Hh I

45 T TTY
Quotient group

Recall subgroups HCG

GIH set of c sets

G
Example HC Perm 1h7 H I Promis a

a
isomorphic
Xm 4 rt pennons
Nh _m

Xl Xz
Xh
4 1 1 4 Xi Xz Xs

Normalsutgroups
Defn H is a G
subgroup of we call it a
normal
subgroup
if try C G HEH
ghg em
Defn Abelian
group commutative
group
 G is abelian
iff g.hc G.gh
21h21 hg.fk.tl
1 Q 112

Example Normal subgroups

If G is abelian
all the
subgroups are normal subgroups

If G is
abelian then

gh hg
multiply l on
g the
right ghg hgg I

4
ghg ish
G
Nonexample Perm
Hehe 17
H is not a normal subgroup

htt eu g fi D.es
ghg g sci D
 g tis't h
II
g I d

1,71
i
ghg GH

H is not a normal subgroup

Prop T FA E The following are

equivalent
ft H is a normal
subgroup
II Define
Hg fhg HEH left H reset

Hg gH kg EG

Pf II ft
Step 1
Hg Cag H

thy c
Hg he't

hy gg i.hg g.ly 4g
 gig y hy y y c
GH
is in
H
Step 2
GHC Hg
H gh E
GH HEH

gh fghgY.ge Hg
I III
t EG
g HEH

Lhg gh C
GH Hg
So I h EH sit gh hg
i
ghg h.g.gt h.gg y h
EH
What is
good for normal
subgroups
Defn Quotient
group If H is a normal subgroup

of G G
IH has a natural group structure

defined
by GfH Glu
x G H

When
t.gtgg.tt H

we write
GH GH as a set does
not determine
g

Yemayharegitgi.butgit
we need to
IAI
git
verify is
well defined
For any input we
get a
unique output

Pf of fim

We need to prove

If g H
gilt g H
girl
 then
gg H
9 ga H

jiiiinayhareg
tgi.butg.H
gi.TT

7i

If we
prove if g H
y t
then
g gait
gigah
and
if g H
gift then
g g it

then we
9 girl
can use

gg H
gigah 9 gin
 Stop 1 H
g g t t

c
g g it
g
c
gin
g g h hi EH

compare Gigi and

g ga
I gihigr gig.gih.ge
gig lgih.gg
is in
H because
is H
normal
gig H
gig H
steps Gatt girl
g igc
H.owyureggittgip.H.lg.gr
ly gilt
 gin Wttg 1

uh EH
y h g 1 EH because
IT is
nemac

g gilt g KH

Example Z 921

11h21 has h elements

HI It nZ 24h21 in 1
tmz
i tha
t
jthZ litj t uz

Q what are the normal

subgroups
There is
of permly
a
complete answer
perm In
for all

Some
counting phoblem related to
counting
subgroups of 2 112
 Combinatorics

Generating functions

Example hp
of k element
subsets in
11,2 n

lxtyjn hI.FI xkyn

If we let k.n
y
y I 1 11 I 1k k

Polynomial cage
Defnl generating function
If a a
an
is a
sequence
of numbers we
define
f ex Got a Xt
Aix't an xn

Remark
If a
as is an
infinite series
fix Ao f 9
Xf 90 2
1
1 a
thy
formal power series
1 formal
expressios
 It is the same thing the
as sequence
Aa Ai Gr

For example
It is not a
fraction
for X to

We would line to
study the following
problem how
many subsets
County
with k of lo l L e
n
elements
and ly
m sum of element
equal to
Aml n k

fn.hu IAmln.kj.xm

twinrex
Smallest sum is 0th the I 1k Dk
2

Let Ai nih Tt h element

of subset
40 I with
of
ly
n
Sam
 y
equal to it k
2

Ao n k I because 40,1 i
k
the ly is
only subset
with the minimum
sum 1k
2

Maximum sum n th ry h h k n Hn k
2

klan k l

Maximum index i
nk
it Lk 11k 2
2 nk 1k

i nk th 11k

fth.net IYkAiln.kg.x nzh

Other Ai In k D
Notation enhanced integer

Im I Htt 1in I

Im Lmk Lm Dx
ED
3 thx 1
411 1 3 I
enhanced binomial
coefficients

1 tn

lhTx Ln kIx
Not obvious
that this is a
polynomial
Ak 61k y
1hm
fn.ae E ai t

2
This explains that
4 is a
with non polynomial
negative
Steyer
coefficients
Pf of thm Find recursive formulas
for
fn.ca and
th

H t
Express

fn.fi as combinations
of fat.ae and
Fn I k i 1 7

Ai In h
of k element subsets
with sum
of 40,1 in
it kik 1
T ly
The number
of such subsets pot
containing
1h l is A n
l h

The number
of such
subsets
is entering on
equal to
Aj n
l k y
g't it
MEI In 1
 j i n 11k a
I i n th i in a

Aik Ai t Ai in a th l h I

when
jco Aj C o

coefficient of Xi in

fn.klxy.ee ient
of Xi is
Xi in
faith
of

a
mix
H
fn.nl fn i.pk
tKhfn jx
12
fn.mx
l.fn.nlx1 l fo au
h
0

111,12 determines
fn.ie

Cheon thx I tx
t no
I
III
2 1 Esso
 11 I v

f lH I

subgroups
of 12 1725 12 921
124µg
p prime number

H subgroup
of 17 1221
l En
IH f Pe
Project 1 For fix tin
of such
An h susgny
e

n I 1 0 An e L tho
l
n I l I Unie I l l
n 2
12 13212 415 gs xtzypz
Yt z
ix
If g this
eh then
n
Iif thx Fy C H for all ne Z
 all k
such
4h15 5 n CZ is a

subgroup of H
1141Mt 11471 44 4 11 1
K H
H i determined hen
by any unit element
in
Take any
1557 EH 15,5ft is o
case 1
tf tf o then II T EH
we can choose
1,2
p l
For any IIT we can
find n c
t
Z
hX llmod
44 this
smh later
H 415 p prime
tl
xE4pzy
case 2
If g to Find n such that
ng Il Imad p we can
say
 the generator or
replace 15,51ft
by some
thx 5g
snob that
j
is ix T µ

Ttx then 41nF.rs

t
nf2y
41nF.at
In cage 2
ntZ9
then ane choices
p of
am

i ha
f

xp