e n c y
P: ' F acto r H pe r c e p t u a l sp eed
R2: F a c to r J e d u c tio n o f co n c e p tu a l r e l a t i o n s
I: F a c to r K in fo rm a tio n
D: F a c to r E s i m i l a r i t i e s d o u b le t
 144
O': O th e r
S: S p e c ific v a ria n c e
E: E rro r v a ria n c e
( d o t t e d l i n e b e tw e e n S and E i n d i c a t e s
t h a t t h i s p o i n t i s e s t i m a t e d fro m
r e l i a b i l i t y f i g u r e s i n T a b l e IX)
Numbers i n p a r e n t h e s e s a f t e r names o f t e s t s r e f e r
t o t e s t n u m b ers i n t h e b a t t e r y a s g i v e n i n C h a p t e r I I I
and i n T a b le V I I I .

1. I n f o r m a t i o n (14 )
— i-----
V I N M 0 S ; E

As w i t h o t h e r s o f t h e sub t e s t s , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f
e r r o r v a r i a n c e i s b a s e d on t h e r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t e s o f
T a b l e IX . The a b o v e d ia g ra m shows t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n
and v e r b a l f a c t o r s a c c o u n t f o r a p p ro x im a te ly h a l f th e
v a ria n c e of th e t e s t . I t a p p e a rs p ro b a b le t h a t t h e po r­
t i o n o f th e v a r ia n c e a c c o u n te d f o r b y t h e in f o r m a tio n fa c
t o r (I) r e p r e s e n ts a r e l a t i v e l y s p e c i f i c c o n t r i b u t i o n to
t h e t e s t s c o r e even th o u g h i t a p p e a r s a s common v a r i a n c e
in th is a n a ly s is .

2. Com prehen s i on (1 5 )
------ 1------
i
GR V F N 0 S i
j ----- E
 145
From t h e ab o v e g r a p h i t i s o b v io u s t h a t o n l y a
s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e C o m p re h e n sio n t e s t v a r i a n c e was
a c c o u n t e d f o r a s common f a c t o r v a r i a n c e i n t h e b a t t e r y .
A lth o u g h g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g a c c o u n t s f o r a l a r g e r p r o ­
p o r tio n th a n any o th e r f a c t o r , i t cannot b e s a i d w ith
c o n fid e n c e t h a t th e t e s t m easures re a s o n in g p r i m a r i l y .
W e c h s l e r ($ 3 ) s a y s t h a t s u c c e s s i n t h e C o m p re h e n sio n t e s t
d e p e n d s on p o s s e s s i o n o f a c e r t a i n am ount o f i n f o r m a t i o n
and on a b i l i t y t o e v a l u a t e p a s t e x p e r i e n c e . The l a t t e r
o f t h e s e f u n c t i o n s , a t l e a s t , may b e an a s p e c t o f g e n e r a l
re a s o n in g a b i l i t y .

3» D i g i t Span (1 6 )
1
F M N 0 S .. 1..........
« E

I t seems t o b e a g r e e d g e n e r a l l y t h a t t h e D i g i t Span
t e s t i s t h e l e a s t r e l i a b l e o f t h e W-B s u b t e s t s . S lig h tly
l e s s t h a n h a l f o f t h e v a r i a n c e i s a c c o u n t e d f o r b y common
f a c to r s in th e p re se n t b a t t e r y . No memory f a c t o r was
i d e n t i f i e d i n t h i s b a t t e r y so t h e im m e d ia te memory f a c t o r
c o n te n t of th e t e s t a s r e p o r te d by B a lin sk y ( 3 ) , B irre n
( 6 ) , B u r t a n d Jo h n ( 1 0 ) , G a r r e t t ( 2 4 ) , J o n e s ( 4 7 ) , an d
R im o ld i (6 2 ) i s n e i t h e r s u p p o r t e d n o r r e f u t e d . I f th e
 146
h y p o th e sis o f a flu e n c y f a c to r i s c o r r e c t , th e f a c to r
com es c l o s e t o b e i n g t h e k i n d o f te m p e ra m e n t f a c t o r t h a t
W e c h s l e r ( S i , 82 9 9 86) i n s i s t s s h o u ld b e m e a s u re d i n
th e e v a lu a tio n of i n t e l l i g e n c e . Assum ing t h e f l u e n c y
h y p o t h e s i s a s s e t f o r t h i n C h a p t e r V I, D i g i t Span w ou ld
b e t h e m o st e f f e c t i v e t e s t i n t h e b a t t e r y f o r m e a s u r in g
f l u e n c y o r fre e d o m from i n h i b i t i o n s w ith r e s p e c t to
resp o n se. The m o d e r a te m a g n itu d e o f t h e l o a d i n g on t h e
f a c t o r and t h e r e l a t i v e u n r e lia b ili ty of th e t e s t d e tra c t
fro m t h i s a d v a n t a g e , h o w e v e r.

4* A r i t h m e t i c (1 7)

GR N M I 0 3+E

The A r i t h m e t i c t e s t p r o b a b l y a p p r o x i m a t e s a s
c l o s e l y a s a n y o f t h e s u b t e s t s o n e Ts e x p e c t a t i o n a s r e ­
g ard s f a c to r c o n te n t. The m a jo r l o a d i n g on g e n e r a l r e a ­
s o n i n g h a s r i c h p r e c e d e n t a s h a s a l r e a d y b ee n c i t e d . In
t h i s r e s p e c t , i t ca n b e s a i d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f i d e n c e
t h a t th e A rith m e tic t e s t i s th e b e s t g e n e ra l re a s o n in g
t e s t i n t h e W-B S c a l e . The l o a d i n g i n t h e n u m e r i c a l
fa c ility f a c t o r i s m o d e r a te and f o r t h a t f a c t o r a r i t h m e t i c
i s n o t t h e b e s t m e a s u r e , j u d g i n g fro m p r e s e n t r e s u l t s .
 147
I n t h e a b o v e g r a p h t h e s p e c i f i c an d e r r o r v a r i a n c e s a r e
l i s t e d to g e th e r sin c e th e e s tim a te o f r e l i a b i l i t y fro m
o t h e r s o u r c e s i s l o w e r t h a n t h e c o m m u n a lity i n t h e p r e s e n t
s tu d y # The i n d i c a t i o n fro m t h e p r e s e n t f i n d i n g s i s t h a t
A r i t h m e t i c i s one o f t h e m ost r e l i a b l e o f t h e W-B s u b t e s t s #

5# S im ila ritie s (IS )

— r
D V I VZ 0 s -i> E

W e c h s l e r (S3) s a y s t h a t t h e S i m i l a r i t i e s t e s t i s
one o f t h e b e s t o f h i s b a t t e r y and t h a t i t c o n ta in s th e
k in d o f m a t e r i a l r e c o g n i z e d b y many i n v e s t i g a t o r s a s c o n ­
t a i n i n g a l a r g e am ount o f ?tg Tt# In th e p re se n t b a tte ry
m ore th a n o n e - f i f t h o f t h e t o t a l v a r i a n c e o f t h e t e s t i s
c o n t r i b u t e d by t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s d o u b l e t f a c t o r . The
e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e f a c t o r o t h e r w i s e i s n o t know n. It
c a n b e a s s u m e d , h o w e v e r, t h a t t h e t e s t m akes a r e l a t i v e l y
l a r g e u n iq u e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e t o t a l s c o r e on t h e s c a l e .
The S i m i l a r i t i e s t e s t i s a r e l a t i v e l y p o o r m e a s u re o f
o t h e r f a c t o r s a s com pared w i t h o t h e r t e s t s o f t h e s c a l e #

6• V o c a b u la r y (19)
. ■■
V Vz on F 0 s ! E
 lk&
The V o c a b u la r y t e s t l i v e s up t o e x p e c t a t i o n by
b e i n g t h e o u t s t a n d i n g t e s t o f t h e s c a l e f o r m e a s u r in g t h e
v e r b a l c o m p re h e n s io n f a c t o r * The t e s t i s a l s o u n d o u b t e d l y
one o f t h e m o st r e l i a b l e o f t h e s c a l e . A lth o u g h V ocabu­
l a r y i s by f a r t h e b e s t v e r b a l t e s t i n t h e s c a l e , i t makes
l e s s u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s c a l e t h a n m ig h t b e e x ­
p e c te d . T h is a r i s e s fro m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v e r b a l f a c t o r
is r e l a t i v e l y w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e s c a l e by V o c a b u la r y ,
I n f o r m a t i o n , S i m i l a r i t i e s , and C o m p re h e n s io n , i n d e s c e n d ­
in g o rd e r of im p o rta n c e - I n t e r m s o f am ount o f v a r i a n c e
a c c o u n t e d f o r b y one f a c t o r , t h e V o c a b u la r y t e s t a p p e a r s
to be th e p u re s t t e s t in th e s c a le .

7• P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t (20)

■.. “ ii------------------------
R2 0 S ! E

P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t was assu m ed t o i n v o l v e c o n ­

s id e r a b le re a s o n in g v a r ia n c e b u t i t s em e rg e n c e a s t h e b e s t
m e a s u r e o f a se c o n d r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r was n o t p r e d i c t e d .
A lth o u g h l e s s t h a n h a l f o f t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e t e s t i s
a c c o u n t e d f o r b y t h e common f a c t o r s , e d u c t i o n o f c o n c e p tu a l,
r e l a t i o n s a c c o u n ts f o r a p p ro x im a te ly o n e -f o u rth o f th e
to ta l. I n te r m s o f p r o p o r t i o n o f common v a r i a n c e a c c o u n t ­
 149
ed f o r b y a s i n g l e f a c t o r , P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t h e a d s t h e
lis t o f W-B t e s t s , *5$ o f i t s a c c o u n t e d - f o r v a r i a n c e go­
i n g t o f a c t o r R 2. A lth o u g h t h i s m a t t e r s h o u l d b e i n v e s t i ­
g a t e d f u r t h e r , t h e z e r o l o a d i n g o f t h e t e s t on t h e p e r ­
c e p tu a l speed f a c t o r s u g g e s ts t h a t p o s s ib ly speed i s a
r e l a t i v e l y u n i m p o r t a n t com ponent o f t h e s c o r e i n t h i s
te st#

8 • ' P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n (2 1 )

1 ■
Vz P R2 I 0 s » e
— 1---------------------------------------------------------

T h i s t e s t , D i g i t S p a n , and C o m p re h en sio n c o n s t i t u t e
t h e g r o u p o f t h r e e t e s t s h a v i n g n o l o a d i n g s a b o v e #4 0 *
I t s s p e c i f i c v a r i a n c e i s a p p a r e n t l y among t h e h i g h e s t i n
t h e s c a l e s o i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r e i s much i m p o r t a n t
v a ria n c e th a t is not id e n tif ie d in th is a n a ly sis* As i t
sta n d s, th e t e s t is co m plex and d o e s n o t a f f o r d a good
m easure o f any f a c t o r * More i n f o r m a t i o n i s n e e d e d on t h e
re lia b ility and t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e s p e c i f i c v a r i a n c e i n
th is t e s t b efo re i t can b e e v a l u a t e d a d e q u a t e l y , e v e n i n
r e s p e c t to i t s c o n tr ib u tio n to th e t o t a l sc o re # ’
 150
9« B lo ck D e s ig n (22)

i
I VZ N P ’I 0 s : E

W h ile B lo c k D e s ig n i s co m p lex i n t h e s e n s e o f i n ­
c lu d in g s e v e ra l f a c to r s in i t s a c c o u n te d -fo r v a ria n c e , i t
is s t i l l a r e l a t i v e l y good m e a s u re o f t h e s e f a c t o r s when
co m p ared w i t h o t h e r W-B t e s t s . F or b o th v i s u a l i z a t i o n
a n d m e c h a n i c a l k n o w le d g e f a c t o r s , B lo ck D e sig n i s t h e b e s t
m easu re i n th e s c a l e , w h ile i t s t a n d s se c o n d among t e s t s
o f th e s c a le in p e rc e p tu a l speed. The ab o v e r e s u l t s i n d i ­
c a te t h a t th e t e s t is p ro b a b ly q u ite r e l i a b l e f o r t h i s
a g e g r o u p and t h a t i t s v a r i a n c e i s l a r g e l y a c c o u n t e d f o r
b y known f a c t o r s .

10. O b j e c t A ssem b ly (2 3 )

i
P V2 0 S 1
------------------------ 1----------
E

The co m m u n a lity o f t h e O b j e c t A ssem bly t e s t i s t h e

l o w e s t o f a l l W-B t e s t s i n t h i s b a t t e r y . Of t h e v a r i a n c e
t h a t i s a c c o u n t e d f o r , m o st i s s u p p l i e d b y t h e p e r c e p t u a l
speed and v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r s . W e c h s le r ($3) re m a rk s
c o n c e r n i n g t h e low c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n O b j e c t A sse m b ly
 151
and o t h e r t e s t s o f t h e s c a l e , b u t s a y s t h a t i t c o n trib u te s
s o m e th in g t o t h e b a t t e r y . P r e s u m a b ly he means t h a t i t
c o n t r i b u t e s to f a c t o r s n o t w e ll co v ered by o th e r t e s t s .
The p r e s e n t f i n d i n g s t e n d t o c o n f i r m t h i s v ie w , s i n c e a
l a r g e p a r t o f t h e v a r i a n c e o f t h e t e s t r e m a in s u n i q u e .
How much i s s p e c i f i c and how much i s e r r o r i s n o t known,
h o w ev er. I f th e t e s t i s a n y th in g n e a r ly a s r e l i a b l e as
t h e a b o v e e s t i m a t e i n d i c a t e s , i t c e r t a i n l y c o n t r i b u t e s an
a p p r e c i a b l e am ount o f s p e c i f i c v a r i a n c e . I t i s n o t im­
p o s s ib le , of co urse, th a t th i s i s one o f t h e p l a c e s w h e re
t h e te m p e ra m e n t v a r i a n c e l u r k s , f o r w h ic h W e c h s le r m akes
su c h a s t r o n g p l e a .

11* D i g i t Symbol (2 4 )

....................- “ i ----
N P F 0 S ! E

The l a r g e l o a d i n g o f t h i s t e s t on n u m e r i c a l f a c i l ­
i t y was u n e x p e c t e d b u t i f F r e n c h (2 2 ) i s c o r r e c t i n h i s
s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e b e s t t e s t s i n t h e num ber f a c t o r a r e
t h o s e t h a t r e q u i r e t h e g r e a t e s t h a n d l i n g o f n u m b e rs,
th e lo a d in g i s not out o f l i n e . The p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e
a c c o u n t e d f o r by one f a c t o r i s among t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e
W-B b a t t e r y . The p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d an d n u m e r i c a l f a c i l i t y
 152
f a c t o r s a c c o u n t f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l
v a ria n c e . T h is p u t s t h e t e s t n o t so v e r y f a r b e h i n d a
g en u in e n u m e ric a l o p e r a tio n s t e s t i n t h i s r e s p e c t . T h is
i s q u i t e r e m a r k a b l e -when i t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e t i m e
l i m i t on t h e t e s t i s 1 l / 2 m i n u t e s .

D isc u ssio n o f S u b te s ts

1. F a c to r co v erag e. One q u e s t i o n t h a t t h e u s e r
o f t h e W-B S c a l e s h o u ld b e i n t e r e s t e d i n h a s t o do w i t h
t h e f a c t o r i a l co v erag e of th e s u b t e s t s . Do t h e y g i v e
a d e q u a t e m e a s u r e s o f m o st i m p o r t a n t human a b i l i t i e s a t t h e
a g e l e v e l o f t h e p r e s e n t sa m p le ? A lth o u g h no c o m p le te o r
r i g o r o u s a n s w e r can b e g i v e n t o t h i s q u e s t i o n , i t s h o u ld
b e p o s s i b l e t o make some a p p r o x i m a t i o n s . The T h u r s t o n e s f
s t u d y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e was b a s e d on a p o p u l a t i o n a p p r o x i ­
m a t e l y t h e same a g e a s t h a t i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . T h e ir
s t u d y f o l l o w e d t h e o r i g i n a l P r im a r y M e n ta l A b i l i t i e s i n ­
v e s t i g a t i o n a n d was l a r g e l y b a s e d on t h e PMA f i n d i n g s .
T h ese f a c t s w o u ld seem t o j u s t i f y t h e u s e o f t h e f a c t o r
lis t of th e F a c to r ia l S tu d ie s of I n te ll ig e n c e (75) a s a
fra m e o f r e f e r e n c e i n w h ich t o e v a l u a t e f a c t o r c o v e r a g e .
I n t h a t s t u d y , s e v e n f a c t o r s w e re c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d :
 153
a. Number
b ., Word F lu e n c y
c• Space
d. V e r b a l C o m p re h e n sio n
e. Memory
f. In d u c tiv e
g. P e rc ep tu al

a* Number* In th e p r e s e n t stu d y t h i s f a c t o r i s
c a l l e d n u m e ric a l f a c i l i t y . R eferen ce to s e c tio n A o f
th is c h a p t e r r e v e a l s two t e s t s , an a p p r e c i a b l e p r o p o r t i o n
( .1 0 o r m ore) o f whose v a r i a n c e i s a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h i s
fa c to r:
k. D i g i t Symbol .2 7
d. A rith m e tic .13
S l i g h t p r o p o r t i o n s o c c u r on o t h e r t e s t s . In th e
T h u rs to n e s1 a n a l y s i s no one t e s t h a d a s h ig h a p r o p o r t i o n
o f i t s v a r i a n c e a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e f a c t o r a s d o e s
D i g i t S y m bo l. N u m e r ic a l f a c i l i t y a p p e a r s t o b e m o d e r a t e l y
w e l l c o v e r e d by t h e s e t e s t s .

b. Word F l u e n c y . T h is f a c t o r d i d n o t a p p e a r i n
t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , so no c o n c l u s i o n s can b e d r a w n , e x c e p t
t o re m a rk t h a t p r o b a b l y l i t t l e v a ria n c e in th e f a c to r
o c c u r s i n t h e W-B b a t t e r y a s common.

c# Space. At t h e t i m e o f T h u r s t o n e s 1 a n a l y s i s a
d i s t i n c t i o n h a d n o t b e e n made b e tw e e n s p a t i a l and v i s u a l -
 154
iz a tio n fa c to rs . T h u rsto n e d e s c r ib e s th e f a c t o r as
n f a c i l i t y i n s p a t i a l and v i s u a l im a g e r y ” ( 7 4 , P* $ 0 ) .
I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y no s p a t i a l f a c t o r was i d e n t i f i e d , b u t
f a c t o r B was i n t e r p r e t e d a s v i s u a l i z a t i o n . I t ap p ears
t h a t s p a t i a l and v i s u a l i z a t i o n v a r i a n c e a r e t o some e x t e n t
c o n f o u n d e d i n b o t h t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y and i n t h e T h u r s t o n e
stu d ie s ( 7 4 , 75) * I f t h i s be th e c a s e , th e fo llo w in g
te s ts c o u ld b e c i t e d a s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o T h u r s t o n e Ts s p a c e
f a c t o r or to v is u a liz a ti o n as in te r p r e te d h ere:
i. B lo c k D e sig n .19
h. P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n .15
j. O b j e c t A ssem bly .11
T h ese p r o p o r t i o n s o f v a r i a n c e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e v i s u a l ­
i z a t i o n f a c t o r a r e n o t l a r g e b u t show t h a t t h e f a c t o r h a s
some im p o r t a n c e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s c o r e s o f some o f t h e
P erfo rm an ce t e s t s . I t ap p ears n o t u n lik e ly t h a t v is u a l­
i z a t i o n a .c c o u n ts f o r much o f t h e v a r i a n c e d e n o m in a te d
,fP e r f o r m a n c e ” b y B a l i n s k y ( 3 ) , and ”N o n -V e rb a l” b y B i r r e n
(6 ) and Cohen (1 6 )*

V e r b a l C o m p re h e n s io n . T h is f a c t o r i s b e t t e r
c o v e r e d b y t h e W-B b a t t e r y t h a n i s a n y o t h e r f a c t o r o f
a b ility . The f o l l o w i n g t e s t s i n v o l v e i m p o r t a n t p r o ­
p o r t i o n s o f v a r i a n c e i n v e r b a l c o m p re h e n s io n :
 155
f. V o c a b u la r y *36
a. In fo rm a tio n *1$
e. S im ila ritie s *10
O th e r m in o r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e v e r b a l f a c t o r make i t t h e
m ost g e n e r a l i n t h e W-B b a t t e r y , a s m ig h t b e e x p e c te d *

e* Memory * T h i s f a c t o r was n o t i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e
p resen t b a tte ry . I t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s ib le th a t a c o n sid e r­
a b le p ro p o rtio n of th e u n id e n tif ie d v a ria n c e of th e D ig it
Span t e s t i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o im m e d ia te memory* The f a c t
t h a t th e e n t i r e b a tte r y re q u ire d l i t t l e i n t h e way o f
im m e d ia te memory, m ig h t w e l l a c c o u n t f o r t h e a b s e n c e o f
th e f a c t o r . E v id e n c e s u c h a s t h a t c i t e d i n s e c t i o n A o f
t h i s c h a p te r , u n d er D ig it Span, c e r t a i n l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t
memory i s a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e t e s t *

In d u c tiv e * I t i s a b i t d i f f i c u l t t o know t o
w h ic h f a c t o r o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t h i s f a c t o r s h o u l d be
e q u a te d . The S e c r e t W r i t i n g t e s t a p p e a r s w i t h a l o a d i n g
o f *37 on i n d u c t i o n i n th e. T h u r s t o n e s 1 b a t t e r y and w i t h a
l o a d i n g o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y *30 on g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g i n
G u i l f o r d , G r e e n , and C h r i s t e n s e n ’ s r e p o r t ( 4 2 ) . On t h e
o t h e r h a n d , G re en (3 6 ) e q u a t e s T h u r s t o n e Ts I n d u c t i o n to
h i s own e d u c t i o n o f c o n c e p t u a l p a t t e r n s f a c t o r . In any
c a s e , two r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r s em erged i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y *
 156
The g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r i s m o d e r a t e l y w e l l c o v e r e d
b y two t e s t s :
d. A rith m e tic .33
b. C o m p re h e n sio n *11
I t w i l l be seen t h a t A rith m e tic i s th e o u ts ta n d in g g e n e ra l
r e a s o n i n g t e s t o f t h e W-B b a t t e r y . A lth o u g h i t i s by no
m eans a p u r e m e a s u re o f t h e f a c t o r , A r i t h m e t i c s c o r e
s h o u l d g i v e an i m p o r t a n t in d e x t o g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g
a b ility •
The s e c o n d r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r , c a l l e d h e r e e d u c t i o n
o f c o n c e p t u a l r e l a t i o n s , r e s t s a l m o s t s o l e l y on t h e s c o r e
o f one t e s t a s f a r a s t h e W-B b a t t e r y i s c o n c e r n e d :
g. P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t .2 4
S i n c e o n ly on e t e s t a p p e a r s on t h e f a c t o r , an d t h a t w i t h
a l o a d i n g o f o n l y . 4 9 , t h e f a c t o r can h a r d l y b e s a i d t o b e
a d e q u a t e l y c o v e r e d i n t h e W-B b a t t e r y . On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
b o t h t h e t e s t an d t h e f a c t o r a p p e a r t o make a u n iq u e c o n ­
t r i b u t i o n to th e b a t t e r y .

g. P e rc e p tu a l. T h is f a c t o r i s c a l l e d p e r c e p t u a l
speed in th e p r e s e n t b a t t e r y b u t a p p e a rs to be a p p ro x i­
m a t e l y e q u i v a l e n t t o T h u r s t o n e Ts f a c t o r . T h ree t e s t s
a p p e a r on t h i s f a c t o r , b u t t h e v a r i a n c e s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o
t h e f a c t o r a r e v e r y m o d e r a te :
 157
j. O b j e c t A s s e m b ly .1 7
i. B lo ck D e s ig n .1 5
k. D i g i t Sym b ol .1 3

A l l th e t e s t s in t h i s group a r e c o m p le x . P ercep tu a l

speed i s t h e m ost im p o r ta n t f a c t o r o n ly i n O b je c t A sse m b ly .

The f a c t o r seem s t o b e r a t h e r p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e

b a t t e r y an d c o u l d no d o u b t b e b e t t e r m e a s u r e d b y o n e s h o r t

..p e r c e p tu a l t e s t .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a b o v e p r im a r y m e n t a l a b i l i t y

fa cto rs, a m e c h a n ica l k n o w led g e, a f l u e n c y , an i n f o r m a ­

tio n , and a s i m i l a r i t i e s d o u b l e t f a c t o r e m e rg e d fr o m t h e

a n a ly s is . T hese a p p ea r a s p r a c t i c a l l y s i n g l e t f a c t o r s , as

f a r a s t h e W-B b a t t e r y i s c o n c e r n e d , on B l o c k D e s i g n ,

D ig it Span, In fo r m a tio n , an d S i m i l a r i t i e s r e s p e c t i v e l y .

I n t h e I n f o r m a t i o n and S i m i l a r i t i e s t e s t s t h e s e fa cto rs u

make a m a jo r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e t e s t score. The m ech an ­

i c a l k n o w le d g e and f l u e n c y f a c t o r s a r e v e r y p o o r l y r e p r e ­

s e n t e d i n t h e W-B b a t t e r y .

I n sum m ary, i t m ig h t b e s a i d t h a t o f T h u r s t o n e Ts

p r i m a r y f a c t o r s , v e r b a l c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d n u m b er, a p p e a r

to b e q u i t e w e l l c o v e r e d i n t h e W-B b a t t e r y . Space (o r

v isu a liz a tio n ) is a ls o m o d e ra te ly w e ll co v ered by th r e e

o f t h e p erfo rm a n ce t e s t s . The g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r

is f a i r l y w e l l c o v e r e d , p r i n c i p a l l y by t h e A r ith m e tic

test. The p e r c e p t u a l f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e s c o r e s on
 153
th ree t e s t s but w it h v e r y m od erate p r o p o r t io n s o f

v a r ia n c e . Its c o v e r a g e m u st b e c o n s i d e r e d i n a d e q u a t e .

The w ord f l u e n c y and memory f a c t o r s d i d n o t a p p e a r i n

th e a n a ly s is . T h e s e f a c t o r s may b e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e

s p e c i f i c v a r i a n c e o f some o f t h e t e s t s . In v iew o f t h e s e

fa cts it m u st b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e

presen t r e s u l t s t h e W-B i n c l u d e s i m p o r t a n t v a r i a n c e i n

f o u r o f t h e p r im a r y f a c t o r s : v e r b a l co m p reh en sio n , s p a c e ,

in d u c tio n , and n u m b e r . The p e r c e p t u a l f a c t o r i s covered

le s s w e ll. F iv e a d d itio n a l f a c t o r s a re covered to some

e x t e n t b y t h e W-B, f a c t o r s n o t i n c l u d e d i n T h u r s t o n e ’ s

lis t. I t a p p ea rs to th e w r it e r t h a t th e in d ic a t io n i s

t h a t t h e W-B i n c l u d e s som ew h at b r o a d e r c o v e r a g e i n t e r m s

o f human a b i l i t i e s th a n i s t h a t o f P r im a r y M e n ta l A b i l ­

itie s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e c o v e r a g e o f t h e W-B b a t t e r y

is c e r t a i n l y l e s s deep in th e s e n s e o f g i v in g a d eq u a te

fa cto r sc o re s.
 CHAPTER ¥ 1 1 1

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

It is th e pu rp ose o f t h i s fin a l ch a p ter t o sum­

m a r i z e t h e s t e p s t h r o u g h -which t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h h a s

p r o c e e d e d , some o f t h e p r o b le m s e n c o u n t e r e d , and t h e r e ­

su lts o b t a in e d , and t o o u tlin e c o n c l u s i o n s and s u g g e s t i o n s

f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h t h a t h a v e grown o u t o f t h e s t u d y *

A* P r o b le m

The p r im a r y p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y w a s t o d e t e r m i n e

t h e com m on -factor c o n t e n t o f t h e W e c h s le r - B e lle v u e S c a l e ,

Form I i n t e r m s o f p r e s e n t l y known f a c t o r s o f human a b i l ­

ity * I t w as n o t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e W e c h s l e r s c a l e en joys

t h e w i d e s t u s e , a l i m i t e d amount o f i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a il­

a b le r e g a r d in g th e r e l a t i o n o f th e f u n c t io n s i t m easures

to th o se id e n tifie d and d e s c r i b e d b y s u c h f a c t o r m e th o d s

a s T h u rston ef s (7 9 )• T h is stu d y p r o p o se d , t h e r e f o r e , n ot

o n ly to e x a m in e t h e f a c t o r c o n t e n t o f t h e W e c h s l e r -

B e lle v u e S c a le , but a ls o to fit t h i s in fo r m a tio n a s w e ll

as p o ssib le in to th e o v e r - a ll p ic tu r e o f th e f a c t o r ia l

d e sc r ip tio n of a b ilitie s*
 B. P la n o f t h e S tu d y

The p l a n o f s t u d y i n c l u d e d f i r s t o f a l l a su rvey

o f th e lit e r a t u r e in th e f i e l d s o f i n t e llig e n c e , in te lli­

gence te s tin g , f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s and

o t h e r m easures o f a b i l i t y , and s p e c i f i c s t u d i e s h a v in g to

do w i t h t h e W-B s c a l e itse lf. The p l a n c a l l e d fo r th e

fo r m u la tio n o f h y p o th e s e s t h a t sh o u ld b e t e s t e d in th e

in v e s t ig a t io n to fo llo w . The i n t e n t i o n w as t o con stru ct

o r o t h e r w i s e p r o v i d e t e s t s f o r an e x p e r i m e n t a l b a t t e r y

t h a t sh o u ld r e s u l t in te s tin g o f th e h y p o th e se s a lr e a d y

fo r m u la te d . I t w as p r o p o s e d , fin a lly , to a d m in is te r t h e s e

t e s t s a l o n g w i t h t h e W-B s u b t e s t s t o a s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n ,

in te r c o r r e la te th e sc o r e s, fa c to r a n a ly z e th e c o r r e la t io n

m a t r i x b y T h u r s t o n e f s c o m p l e t e c e n t r o i d m e t h o d , and

in t e r p r e t th e f i n a l r o ta te d m a tr ix . T h is p l a n , in very

a b b r e v ia t e d t e r m s , was t h e m a s te r d e s ig n t h a t g u id e d t h e

e x e c u tio n o f th e stu d y a s i t is rep o rted h e r e .

C. The I n v e s t i g a t i o n

1. R e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e . The l i t e r a t u r e in

t h e a r e a u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s b e e n r e v i e w e d and i s re­

p o r t e d i n C h ap ter I I . I t w as foun d t h a t W e ch sler h i m s e l f

is f a v o r a b l e t o t h e f a c t o r a n a l y t i c m eth od b u t b e l i e v e s
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t h a t too l i t t l e a tte n tio n is g iv e n to n o n - i n t e l l e c t iv e

a s p e c t s o f human a b i l i t y . He c o n c e i v e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e

not o n l y a s g l o b a l b u t a l s o a s an a g g r e g a t e . The r e v i e w

o f fa c to r ia l s t u d ie s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e r e v e a le d th a t th e s e

s t u d i e s h a v e y i e l d e d a w id e v a r i e t y o f r e s u l t s . U n for­

t u n a t e l y many o f them h a v e b o r n e l i t t l e e v id e n t r e l a t i o n

to o t h e r su c h s t u d i e s . Among t h o s e r e v i e w e d , t h e s t u d i e s

o f t h e T h u rston es (7 5 ) and J o n e s (47) a re p a r t i c u l a r l y

\
s i g n if i c a n t to th e presen t in v e s tig a tio n . T h u rston e*s

b a tte r ie s, a lth o u g h n o t d e s ig n e d t o m easure i n t e l l i g e n c e

a s i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s m easure i t , have r e s u lt e d in th e

id e n tific a tio n an d d e s c r i p t i o n o f a l a r g e number o f a b i l i t y

f a c t o r s , many o f w h ic h a r e p e r t i n e n t t o t h e p r e s e n t i n ­

v e stig a tio n . J on es’ a n a ly s is o f th e in te r c o r r e la tio n s o f

th e S ta n fo r d -B in e t has o ffe r e d some v a l u a b l e c lu e s to th e

in te r p r e ta tio n of fa cto rs.

F i v e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d i n w h ic h t h e W-B

s c a l e was a n a ly z e d * Of t h e s e , f o u r e m p lo y e d n o r e f e r e n c e

v a r i a b l e s and i n c o n s e q u e n c e r e p o r t g e n e r a l l y no m ore t h a n

th r e e or fo u r f a c t o r s . In th e f i f t h , c e r ta in referen ce

v a r i a b l e s w e r e i n c l u d e d b u t t h e m e th o d o f a n a l y s i s l i m i t s

th e u s e f u ln e s s o f th e r e s u l t s a s fa r a s th e in t e r p r e t a t io n

o f th e f a c t o r c o n t e n t o f t h e W-B s c a l e is concerned. The

 162
c o n c l u s i o n from t h e s e s t u d ie s i s th a t v e r y im p erfect

s e p a r a t i o n and d e f i n i t i o n o f th e f a c t o r co n ten t o f th e

W-B s c a l e h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d .

2. H yp oth eses♦ P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s and k n o w le d g e o f

t h e W-B s u b t e s t s l e d t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t n o f e w e r t h a n

s i x f a c t o r s s h o u l d em erg e fro m a f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e

s c a l e , w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t tw o o t h e r s m ig h t a p p e a r .

The h y p o t h e s i z e d f a c t o r s w e r e :

1. V erb a l co m p re h e n sio n
2. N u m e r ic a l f a c i l i t y
3« V isu a liz a tio n
k* P e r c e p tu a l speed
5• S e a so n in g
6* M e c h a n i c a l k n o w le d g e
7• ( ? ) Memory
6. (? ) Space r e l a t i o n s

In l i n e w ith t h e s e h y p o th e s e s , r e f e r e n c e v a r ia b le s

w ere p rep a red f o r t h e f i r s t six lis te d fa cto rs. Several

o f t h e s e t e s t s had b e e n u s e d and f a c t o r a n a l y z e d i n t h e

AAF r e s e a r c h p rogram d u r i n g W orld War I I .

O th er h y p o t h e s e s i n c lu d e d , a . th e p r e d ic tio n th a t

t h e s u b t e s t s o f t h e W-B s c a l e w o u ld p r o v e t o b e c o m p l e x ,

each t e s t i n c l u d i n g v a r i a n c e i n two o r m ore f a c t o r s ; b.

t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t r e c a l l and r e c o g n i t i o n when a p p l i e d t o

i d e n t i c a l m a t e r i a l w o u ld r e s u l t in s im ila r f a c t o r i a l con­

fig u r a tio n s; and c . t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l and

group a d m in is t r a t io n s o f i d e n t i c a l m a t e r i a l w o u ld r e s u l t
 163
in s im ila r f a c t o r ia l c o n fig u r a tio n s* Two p a r a l l e l v o c a b u ­

la r y t e s t s w ere c o n s tr u c te d t o be g i v e n , one a s r e c o g n i ­

t i o n and on e a s r e c a l l , in order to t e s t th e r e c a ll-

r e c o g n itio n h y p o th e sis. F o u r o f t h e W-B s u b t e s t s fro m

Form I I ( I n f o r m a t i o n , C o m p r e h e n s io n , S i m i l a r i t i e s , D i g i t

S y m b o l) w e r e a d a p t e d f o r g r o u p a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o

a c h i e v e an a p p r o x i m a t e c h e c k on t h e g r o u p - i n d i v i d u a l

a d m in is tr a tio n h y p o th e sis*

3# The t e s t b a t t e r y * The f i n a l t e s t b a t t e r y i n ­

c lu d e d t h e 11 i n d i v i d u a l l y a d m in is te r e d s u b t e s t s o f t h e

W-B s c a l e , Form I , 11 t e s t s under th e above h y p o th e s e s ,

and a s c i e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n t e s t , f o r a t o t a l o f 23 t e s t s .

Age and O t i s B e t a s c o r e and W-B f u l l s c a l e IQ w e r e o b t a i n ­

ed f o r ea ch s t u d e n t , t o b e i n c lu d e d f i n a l l y i n t h e m a tr ix

o f scores*

The sa m p le * The s a m p le c o n s i s t e d o f 356 grad e

8A s t u d e n t s o f t h e H a m il t o n J u n i o r H ig h S c h o o l i n S e a t t l e ,

W a sh in g to n . Of t h e s e , o n l y 2 0 2 t o o k t h e 11 s u b t e s t s o f

t h e W-B s c a l e . A l l 3 56 had a l l g r o u p t e s t s .

5* A d m in is t r a t i on * The g r o u p t e s t s w e r e a d m in ­

i s t e r e d i n t h r e e b a t t e r i e s on s e p a r a t e d a y s . S tr ic t

u n ifo r m ity o f t e s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s w as m a i n t a i n e d . R esp onses

 164
to several of the group tests were recorded on IBM answer

sheets for machine scoring. Exceptions were the four W-B

group adaptations, the numerical operations test, and the

vocabulary-recall test.

6* S c o r in g . A l l t e s t s w ere s c o r e d t o u n ifo rm

sta n d a rd s. Raw s c o r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s w e r e p r e p a r e d and

h ave been r e p o r te d . In o rd er t o a c h ie v e sy m m e trica l d i s ­

tr ib u tio n s, u n if o r m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s c o r e s , and s i n g l e ­

d ig it scores, t h e raw s c o r e s w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o sta n in e

s c o r e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m eth od d e v e l o p e d b y t h e AAF d u r i n g

W orld War II*

D. T r e a t m e n t o f D a ta

1. C o m p u ta t io n o f i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s . The s i n g l e ­

d ig it s c o r e s fr o m t h e 2 6 v a r i a b l e s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e b a s i c
d a ta . By m e t h o d s o f m a t r i x a l g e b r a , n e c e s s a r y t r a n s f o r m a ­

t i o n s h ave b e e n d e ter m in e d i n o r d e r t o p rod u ce a m a tr ix o f

in te r c o r r e la tio n s. T h is m eth o d w as e m p lo y e d w i t h t h e

p r e s e n t d a t a and t h e d e s i r e d m a t r i x a c h i e v e d . B ecause o f

d iffe r e n c e i n N b e t w e e n g r o u p and i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b l e s , a

c o r r e c t i o n h a d t o b e made i n p a r t o f t h e m a t r i x .
 165
2. P r o b le m s o f h o m o g e n e i t y . Two p o s s i b l e sou rces

o f h e t e r o g e n e i t y w ere p r e s e n t , s e x and s e l e c t i o n o f th e

2 0 2 fr o m t h e t o t a l o f 3 5 6 t o t a k e t h e i n d i v i d u a l W-B

sc a le * Some s e x d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e fo u n d i n s c o r e s on t h e

group v a r ia b le s * T h ese l a r g e l y b a la n c e d t h e m s e lv e s , some

f a v o r i n g t h e b o y s and some f a v o r i n g t h e g i r l s * T ests for

h o m o g e n e i t y b e t w e e n t h e tw o s u b g r o u p s ( 2 0 2 and 1 5 4 ) w e r e

m ade. I t was fou n d t h a t t h e g r o u p s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y

d iffe r e n t on o n l y o n e o f t h e g r o u p v a r i a b l e s (G roup

S im ila r itie s )* T h is v a r i a b l e w as e l i m in a t e d from t h e

m a tr ix to be f a c t o r a n a ly z ed * B e c a u s e t h e W-B F u l l S c a l e

IQ r e p r e s e n t s a l i n e a r c o m b i n a t i o n o f s u b t e s t s c o r e s , it

a l s o w as n o t in c lu d e d in t h e m a trix to be f a c t o r e d .

3* E x tr a c tio n o f f a c t o r s * T h u r s t o n e Ts c o m p l e t e

c e n t r o i d m eth o d o f e x t r a c t i o n w as e m p l o y e d . E lev e n f a c ­
t o r s w e r e e x t r a c t e d , t h e e l e v e n t h f a c t o r h a v i n g a maximum

lo a d in g o f a p p r o x im a te ly .2 0 (a b s o lu te v a lu e ) .

Rot a t i on o f a x e s * The Zimmerman g r a p h i c m eth od

o f r o t a t i o n w as e m p l o y e d . A f t e r 101 r o t a t i o n s , a p p r o x i­

m a te s t a b i l i t y , p o s i t i v e m a n i f o l d , s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e , and

p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n t e r p r e t a b i l i t y had b een a c h ie v e d . T h is

w as a c c e p t e d a s t h e f i n a l so lu tio n .
 166
E• Re s u i t s

Ten f a c t o r s w e r e i n t e r p r e t e d , w h i l e t h e e le v e n th

was c o n s id e r e d a r e s i d u a l *

1. F a c to r A. T h is f a c t o r was i d e n t i f i a b l e c le a r ly

a s t h e v e r b a l - c o m p r e h e n s i o n f a c t o r com m only r e p o r t e d .

B o th r e f e r e n c e and W-B v a r i a b l e s a p p e a r e d on t h e f a c t o r .

F a cto r B. T h is f a c t o r was i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e

common v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r . The r e f e r e n c e f a c t o r w as

h i g h e s t , b u t s e v e r a l W-B t e s t s appeared w ith a p p r e c ia b le

lo a d in g s•

3* F a c t o r CJ. T h iswas c l e a r l y t h e n u m e r ic a l

fa c ility fa cto r, w ith t h e r e f e r e n c e v a r ia b le a t th e to p

o f th e lis t. Two W-B v a r i a b l e s had a p p r e c i a b l e l o a d i n g s

on t h e f a c t o r .

4* F a c t o r D. F a c t o r D w as i n t e r p r e t e d a s e s s e n ­

tia lly t h e m e c h a n i c a l k n o w le d g e o r e x p e r i e n c e f a c t o r r e ­

p o r t e d b y many i n v e s t i g a t o r s . The y o u t h o f t h e p r e s e n t

s a m p le and t h e i n c l u s i o n o f b o t h s e x e s n e c e s s i t a t e d some

m o d if ic a t io n o f p r e v io u s in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f th e fa c to r ,

how ever. O n ly on e W-B t e s t ap p ears w ith a lo a d in g above

.4 0 .
 167
5* F a c t o r E# T h i s p r o v e d t o b e a d o u b l e t on t h e

tw o fo r m s o f t h e S i m i l a r i t i e s t e s t . No o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a -
/
tio n was v e n t u r e d .

6* F a cto r F . T h i s f a c t o r was i d e n t i f i e d m a i n l y

by a r ith m e tic t e s t s o f t h e p r o b l e m - q u e s t i o n v a r i e t y and

w as i n t e r p r e t e d ap t h e g e n e r a l r e a s o n in g f a c t o r t h a t h a s

been r e p o r te d f r e q u e n t ly . The o n l y h i g h W-B t e s t w as

a r ith m e tic •

F a c t o r G. T h i s f a c t o r had o n l y t h r e e s i g n i f i ­

c a n t l o a d i n g s and p r o v e d v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t . It

was t e n t a t i v e l y c a lle d flu e n c y . The Group C o m p r e h e n s io n

t e s t w as h i g h on t h e f a c t o r b u t n o n e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l l y

a d m i n i s t e r e d W-B v a r i a b l e s h ad v e r y l a r g e l o a d i n g s * It

appeared th a t t h i s f a c t o r h a s some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e

n o n - i n t e l l e c t i v e f a c t o r s t h a t W e c h sle r c o n s id e r s s o im ­

p o rta n t. The f l u e n c y i s h y p o th e siz e d to in h e r e in th e

e x a m i n e e ’ s fr e e d o m from i n h i b i t i o n s t o r e sp o n d in g .

F a c t o r H. The p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d r e f e r e n c e t e s t

w as h i g h e s t on t h i s f a c t o r and t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e

f a c t o r a s p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d w as q u i t e c l e a r . T hree o f th e

W-B p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t s a p p e a r e d w i t h m o d e r a t e l o a d i n g s .
 16 &
9* F a c t o r _J. T h i s f a c t o r w as q u i t e c l e a r l y a

s e c o n d r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r a l t h o u g h t h e r e w a s some d i f f i c u l t y

in d e v e lo p in g a d eq u ate h y p o th e se s r e g a r d in g i t s ch a ra cter.

I t was f i n a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s e d u c t i o n o f c o n c e p t u a l r e l a ­

tio n s. I n d u c t i o n a p p e a r s t o b e an i m p o r t a n t b u t n o t

n e c e s s a r ily in v a r ia b le com p on en t o f t e s t s a p p e a r i n g on

th e f a c t o r .

F a c t o r K. T h is w a s t h e h a r d e s t f a c t o r t o

i n t e r p r e t b u t w as f i n a l l y d en o m in a ted i n f o r m a t i o n . It

a p p e a r e d t o h a v e some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a d o u b l e t on

in fo r m a tio n . It se em e d t o b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t e s t s r e ­

q u i r i n g s t o r e d k n o w led g e n o t m easu red b y t h e v e r b a l

c o m p re h e n sio n f a c t o r .

W e ch sler - B e lle v u e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

In a d d itio n to th e g e n e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f th e

common f a c t o r s a s t h e y a p p e a r e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s , a c h a p t e r

h a s been d ev o ted to th e d is c u s s io n o f t h e W-B v a r i a b l e s ,

t e s t by t e s t . The f a c t o r c o n t e n t h a s b e e n p r e s e n t e d

g r a p h i c a l l y and d i s c u s s e d .

On t h e b a s i s o f s u b te s t f a c t o r c o n te n ts , th e cover­

a g e o f T h u r s t o n e ’ s p r im a r y f a c t o r s b y t h e W-B w as e v a l u ­

a ted . I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e v e r b a l co m p re h e n sio n , n u m e r ic a l
fa c ility , v isu a liz a tio n ( s i m i l a r t o T h u r s t o n e Ts s p a c e ) ,

and g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g a b i l i t i e s are m o d e r a te ly w e ll r e p r e ­

s e n t e d i n t h e W-B b a t t e r y . P e r c e p tu a l speed i s l e s s w e ll

rep resen ted . O t h e r f a c t o r s , word f l u e n c y and memory, d i d

n o t a p p e a r a s common i n t h e b a t t e r y b u t may b e r e p r e s e n t e d

by s p e c if ic v a r ia n c e s.

O u tcom es o f H y p o t h e s e s

C o m p le x ity . T h i s h y p o t h e s i s w as l a r g e l y s u p ­

p o r te d by th e f a c t o r r e s u l t s a lth o u g h th e c o m p le x ity o f

t h e W-B t e s t s is not c o m p l e t e l y d e t e r m i n a b l e fro m t h e

p resen t r e su lts* The t e s t s i n g e n e r a l a r e c o m p lex ,

how ever.

2. R e c a ll v s . r e c o g n it io n . The r e s u l t s d i d n o t

produce e v id e n c e t h a t i n d ic a t e s s y s te m a tic fa c to r ia l d if­

f e r e n c e s a s a f u n c t io n o f t y p e o f r e s p o n s e req u ire d *

3• Proup v s * i n d i v i d u a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h is

h y p o t h e s i s w as n o t r i g o r o u s l y e v a l u a b l e on t h e b a s i s o f

r e s u l t s , b u t t h e r e s u l t s do n o t i n d i c a t e s y s t e m a t i c f a c ­

t o r i a l d i f f e r e n c e s a s a f u n c t i o n o f m eth o d o f a d m i n i s t r a -

t io n .
 170

H* C o n c lu sio n s

C o n c l u s i o n s b a s e d on t h i s s t u d y a r e o f tw o s o r t s .

F ir s t, t h e r e a r e p o s i t i v e i n f e r e n c e s t h a t c a n b e made

fr o m t h e r e s u l t s a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d . Then t h e r e a r e c o n ­

c lu sio n s i n t h e form o f i n f e r e n c e s r e g a r d i n g n e c e s s a r y

a d d itio n a l resea rch .

P o sitiv e in fe r e n c e s . T hese w i l l be l i s t e d

b r ie fly , a s e v id e n c e and d i s c u s s i o n h a v e a p p e a r e d e a r l i e r

in th e p a p er.

a. The W-B s u b t e s t s i n g e n e r a l a r e f a c t o r i a l l y

c o m p lex .

b. Even w i t h t h e in c lu sio n o f r eferen ce v a r ia b le s ,

many o f t h e t e s t s s t i l l have c o n sid e r a b le s p e c i f i c v a r i­

ance •

c. The W-B s c a l e a c h ie v e s f a i r coverage o f

T h u r s t o n e * s p r im a r y m e n t a l a b i l i t i e s , at le a st fiv e of

th e sev en b e in g r e p r e s e n te d .

d. Some r a t h e r u n e x p e c t e d e v i d e n c e i s r e v e a le d

co n c er n in g th e f a c t o r con ten t of th e s u b t e s t s . O u tstan d ­

in g are:

(1 ) The h i g h n u m e r i c a l f a c i l i t y v a r i a n c e i n
t h e D i g i t S ym b ol t e s t

( 2 ) The d e f i n i t i o n o f a s e c o n d r e a s o n i n g f a c t o r
. b y t h e P i c t u r e A r ra n g em en t t e s t
 171
(3 ) The l a r g e and r e l a t i v e l y s p e c i f i c s i m i -
l a r i t i e s and i n f o r m a t i o n v a r i a n c e s

e. The f l u e n c y f a c t o r a s d e f i n e d b y t h i s a n a ly s is

appears to r ese m b le th e ty p e o f n o n - i n t e l l e c t i v e fa cto r

t h a t W e ch sler c o n s id e r s im p o r ta n t.

f. At l e a s t a t t h e young a g e o f t h i s s a m p le , t h e

e x p e r i e n t i a l f a c t o r known a s m e c h a n i c a l k n o w l e d g e a p p e a r s

t o have a c o n s id e r a b ly broader b a se th a n a n a ly s e s o f a d u lt

scores in d ic a te .

f. The sy m b o l m a n i p u l a t i o n h y p o t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g

th e n u m erica l f a c t o r , f i r s t p r o p o s e d b y Coombs, f i n d s

su p p o rt in th e p r e s e n t r e s u l t s .

2* S u g g e s tio n s fo r fu r th e r r e s e a r c h . Any s u c h

s t u d y s h o u l d , and u s u a l l y d o e s , p r o d u c e t e n t a t i v e h y p o t h ­

e s e s and i d e a s a b o u t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . The p r e s e n t s t u d y

is no e x c e p t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g a r e among t h e m o s t

ta n g ib le p r o p o s a ls t h a t have o ccu rred to th e w r i t e r .

a. F u r t h e r s t u d y s h o u l d b e made o f t h e f l u e n c y

fa cto r, on t h e b a s i s o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t Form I I o f

C o m p r e h e n s io n ( o r a n o t h e r s i m i l a r l y d e s i g n e d ) may b e more

d e s ir a b le to in c lu d e in th e sc a le .

b. I f maximum i n t e r p r e t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n i s to be

made t o u s e r s o f t h e s c a l e , m ore work n e e d s t o b e d o n e

w i t h t h e o b j e c t i v e o f i d e n t i f y i n g v a r i a n c e t h a t now
 17 2

appears as s p e c if ic #

c# F u r t h e r s t u d y n e e d s t o b e made o f t h e r e l i a b i l

ity o f th e sc a le * I f p o ssib le , such d a ta sh o u ld b e ob­

t a i n e d fro m t h e sam e s a m p le on w h ic h a n a l y s i s i s b a s e d #

d# The i n c l u s i o n o f te m p e r a m e n t v a r i a b l e s a s w e l l

a s i n t e l l e c t i v e v a r i a b l e s i n a n a n a l y s i s w i t h t h e W-B

m ig h t th ro w l i g h t on W e c h s l e r 1 s h y p o t h e s i s o f n o n -

i n t e l l e c t i v e v a r ia n c e #

e# S e x and a g e f a c t o r i a l d i f f e r e n c e s n e e d t o b e

e x p l o r e d much m ore f u l l y b e f o r e r e l i a b l e i n f e r e n c e s can

b e made fro m g r o u p t o group.

f# E v id en ce c o n c e r n in g th e i d e n t i t y of sim ila r ­

itie s and i n f o r m a t i o n v a r i a n c e s m ig h t b e f u r n i s h e d b y r e ­
a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r e s e n t d a t a l e a v i n g g r o u p W-B v a r i a b l e s

out •

g# F u tu re a n a ly s e s sh o u ld i f p o ssib le c o n ta in a

m ore c o m p l e t e l i s t o f referen ce v a r ia b le s , ea ch a s

u n iv o c a l a s p o s s ib le # S p a c e and memory r e f e r e n c e t e s t s

m ig h t h a v e a d d ed m a t e r i a l l y t o t h e b r e a d t h o f i n t e r p r e t a ­

tio n o f r e su lts o f th e p r e sen t a n a ly s is *

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