CHAPTER FIVE

5. LUBRICATION
5.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter is focused on the effective analysis of used oil. First it provides an overview of the
applications of lubricants, Types of lubricants, Lubrication a~alysis (oil analysis) and how to interpret
the resu lts of a!_l oil analyses.

5.1.1. OBJECTIVES ..
At the completion of this chapter, the student who actively participates will:

• Know the most common lu bricants

• Know the most common methods of lubrication
• Know the most com·mon methods of analysing lubricant samples
• Understand the importance of proper lubrication properties. and cleanliness
• Understand how machine condition can be assessed from the lubricant tests
•
• Understand the basic tests of lubricants \\
• Be able to interpret test results and determine required actions

5.1.2. CONTENT
1. Background on lubrication
2. Definitions of terms in lubricatio n
3. History of lubrications
4. Application of lubricants ··j>- ·
5. Types of lubricants 't<.
'
6. Additives ~
7. Factors that affect oil in use ~ \
\

8. Methods of analysis oi l
9. Ana lysed oil reports
10. Benefits of oil analysisV
11. Initia lising an oil analyses program
12. The importance of taking an oil sample ~
13. Scoring the Condition-Based Oil Change Decision..4
14. What to Look for When Reviewing an Oil Analysis Report f
15. Particle examples of oil properties in machines
16. Grease ~ ·
17. Solid lubricants
18. 5200 Trivector Oil analyses test equipment ~
19. Web sites to view

5.2. BACK GROUND

Oil analysis has been proven internationally as an effective method of reducing maintenance costs,
improving productivity and providing peace of mind in industries which operate large fleets of plant
equipment, aircraft or heavy-duty vehicles.

In recent years another fa ctor has entered the equation: enlightened maintenance managers are
becoming increasingly aware that the benefits of oil analysis can grow exponentially depending on the
level of staff commitment to the oil analysis philosophy and the degree of interaction with the oil
ana lysis company.

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 Oil analysis is not simply an add-on service . It is a partnership with the client encompassing analysis,
interpretation and training, with each element being an integral part of the whole.

Holistic approach to oil analysis demands the highest technological standards and the highest caliber
of suitably qua lified and experienced staff. This quest for excellence is reflected in each organization's
level of quality.

5.3. DEFINITION OF TERMS I LUBRICATION

5.3.1. OIL ANALYSIS
Is the laboratory analysis of a lubricant's properties, suspended contaminants, and wear debris. Oil
-~ analyses is performed during routine preventive maintenance to provide meaningful and accurate
information on lubricant and machine condition. By tracking oil analysis sample results over the life of
a particular machine, trends can be established which can help eliminate costly repairs. The study of
wear in machinery is called tribology. Tribologists often perform or interpret oil analysis data. Oil
analyses can be divided into three categories:

1. Analysis of oil properties including those of the base oil and its additives,
2. Analysis of contaminants,
3. Analysis of wear debris from macninery,

5.3.2. OIL SAMPLING

~ Is a procedure for collecting a volume of flu id from lubricated or hydraulic machinery for the purpose
of oil analysis. Much like collecting forensic evidence at a crime scene, when collecting an oil sample,
it is important to ensure that procedures are used to minimize disturbance of the sample during and
after the sampling process. Oil samples are typically dra~n into c;i sma& clean bottle which is sealed
..,,,...-
and sent to a laboratory for analysis.
- '

5.3.3. LUBRICANT
V
--f Is a substance introduced to reduce friction between moving surfaces. It may also have the function of
transporting foreign particles. The property of reducing friction is known as lubricity. (Slipperiness). A
good lubricant. possesses the following characteristics: ·-->
' . '

• High boiling point

• Low freezing point
• High viscosity index
• Therma l stability
• Hydraulic Stability
• Demulsibility
• Corrosion prevention
• High resistance to oxidation

5.4. HISTORY
It was first used after World War II by the US railroad industry to monitor the health of locomotives. In
1946 the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad's research laboratory successfully detected diesel engine
problems through wear metal analysis of used oils. A key factor in their success was the development
of the spectrograph technique. The first use of used oil analysis dates back to the early 1940s by the
railway companies in the Western United States. Prompted by the purchase of a fleet of new
I

locomotives, technicians used simple spectrographic equipment and physical tests to monitor
locomotive engines. As steam locomotives gave yield to diesel locomotives, oil analysis practices by
railways caught on. By the 1980s oil analysis formed the basis of Condition Based Maintenance-in most
railways in North America.

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 By 1955 OA had matured to the point that the United States Bureau of Naval Weapons began a major
research program to adopt wear metal analysis for use in aircraft component failure prediction.

Owing to the success of oil analysis in the railways, the American Navy used spectrometric techniques
to monitor jet engines on their aircraft in the mid-1950s. A.r ound this t ime Rolls-Royce was also
experimenting with oil analysis for their jet turbines. Oil analysis began to spread and programs were
developed by the American Army and Air Force throughout the 1950s and early 1960s. In 1958 Pacific
lntermountain Express (P.I.E.} was the first trucking company to set up an in-house used oil analysis
laboratory to control vehicle maintenance costs which was managed by Bob Herguth. In 1960 the first
•
independent commercia l oil analysis laboratory was started by Edward Forgeron in Oakland, CA

Commercial oil analysis laboratories first appeared on t he scene in the early 1960s. WearCheck
International was incorporated in 1966 in Toronto, Canada. WearCheck International now spans the
globe with laboratories in North America, Europe, Australia, Africa and South America. Offering an
inexpensive and fast service commercial oil analysis laboratories brought oil analysis to industry.

5.5. APPLICATION OF LUBRICANTS

One of the _single largest applications fo lubricants, in the form of motor qil, is ~ tin the inter(lal
8
~ ) -
combustion (;D.gioes in motor vehicles and powered equipment. Typically lubricants contain 90% base
oil (most often petroleum fractions, called rrrineral oils) and less than 10% additives. Veg~ oils or
synthetic liquids such ~s hydrogenated polyolefin, esters, silicones, fluorocarbons and many others are
sometimes used as base oils. Additives deliver reduce.d friction and wear, increased viscosity, improved
- - ----- "'I -

viscos,!!.~~!~ resistance to corrosion and oxidation, aging or con,:._~~inati~ n, etc. G'GO f/ r J.-, / \ / '--....·~ c}Y""'
./ - ·- ,....- ,
Lubricants such as 2-cycle oil are added to fuels like gasoline which has low lubricity. Sulfur impuri ies
in fuels also provide some lubrication properties, which has to be tak;~n- acc]ui1t ~ hen switching to
a low-su lfur diesel; biodiesel is a popular diesel fuel additive providing additional lubricity.

Non-liquid lubricants incl ude grease, powders (dry graphite, PTFE, Molybdenum disulfide, tungsten
disu lfide, et c. }, PTFE t ape used in plumbing, air cushion and others. Dry lubricants such as graphite,
molybdenu m disulfide and tungsten disulfide also offer lubrication at temperatures (up to 350 °C}
higher t han liquid and oil-based lubricants are able to operate. Limited interest has been show n in low
frict ion properties of compacted oxide glaze layers formed at several hundred degrees Celsius in
metallic sliding systems, however, practical use is still many years away due to their physically unstable
nature.
I
In addition to industrial applications, lubricants are used for many other purposes Lubricants perform
the following key functions.

• Keep moving parts apart

• Reduce friction
• Transfer heat
• Carry away contaminants & debris
• Transmit power
• Protect against wear
• Prevent corrosion
• Seal for gases
• Stop the risk of smoke and fire of objects
• Prevent rust

5.5.1. KEEP MOVING PARTS APART

Lubricants are typically used to separate moving parts in a system. This has the benefit of reducing
friction and surface fatigue, together with reduced heat generation, operating noise and vibrations.
Lubricants achieve this by several ways. The most common is by forming a physical barrier i.e., a thin
layer of lubricant separates the moving parts.
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 This is analogous to hydroplaning, the loss of friction observed when a car tire is separated from the
road surface by movi ng through st anding water. This is termed hydrodynamic lubrication. In cases of
high surface pressures or tempe ratures, the fluid film is much t hinner and some of the forces are
t ransm itted between the surfaces through the lu bricant .

5.5.2. REDUCE FRICTION

Typica lly the lubricant-to-surface friction is much less than surface-to-surface friction in a system
without any lubrication. Thus use of a lubricant reduces the overa ll system f riction. Reduced friction
has the benefit of reducing heat ge neration and reduced formatio n of wear particles as well as
improved efficiency. Lubricant s may conta in additives known as friction modifiers t hat chemica lly bind
t o metal surfaces to reduce surface friction even w hen there is insufficient bulk lubricant present for
hydrodynamic lubricatio n, e.g. protecting the valve t ra in in a car engine at sta rtup.

5.5.3. TRANSFER HEAT

Both gas and liquid lubricants can transfer heat. However, liquid lubricants are much more effective
on account of their high specific heat capacity. Typically the liquid lubricant is constantly circulated to
and f rom a cooler part of the system, although lubricants may be used to warm as well as to cool when
a regulated temperature is required. This circulating flow also determines the amount of heat that is
carried away in any given unit of time. High flow systems can ca rry away a lot of heat and have the
additional benefit of reducing the t hermal stress on the lubricant. Thus lower cost liquid lubricants may
be used. The primary drawback is that high flows typica lly require larger sumps and bigger cooling
units. A seco ndary drawback is t hat a high flow system t hat relies on the flow rate to protect t he
lubrica nt from thermal stress is susce ptible to catastrophic failure during sudden system shut downs.
An automotive oil-cooled turbocha rger is a typical example. Turbochargers get red hot during
operation and the oil that is coo ling.them only survives as its residence time in the system is very short
i.e. high flow rate. If the system is shut down suddenly (pu lling into a service area after a high speed
drive and stopping the engine) the oil that is in t he t urbo charger immediately oxidizes and will clog
the oil ways with deposits. Over time t hese deposits ca n completely block the oil ways, reducing the
cooling with the result that the turbo charger experiences tot al failure typically with seized bearings.
Non-flowing lubricants such as greases & pastes are not effective at heat transfer although they do
contribute by reducing t he generation of heat in the first place.

5.5.4. CARRY AWAY CONTAMINANTS AND DEBRIS

Lubricant circulation systems have the benefit of carrying away internally generated debris and
externa l contaminants that get int roduced into the system to a filter where they can be removed.
Lubricants for machines that regularly generate debris or contaminants such as automotive engines
typically contain detergent and dispersant additives t o assist in debris and contaminant t ransport to
t he filter and removal. Over time the filter will get clogged and require cleaning or replacement, hence
1
the recommendation to change a ca r s oil filter at the same t ime as changing the oil. In closed systems
such as gear boxes the filter may be supplemented by a magnet to attract any iron fines that get
created .

It is apparent that in a circulatory system the oil will only be as clea n as the filter can make it, thus it is
unfortunate t hat there are no industry standards by which consumers can readily assess the filtering
ability of va rious automotive filters. Poor filtration significa nt ly reduces the life of the machine (engine)
as well as making the system inefficient.

I 5.5.5. TRANSMIT POWER

Lubrica nts known as hydraulic fluid are used as t he working fluid in hydrostatic power transmission .
Hydraulic fluids comprise a large portion of all lubricants produced in the world.

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~--'--- -- - - - -- ~ -- -- ~ -- -..-:·-
 The automatic transmission's torque converter 1s another important application for power
t ran sm ission with lubricants.

5.5.6. PROTECT AGAINST WEAR

Lubricants prevent wear by keeping the moving parts apart. Lubricants may also contain anti -wear or
extreme pressure additives to boost their performance against wear and fatigue.

5.5.7. PREVENT CORROSION

Good quality lubricants are typically formulated with additives that form chemical bonds with surfaces,
or exclude moisture, to prevent corrosion and rust.

5.5.8. SEAL FOR GASES

Lubricants will occupy the clearance between moving parts through the capillary force, thus sealing
the clearance. This effect can be used to seal pistons and shafts.

5.6. TYPES OF LUBRICANTS

Lubricants are generally composed of a majority of base oil plus a variety of additives to impart
desirable characteristics. Although generally lubricants are based on one type of base oil, mixtures of
the base oils also are used to meet performance requirements.

~ 5.6.1. BASE OIL GROUPS

Mineral oil term is used to encompass lubricating base oil derived from crude oil. The American
Petroleum Institute (API} designates several types of lu bricant base oil:

• Group I - Satu rates <90%' and/or sulfur >0.03%, and Society of Automotive Engineers {SAE)
viscosity index {VI) of 80 to 120

Manufactured by so lvent extraction, solvent or cata lytic dewaxing, and hydro-finishing processes.
Common Group I base oil are 1SOSN (solvent neutral}, SOOSN, and 15085 {brightstock}

• Group II - Saturates over 90% and sulfur under 0.03%, and SAE viscosity index of 80 to 120

Manufactured by hydrocracking and solvent or catalytic dewaxing processes. Group II base oil has
superior anti-oxidation properties since virtually all hydrocarbon molecules are saturated. It has water-
white color.

• Group Ill - Saturates> 90%, sulfur <0.03%, and SAE viscosity index over 120

Manufactured by special processes such as isohydromerization. Can be manufactured from base oil or
slax wax from dewaxing process.

• Group IV - Polyalphaolefins (PAO)

• Group V -All others not included above such as naphthenics, PAG, esters.

The lubricant industry commonly extends this group terminology to include:

• Group I+ with a Viscosity Index of 103-108

• Group II+ with a Viscosity Index of 113-119
• Group Ill+ with a Viscosity Index of at least 140
J
Can also be classified into three categories depending on the prevailing compositions:
~

~J : Paraffinic
Naphthenic
• Aromatic

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 .....

Lubricants for internal combustion engines contain additives to reduce oxidation and improve
lubrication . The main constituent of such lubricant product is called the base oil, base stock. While it is
advantageous to have a high-grade base oil in a lubricant, proper selection of the lubricant additives is
equally as important. Thus some poorly selected formulation of PAO lubricant may not last as long as
more expensive formulation of Group Ill+ lubricant.

5:6.2 BIO-LUBRICANTS MADE FROM VEGETABLE OILS AND

OTHER RENEWABLE SOURCE ~
These are primarily triglyceride esters derived from pla nts and animals. For lubricant base oil use the
vegetable derived materials are preferred . Common ones include high oleic canola oil, castor oil, palm
oil, sunflower seed oil and rapeseed oil from vegetable, and Tall oil from tree sources. Many vegetable
oils are often hydrolyzed to yield the acids which are subsequently combined selective ly to form
specia list synthetic esters. Other naturally derived lubricants include lanolin (wool grease, a natural
water repellent).

Whale oil was a historically important lubricant, with some uses up to the latter part of the 20th
century as a friction modifier additive for automatic transmission fluid.

In 2008, the bio-lubricant market was around 1% of UK lubricant sales in a total lubricant market of
840,000 tons /year.

Lanolin is a natural water repellent, derived from sheep wool grea se, and is an alternative to the more
common petro-chemical based lubricants. This lu bricant is also a corrosion inhibitor, protecting against
rust, salts, and acids.

Water can also be used on its own, or as a major component in combination with one of the other
base oils. Commonly used in engineering processes, such as milling and lathe turning.

5.6.3. SYNTHETIC OILS _XJ

• Polyalpha-olefin (PAO)
• Synthetic esters ·- a.
t~)C<4-e... c-.,.- L lJ
• Polyalkylene glyco ls (PAG) B ~<J L\,-6 •V2 Ct.,V' rs
·- '.) ''J rt tl.1..1.z!\-L C. Ol tr
• Phosphate esters ,,;
• Alkylated naphthalenes (AN)

~ ~
• Silicate esters
• Ionic fluids
l~i)fllunh.L,L
5.6.4. SOLID LUBRICANTS / DRY LIBRICANTS
5.6.4.1. PTFE
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is typically used as a coating layer on, for example, cooking utensils to
provide a non-stick surface. Its usable temperature range up to 350 °C and chemical inertness make it
a useful additive in special greases. Under extreme pressures, PTFE powder or solids is of little value
as it is soft and flows away from the area of contact. Ceramic or metal or alloy lubricants must be used
then. "Teflon ®" is a brand of PTFE owned by DuPont Co.

5.6.4.2. Inorganic solids

G,raphite, hexagonal boron nitride, molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide are examples of
materials that can be used as solid lubricants, often to very high temperature. The use of some such
materials is sometimes restricted by their poor resistance to oxidation (e.g., molybdenum disulfide can
only be used up to 350°C in air, but 1100°C in reducing environments).

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 5.6.4.3. Metal/alloy
Metal alloys, composites and pure metals can be used as grease add itives or the sole constituents of L
sliding surfa ces and bearings. Cadmium and Gold are used for plating surfaces which gives them good Cl
corrosion resistance and sliding properties, Lead, Tin, Zinc alloys and various Bronze alloys are used as
sliding bearings, or their powder can be used to lu bricate sliding surfaces alone, or as additives to

5.6.4.4. Aqueous I u brication '

Aqueous lubrication is of interest in a number of technological applications. Strongly hydrated brush
polymers such as PEG can act as lubri cants at liquid solid interfaces.[sJ By continuous rapid exchange
of bound water with other free water molecules, these polymer films keep the surfaces separated
w hile maintaining a high fluidity at the brush-brush interface at high compressions, th us leading to a
very lo~ coefficient of friction.

5.6.5. OTHER RELEVANT PHENOMENA

5.6.5.1. 'Glaze' formation (high temperature wear)
.

A further phenomenon t hat has undergone investigation in relation to high temperature wear
prevention and lubrication, is that of a compacted oxide layer glaze formation. This is the generation
of a compacted oxide layer which sinters together to fo rm a crysta lline 'glaze' (not t he amorphous
layer seen in pottery) generally at high temperatures, from metallic surfaces sliding against each other
(or a metallic surface against a ceram ic surface). Due to the eliminatio n of metallic contact and
adhesion by the generation of oxide, friction and wear is reduced. Effectively, such a surface is self-
lubricating.

As the 'glaze' is already an oxide, it can survive to very high temperatures in air or oxidizing
environments. However, it is disadvantaged by it being necessary for the base meta l (or ceramic)
having to undergo some wear first to generate sufficient oxide debris.

~ 5. 7. ADDITIVES 1
/ A large number of additives are used to impart performa nce characteristics to the lubricant s. The main (

families of additives are_: £:ic~U<"] ~""-" \ '11 \.:,,.(,lb 1~ OX.\ c)_ C>c. -\-I UVt 1

• \.Antioxidants r-- ~vb~ .V'l c...G \.-e.~Yl i

• \ Detergents - USe.~ <\v . '
• \ Anti-wear - -fro ve;vJrS \.J\R_o./o l
• Metal deactivators .- (

• Corrosion inhibitors, Rust inhibitors ~L~

~\) I

• \..Friction modifiers - t~ fl) \,,__,":)~ f )e.-S~

~ E

• " Extreme Pressure - ~)C\.05 L._."""'"' \.V"\ L~O-$)

• '- Anti-foa ming agents ._ ~ . e . . . J \ U-: ''
• ' . Viscosity index improvers 90~ ~ Cl\ \ l
• \ Demulsifying/Emulsifying_ V'--'V'\~' C
• Stickiness improver, provide adhesive property towards tool surface (in metalwo rking) t
• Complexing agent (in case of greases)

Note that many of the basic chemical compounds used as detergents (example: calcium sulfate) serve
'
"
the purpose of th e first seven items in the list as well. Usually it is not economically or technically 1
, feasib le to use a single do-it-a ll additive compound. Oils for hypoid gear lubrication will cont ain high h
content of EP additives. Grease lubricants may contain large amount of solid pa rticle friction modifiers, b
such as graphite, molybdenum sulfide.

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 5.8. FACTORS THAT AFFECT OIL IN USE rfa
Used oil analysis is comparable to a medical analysis with a blood test. Like blood, lubricating oil
contains a good deal of information about the envelope in which it circulates.

Wear of metallic parts, for example, produces a lot of minute particles, which are carried by the
lubricant. These small metal particles can give information about the machine elements that are
wearing, and can be detected by various methods, for example, Atomic Emission Spectrometry.
Determination of larger particles can be done using optical or electronic microscopy, or ferrography.

The acidity of an oil shows whether the oil is oxidized as a result of operation at high temperature, if
there is a high percentage of moisture, or whether the oil has been in service for too long. The viscosity
of the oil is a very important parameter and must be in conformity with the requirements of the
machine builder. The alkalinity or the loss of alkalinity of the oil, proves that the oil is in contact with
inorganic acids such as sulphuric acid or nitric acid.

5.8.1. WEAR ~ . ;
Wear means the loss of solid material due to the effects of friction of contacting surfaces. It is generally
harmful, although in some cases it can also be beneficial, for instance during the running-in of an
engine. The deterioration of the surfaces in an engine is generally due to isolated or simultaneous
mechanisms, among which we can distinguish the following.

5.8.1.1. Adhesive we~r

This occurs as a result of metal-to-metal contact, due to overheating or insufficient lubrication. This in
turn causes the formation of micro welds, with often a subsequent deposition of soft metal onto heavy
metal (e.g., aluminum onto iron, lead onto steel). Consequently, there is a shearing of the junctions
and a transfer of metal particles.

There are two types of adhesive wear - heavy, liberating relatively large metal particles (SO to 200
microns), called 'scuffing', and eventually leads to a failure of the engine; and moderate - the
formation of very small metal oxides which is termed 'soft' or 'normal adhesive' wear. Adhesive wear
can be avoided by the use of an appropriate lubricant containing extreme pressure (EP) additives, and
the choice of the correct viscosity oil.

5.8.1.2. Abrasive wear

This form of wear results from the grooving of a surface by hard asperities or by particles of rust or
dust which have entered the oil. When these particles are very small, the phenomenon is known as
'abrasive erosion' (which is especially the case in hydraulic systems). Abrasive wear can be avoided by
eliminating potentially abrasive particles through filtration.

5.8.1.3. Corrosive wear

This is chemical or galvanic attack, followed by the removal of the reaction products (chemical
complexes) by mechanical action (friction). It can be avoided by the use of effective materials, also by
the use of neutralizing additives in the oil. It may also be minimized by changing the oil in time.

5.8.1.4. Wear by fatigue

•
(
This means the removal of spalled away particles by fatigue resulting from contact, aided by vibration,
high pressure, high temperature and other aggressive conditions. This type of wear may be reduced
by re-equilibration of the system.

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:

5.8.1.5. Contact corrosion (fretting corrosion)

Corrosion due to contact means the removal of material between two surfaces which are in almost
static contact but subject to mechanical vibration and oscillation. Consequently, there is oxidation of
certain particles. Thus, for iron materials, there is an accumulation of 'red powder'. An example of this
is the bearings of cars transported by.

5.8.1.6. Erosion by cavitation

The formation of cavities by entrainment of air of gas bubbles present in the fluid in movement is a
destructive phenomenon, which ca n provoke the removal of material particles.

5.8.1.7. Additive Depletion

Oils undergo destructive changes in property when subjected to oxygen, combustion gasses and high
temperatures. Viscosity change, as well as additive depletion and oxidation occur to degrade the oil.

Oil additives also have a limited lifetime. Some are consumed as oil ages. For example, alkaline
additives get used up by neutralizing corrosive acids produced by the combustion process. When the
oils reserve alkalinity (TBN) falls below the minimum safe level, higher component wear can be
expected.

Make-up oils will increase oil reserve alkalinity only to the extent of the new oil added and has no
neutralizing reaction OFI existing oil acid levels.

Rust and corrosion inhibitors, anti-oxidants and film strength agents also reach a point when they can
no longer carry on. Additive "dispersants" suspend contaminants, deposits and other combustion
insoluble until they are removed from the system by oil and filter change out.

Once a dispersant becomes "loaded" any added sludge, resin or soot will cause the oil to dump
whatever it has collected ... and refuse to co llect anymore. This results in a rapid build -up of engine
deposits.

5.8.1.8. Oxidation
All engines, transmissions and drive-axle component oils oxidize. A chemical reaction between oil
molecules and oxygen takes place at high operating temperatures. This reaction increases viscosity,
causes formation of insoluble engine deposits and corrosive acids which further increases component
wear.

Higher operating temperatures, fuel consumption, rapid additive depletion and substantial loss of
power can also be expected when oil oxidation takes place. When severe, oxidation makes the oil very
hard to pump causing lubrication starvation to moving parts, with inevitable results. Oils that are
oxidized have a very pungent, sour odor.

5.8.1.9. Wear of electrical origin

This refers to the erosion by sparks, produced by inadequate electrical insulation 1n motors of
a lte rnato rs.

5.8.2. CONTAMINATION (
•

I\ The causes of oil contamination are many, and can be classified according to so urce. Thus there is
~ contamination coming from outside the system - dust (silica); liquids (mixture with other oils, water,
other contaminated oil). The second is in 'ope n-systems - cha ins, cables, gears in conta ct with dust,
water, and so on. The third is in.closed systems.

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-
Impurities can also come from the settings and processes in which the lubricants work, e.g.
manufacturing can produce we\ding debris, assembling involves dust, perhaps also sH,cones or
po\ishing powder, while maintenance can introduce impurities via dirty rags or deteriorated joints, and
lubrication systems may need or involve aspiration, or open tanks.

The lubricant itself can produce or co ntain contaminants-wea r, sludge (deterioration of t he oil), soot,
acids (oxidation of the oil, sulphure from fuel), temperature cha nges or extremes, fuel, anti-freeze,
deterioration of packing1 s and seals {e.g. deteriorating through the action of synthetic oils or brake
•
fluids) .

The type of conta mination can vary acco rd ing to the sou rce. Thus dust, for example, can arise within
a shipyard as sand, i.e. Si, Al. In metallurgy, one can find the oxides or iron. On a ship, t he re are
problems with salt water. Industrial and automot ive settings are filled with potential contami nants,
for example chemical products, or coa l powder. Liqu id co ntaminants can include water, acids, solvent s
and anti-freeze.

5.8.3. OIL DEPLETION

Oils undergo destructive cha nges in property when subjected to oxygen, combustion gasses and high
temperatures. Viscosity change, as well as additive depletion and oxidation occur to degrade the oil.

5.8.3.1. Additive Depletion

Oil additives also have a limited lifetime. Some are consumed as oil ages. For example, alkaline
additives get used up by neutral izing corrosive acids produced by the combustion process. When the
oils reserve alka linity {TBN) falls below the minimum safe level, higher component wear can be
expected.

Make-up oils will increase oil reserve alkalinit y only to the ext ent of the new oil added and has no
neutralizing reaction on existing oil acid levels.

Rust and corrosion inhibitors, anti-oxida nts and film strength agents also reach a point when they can
no longer carry on. Additive "dispersants" suspend contaminants, deposits and other combustion
inso luble until they are removed from the syst em by oi l and filter change out.

Once a dispersant becomes "loaded 11 any added sludge, resin or soot will cause the oil to dump
whatever it has collected ... and refuse to collect anymore. This resu lts in a rapid build-up of engine
deposits.

5.8.3.2. Oxidation .

All engines, transmissions and drive-axle component oils oxidize. A chemical react ion between oil
molecules and oxygen takes place at high operating temperatures. This reaction increases visco sity,
causes formation of inso luble engine deposits and corrosive acids which further increases component
wear.

Higher operating temperatures, fuel consumption, rapid additive depletion and substa ntial loss of
power can also be expected when oil oxidation takes place. When severe, oxidation makes the oi l very
hard to pump causing lubrication starvation to moving parts, w ith inevitable result s. Oils that are
oxidized have a very pungent, sour odor.
(
5.9., ANALYZING OIL '
Why Perform Oil Analysis
( vt.e.A1 <71.L,.
(
Al)~Vious reason to perform oil analysis is to understand the condition of the oil, but it is also
intended to help bring to light the condition of the machine f rom which t he oil sample was taken.
There are three main categories of oil analysis: fluid properties, contam ination and wear debris.

139
 Fluid Properties

Tnis type of oil analysis focuses on identifying the oil's current physical and chemical state as well as
on defining its remaining useful life (RUL). It is designed to answer questions such as: _

( . .
• Does the sample match the specified oil identification?
Is it the correct oil to use?
• Are the right additives active?
• Have additives been depleted?
• Has the viscosity shifted from the expected viscosity? If so, why?
• What is the oil's RUL?
C
Contamination

By detecting the presence of destructive contaminants and narrowing down their probable sources
(internal or external), oil ana lysis can help answer questions such as:

• Is the oil clean?

• What types of contaminants are in the oil?
• Where are contaminants originating?
• Are there signs of other types of lubricants?
• Is there any indication of internal leakage?

Wear Debris

This form of oil analysis is about determining the presence and identification of particles produced as
- -
a result of mechanical wear, corrosion or other machine surface degradation. It answers a number of
questions relating to wear, including:

• Is the machine degrading abnorma lly?

• Is wear debris produced?
• From which internal component is the wear likely originating?
• What is the wear mode and cause?
• How severe is the wear condition?

Ultimately, you need to know if any actions should be taken to keep the machine healthy and to extend
the life of the oil. Oil analysis for machines can be compared to blood analysis for the human body.
When a doctor pulls a blood sample, he puts it through a lineup of analysis machines, carefully studies
the results and reports his conclusions based on his education, research and detailed questions asked
to the patient. Likewise, with oil analysis, careful oil samples are taken, and elaborate machines yield
the test results. Laboratory personnel interpret the data to the best of their ability, but without crucial
details about the machine, a diagnosis or prognosis can potentially be inaccurate. Some of these
important details include: _)

• The machine's environmental conditions (extreme temperatures, high humidity, high vibration,
etc.)
• The originating component (steam turbine, pump, etc.), make, model and oil type currently in use
• The permanent component ID and exact sample port location
• Proper sampling procedures to confirm a consistently representative sample
• Occurrences of oil changes or makeup oil added, as well as the quantity of makeup oil since the
last oil change
• Whether filter carts have been in use between oil samples
• Total operating time on the sampled component since it was purchased or overhauled
• Total runtime on the oil since the last change
• Any other unusual or noteworthy activity involving the machine that could influence changes to
the lubricant

140
 Oil Analysis Tests

For a standard piece of equipment undergoing the normal recommended oil analysis, the test slate
11
would consist of " routine tests. Alternatively, if additional testing is needed to answer advanced
11
questions, these would be considered "exception tests. Routine tests vary based on the originating
component and environmental conditions but should almost always include tests for viscosity,
elemental (spectrometric) analysis, moisture levels, particle counts, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy and acid number. Other tests that are based on the originating equipment include
analytical ferrography, ferrous density, demulsibility and base number testing.

Table 0-1: Oil Analysis test

Sf I@

Viscosity. Acid/Base Number.

FTIR, Efemental Analysts
--· ---·~-·~-- · ··--~·~·- - -
C·ontamination Particle Counting1 Moisture
••• .. ........ ~...........
Analysis.
....
,····"""*••
Elemental Analysis
.. • •

Wear Debris Ferrous Oensit)\ fTIR.

EJemental Analysis

The table shows how tests are utilized in each of the three main oil analysis categories.

Viscosity

Several methods are used to measure viscosity, which is reported in terms of kinematic or absolu_ te
viscosity. While most industrial lubricants classify viscosity in terms of ISO standardized viscosity grades
(ISO 3448), this does not imply that all lubricants with an ISO VG 320, for example, are exactly 320
centistokes· (cSt). According to the 150 standard, each lubricant is consi dered to be a particular viscosity
grade as long as ·it falls within 10 percent
,,... of the -viscosity
.. mid point (typically
. that of the ISO VG number).
.,....-...,. r - .. --

32% of lubrication professionals would not understand how to interpret an oil analysis report from
a commercial laboratory, based on a recent poll at Machinerylubrication.com

Viscosity is a lubricant's most important characteristic. Monitoring the oil 1 s viscosity is critical because
any changes can lead to a host of other problems, such as oxidation, glycol ingression or thermal
stressors.

Too high or too low viscosity readings may be due to the presence of an incorrect lubricant, mechanical
shearing of the oil and/or the viscosity index improver, oil oxidation, antifreeze contamination, or an
influence from fuel, refrigerant or solvent contamination.

Limits for changes in the viscosity depend on the type of lubricant being analyzed but most often have
a marginal limit of approximately 10 percent and a critical limit of approximately 20 percent higher or
lower than the intended viscosity. \____/

Acid Number/Base Number

Acid number and base number tests are similar but are used to interpret different lubricant and
contaminant-related questions. In an oil analysis test, the acid number is the concentration of acid in
the oil, while the base number is the reserve of alkalinity in the oil. Results are expressed in terms of
the volume of potassium hydroxide in milligrams required to ne~tralize the acids in one gram of oil.
Acid number testing is primarily performed on non-crankcase oils, while base number testing is mainly
for over-based crankcase oils.

An acid number that is too high or too low may be the result of oil oxidation, the presence of an
incorrect lubricant or additive depletion.
141
 A base number that is too low can indicate high engine blow-by conditions (fuel, soot, etc.), the
presence of an incorrect lubricant, internal leakage contamination (glycol) or oil oxidation from
extended oil drain intervals and/or extreme heat.

FTIR -f \
'\

FTIR is a quick and sophisticated method for determining several oil parameters including
contamination from fuel, water, glycol and soot; oil degradation products like oxides, nitrates and
sulfates; as well as the presence of additives such as zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZOOP) and phenols.
• The FTIR instrument recognizes· each of these characteristics by monitoring the shift in infrared
absorbance at specific or a range of wavenumbers. Many of the observed parameters may not be
conclusive, so often these results are coupled with other tests and used more as supporting evidence.
Parameters identified by shifts in specific wavenumbers are shown in the table below.

Table 0-2: FTIR table

f
1750 Oxidation (for mineral oils)
- -
3540
--···-··---------------·--·-~-·------------·---------
... --·· ... --·------ .......
Oxidation (for organic ester)
---. ~- - --....~-·-·---· - ..... ........ _ ............... _ ...
--. ... ... ..,,, ..,
I
815 Oxidation (for phosphate ester)
.................. -- ...... -- ... -·-·- .. ·-- ----··--"'·· ..,,._ ·--- ---------··
Sulfation {possibly from high-sulfur
1150
fuel contamination)
----·-------·----·--- - ---- ... - --·.---· ....... -
Nitration (typically with natural gas
1630
engines)
3625
.. -. . . . . . - Water ingression (for
. organic ester} . ......
3400 Water ingression (for rnineral oils)
·-·-------~- . - .....
Soot (combustion chamber blow-by
2000
contamination)
880. 3400,
Glycol ingression
1040, 1080
i .. - .• - • - - .... *. - .. - ..
800
4, ... - - ••• - - - .......

Oiesef fuel ingression

- ...... - » .................... - ....... - .. - - - ............ .

l 750
-- - .....
-.... ,.,. ..Gasoline fuel ingression
I
{
....................... .... ................ ....... ., .. .., .,

l 795-8i5 Jet fuel ingression

------------·------- ---------------·-------------· ·-------·
Ii 3650 Phenol inhibitors adrutive
_____ ..,------ ... --· .. ·- ... ....... ____ .... ____ ......... ...
...,. ~
deptetion
... --·- ·-- .. - -· .... ~ --~
980 ZOOP anti.wear/antioxidant addi1 ive
depletion

Elemental Analysis {i:::>ifF5'§-)

Elemental analysis works on the principles of atomic emission spectroscopy (AES), which is sometimes
called wear metal analysis. This technology is designed to detect the concentration of wear metals,
contaminants or additive elements within the oil. The two most common types of atomic emission
spectroscopy are rotating disc electrode (ROE) and inductively coupled plasma (ICP). Both of these
methods have limitations in analyzing particle sizes, with ROE limited to particles less than 8 to 10
microns and ICP limited to particles less than 3 microns. Nevertheless, they are useful for providing
trend data. Possible sources of many common elements are shown in the table below.

142
 The best way to monitor this type of data is to first determine what is expected to be in the oil. An
.effective -oil analysis report will provide reference data for the new oil so any amounts of add itive
elements can be easily distinguished from those of contaminants. Also, because many types of
elements should be expect ed at some level (even contaminants in certain environments), it is better
to analyze trends rather than fo cus on any specific measurement of elemental analysis data .

Table 0-3: Element Analysis table

Al urn in urn, Pistons, bearings,....purnps, thrust 111ashers

. ............. _ ... . ·- .....
Antimony Bearings, greas,e
Ba:riutn Rust and oxidation inhibitor additives_ grease
••;a. .. ••!W.••••Ri,..,, • •• •• • a• .6<. •••·••• • *•'-••• • • ••••"•,., .. _:a ._

Boron Anti-corrosion addith,,es in coolant dus(

v1ater
-------------------------------------------------- ----- ----
Calcium -- Detergent/dispersant additives
I ·-------------- ------- ----- ----- -- ----------- -- ---- ----- ---·
. ·Chromium Piston rings in internal combustion engines
I ------ -------------------- ---------- ------ -- ---------- ------
Copper Bearings, brass/bronze aHoys1bushings.
thrust washers
. ..... ·- .... -·. "' ···""'··· ........ ..... .. ·-· ............ """·· .... ... . . . . .. .
~

Iron Shafts1 roHing--element bearingsl cylinders,

gears. pjston rings
---- ------ -- --- -- ---- -- ----- ---- ------ -- -------------- ----- ·
Lead Bearings, 1uel aoditive·s, anti-,•,ear additives
· ------------------------------------------ -------------- -·
Lithium Grease, additives
---- ------------- ---------------------------- - -------------
~~agneslum Transmissions.· detergent additives
·--------- ---- ---------------------------- ----- ----- -- ----- ·
Molybdenum Piston rings, electric motors~extreme-pres-
sureadditives . ... . .... .. . ..
- . ·-· · · - ~ . -..... ,. .
Nickel Bearings, valve train. turb,ine blades
~·· .. ··- -··· . .... . . . . .. -~···· . · ·- . ·- ~·
Phosp:horus, Antiwwear additives, extreme-pressure gear
add;tives
------- ----------- ----- ------------ ------------- ---- -------
Potassium Coolant additives
·-------------------------------------------------------- ---
Silver Bearing cages (plati.ng}t- gear te-eth. shafts
·----- --------- ---------~ ----- --- ------~··---- ---------·- --·
Silicon OusVdirt. defoamant .addltfves
·----- ~- -------------- --------- --- ----~ ~-~-----------------·
Sodium D·etergent or cootan·t additives
---~- ----~~~~ •-~~•--~•-••-- ••--- -•-~-- ~•-~w- ----~- •~---~-• •
Tin Journal hearings, bearing cages, solder
·---•----- ---•--•-----------a-----•-----•-••---·------ ---- -•
Titaniu·m Bearing hub, compressor blades
·-·Zinc
·--·-···---- ·-·-····--- -----·-··- ···-··------ -·-··-·--···
Neoprene seals, grease. anrj-wear additives

Particle Counting ( ~ F U J-0,)

Particle counting measures the size and quantity of particles in the oil. Many techniques can be used
to assess this data, which is typically reported based on ISO 4406:99. This standard designates three
numbers separated by a forward slash providing a range number that correlates to the particle counts
of particles greate r than 4, 6 and 14 microns. To view an illustration of how different particle counts
are assigned specific ISO codes, visit http://www.machinerylubrication .com/Read/29525/sample-
new-oil. ·

143
 Moisture Analysis

Moisture content within an oil sample is commonly measured with the Karl Fischer titration test. This
. ----
test reports results in parts per million (ppm), although data is often shown in percentages. It can find
water in all three forms: dissolved, emulsified and free. The crackle test and hot-plate test are non-
instrument moisture tests for screening before th e Karl Fischer method is used. Possible reasons for a
moisture reading being too high or too low would include water ingression from open hatches or
breathers, internal condensation during temperature swings or sea l leaks.

Why do we Analysis oil?

•
• To monitor the condition of the equipment
• To monitor the condition of the oil
• To monitor for foreign contaminants

Two of the most common questions asked of analysts are:

\
• "What tests should I run?"
• "How do I interpret the results?

Several methods are used to analyses oil condition and contamination. All the test can be classified
into three fields.

Table 0-4: Oil Analysis Category'.s

OIL ANALYSIS CATEGORY TEST

Wear debris Ferrous density, ferrography, spectrometry

FTIR

Elemental analysis
Contamination Particle co unt,

Moisture Analysis '

Elemental analysis ~
Oil chemistry Viscosity -~~- }}'
?(

'

Acid number

Base number

FTIR

Elemental analysis ' _/

144

. 111'1' I
"
•
 --

Iii Extre roe

[:=J Bad Vv'ear

1111 tv1argl nal

1111 Fai r
~
•
all Good

Conta mi nati on Chen,i stry

Figure 0-1: Tri-vector Plot

To obtain a typical report as above many test must be conducted. These include spectrometry, viscosity
ana lysis, ~ion _a nalysis .....water detection, Acid Number assessment, Base Number assessment,
particle counting, and microscopy.

5.9.1. SPECTROMETER
A spectrometer is an instrument with which one can measure the quantities and types of metallic
elements in a sample of oil. The operating principle is as follows. A diluted oil sample is pulverized by
an inert gas to form an aerosol, which is magnetically induced to form a plasma at a temperature of
about 9000°C. As a result of this high temperature the metal ions take on energy, and release new
energy in the form of photons. In this way, a spectrum with different wavelengths is created for each
metallic element. The intensities of the emissions are measurable for each such element by virtue of
its very specific wavelength, calculated in number of ppm (parts per million). A spectrometer can
detect the very sma ll metal particles in suspension in the oil, i.e. with a size between O and 3 microns.

Those small particles are a good indication of general wear, except in cases of sudden metallic rupture,
where there w ill be relatively more large particles liber~ted (50 microns and more). The human eye
can detect pa rticles of a size starting from 50 microns, which allows them to be visualized using more
conventiona l means. Thus, complementary analysis of such larger particles can be done by
spectrometry (after acid attack}, by fe rrography (or related systems) or by optical or electronic
microscopy.

5.9.2. V 'I SCOSITY

• Seve ral methods are used to measure viscosity, which is reporte~ terms of kinematic or
absolute viscositv. \ 1hile most industrial lubricants classify viscosity in terms of ISO standardized
viscosity grades 'ISO 3448), this does not imply that all lubricants w ith an ISO VG 320, for
example, are eX2cth 1 320 centistokes (cSt}. According to the ISO standard, each lubricant is
considered to be a particula r viscosity grade as long as it falls within 10 percent of the viscosity
midpoint (typira, 't.,at of the ISO VG number).

[
-
Viscosity is a IJb ..ie2"':'s -nost im
orta t ch cteristic. onitoring the oil's viscosity is critical
because any changes can lead to a host of other problems, such• as oxidation, glycol ingression or
thermal st ressors.

145
 -
• Too high or too low viscosity readings may be due to the presence of an incorrect lubricant,
mechanical shearing of the oil and/or the viscosity index improver, oil oxidation, antifreeze
contamination, or an influence from fuel, refrigerant or solve nt contamination.
• Limits for changes in the viscosity depend on the type of lubricant being analyzed but most often
have a marginal limit of approximately 10 percent and a critical limit of approximately 20 percent
higher or lower than the intended viscosity.

5.9.2.1. Viscosity (Engine oils)

In the early days of the IC engine there were only mono-grade oils (e.g., SAE 20, SAE 30, SAE SO) . By
putting an additive into these oils, ca lled a VI improver, multi-grade oils were created . The VI (viscosity
index) improver is a flexib le molecule, rolled up like a ball at low temperature and stretched out like a
string at high temperatures. This allows the oil to remain viscous at high temperatures. One can
recognize multi-grade oils as being represented by two figures. The first figure, fo llowed by the suffix
'W', stands for the viscosity class at low temperature (W = winter). The second figure is the SAE class
at working temperature . Thus, for example, 'SAE 20W-50' means that the viscosity of the oil at low
temperature corresponds with a SAE 20W, and the oil viscosity at 100°C corresponds with a SAE 50.
The table below gives some data on viscosities.

The viscosity of used engine oil is mostly measured at 100°C, and can drop for reasons of fuel dilution,
and/or shea rin g of the VI improver. Viscosity can increase as a result of heavy contamination of the oil
by soot's, and/or oxidation of the oil.

5.9.2.2. Viscosity (Industrial oils)

The viscosity of industrial oils, by contrast, is mostly measure t 40°C, and must correspond with the
ISO table below, i.e., the viscosity of an ISO class oil must 9 within the minimum and maximum for
that class. (Moves are in hand to make the viscosity cl is
statement contain more data, to reflect
changes in the oil in use.) ..
The viscosity can be decreased by adding a more fl id oil, or as a result of high water content, of by
shearing of the VI-improver. The viscosity can be increased by adding a more viscous oil, and by oil
oxidation (e.g. as a result of overheating) .

5.9.3. DILUTION
Dilution of a use engine oil can be mea ured precisely by gas chromatography (GC) or by Fourier
Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) . -~ ore common is the use of the SETA-FLASH tester, where the
flash point of oil is tested by a certain t/n,perature. When a flashpoint is detected, the dilution is heavy
(more than 4%), when not, the dilutiqn is acceptable (less than 4%).
I
It is evident that heavy dilution oft?.·' oil is unfavorable for the engine, since it involves a lower viscosity
and reduces the resistance of the oil film. The principal ca uses of dilution are a defective fue l injection
1
system, a defective air inlet (obstructed air filter), incomplete combustion due to too low a working
temperature, and badly regulat d valves, or insufficient compre.5Sion.

5.9.4. WATER ?ETECTION

f
The water-content of the 0·1 is usually measured by the Aq In this day and age, predictive maintenance
and condition monitoring are necessities for any company that has machinery which is critical in
achieving production goals.
I
I

5.9.5. ACIQ NUMBER {AN)

• Acid number are used to interpret different lubricant and contam inant-related questions. In an oil
analysis test, the acid number is t he concentration of acid in t he oil,

146
 -
• An acid number that is t oo high or too low may be t he result of oil oxidation, the presence of an
incorrect lubricant or add itive depletion . A base number that is too low can indicate high engine
blow-by cond itions (fue l, soot, etc.), the presence of an incorrect lubricant, internal leakage
contamination (glycol) or oi l oxidation from extended oil drain interval s and/or extreme heat.
• The acidity of the oil is measured by titration through a base, and expressed in mg KOH/g.

The figure below shows this graphica lly, showing the evolut ion of TAN as a f unction of time.

•
--==------ ..........- -- - - ------.....,.- ,._....,........__._ __ _ _ _ _ __ ~~-,-·:---= - - ---,

I
l Oxida.tic,o II
!------~-·-- - ------ . .w..:r
, :~....o,"'""'
r''hb rts··sp•.=•u.c...,._ _ _ _ _ _ _....,_........,.~.--_,,_,...,e.._.,._ ____,:

Figure 0-2 : TAN vs. Time

5.9.6. BASE NUMBER (BN)

The alkalinity of an oil is measured by titration through an acid, and expressed in mg KOH/g. The
comparison between the TBN vo lume of the fresh oil and that of the used oil allows the determination
to be made of whether the used oil is still capable of neutralizing acid residues. These acids are
produced by combustion (sulphure in fuel) and oxidation of t he oil and oil adclitives. W hen the oil is in
service too long, the TBN w ill drop significa ntly.

Too low a TBN volume can be due to: heavy oxidation of t he oil, when the oil has been in service for
too long, of the oil level was insufficient, or due to a defective cooling syste m, producing overheating;
use of a fuel containing a high sulphure content; use of an inappropriate lubricant; or contamination
of the oil by fuel or water.

5.9.7. PARTICLE COUNTING

r------------------
~article ca.u.i:i.:ti.A.g..o:i_g_asures the siz~~ ~9 uantity of pa0 icles in the oil. Many techniques can be used
to assess this data, which istyp1cally reported based on ISO 4406:99. This standa rd designates three
numbers separated by a fo rward slash providing a range number that correlates to the particle counts
of particles greater than 4, 6 and 14 microns. To view an illustration of how different particle counts
are assigned specific ISO codes, visit This is an especially useful test for a hydraulic --pystem with high
sensitivity (e.g., servo-valves). lnsuch a text, a certain quantity of hydraulic oil flows-through a sensor,
w here all the insoluble materia l in the oil is detected and counted using the principle of light
absorption . The particles counted are classified cumulatively:

>5µ;>15µ;>25µ;>50µ;>100µ.

Or differentially:

>5-15µ;> 15-25µ;>25-50µ;>50-100µ;>100µ .

The results of particle counting can be expressed according to either ISO 4406 or NAS 1638. According
to ISO 4406, t he results are expressed curn ulatively, and t he ISO classification is deduced from the two
first classes, >5 µ and >15µ.

According to NAS 1638, the res ults are expressed differentially, in five classes. In each class one can
get a NAS quotation, and the NAS code is the figure given to the first class.

147
 ,.

5.9.8. MICROSCOPY
After filtration of a certain amount of oil through a cellulose filter (of 0.8µ), the filter is examined under
an optical microscope (magnitude 100x, 200x), and one is able to distinguish:

• white or brilliant metal particles (demonstrating recent wear)

• black metal particles (already oxidized)
• rust particles
•
• silt (i.e., very small particles below 5µ, responsible for erosive wear)
• silica (sand, dust)
• polymers (from oil additives)
• welds
• paint flakes . r/\'-o/1..
•
5.9.9. FTIR -- ('{I~o , ~ ferc-<->
FTIR is a quick and sophisticated method for determining several oil parameters including
contamination from fuel, water, glycol and soot; oil degradation products like oxides, nitrates and
sulphates; as well as the presence of additives such as zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) and
phenols. The FTIR instrument recognizes each of these characteristics by monitoring the shift in
infrared absorbance at specific or a range of wavenumbers. Many o'f the observed parameters rrray
not be conclusive, so often these results are coupled with other tests and used more as supporting
evidence. Parameters identified by shifts in specific wavenumbers are shown in the table below.
4

148
 Table 0-5: FTIRl

1750 Oxidation (for mineral oils)

.,. ... ·-·-·---- ... .. . . -........ -..
3540
............. _ .. ______ ... Oxidation.... ...(for organic ester)
.. . .. ...
--·----·
815- .......... _________ _ Oxidation (for phosphate ester}
......
.. --·- ....................... __ -- ---
_..,

1150 Sulfation (possibly from high-suitur

fuel contamination)
-· ---------------- - ·- -------~- ...... ··--- ... -----·-- ·
1630 Nitration {typically with natural gas
engines)
3625 \lVater ingression (for organic ester)
... - ......... ... • •• ¥• • ...
' .... "' .
3400 Water ingression (for mineral oils)
-- ··-·-~-·-~~--·-·-·----------~~-·ft·-----~~·----------·- --~.
2000 .Soot (combustion chamber blow-by -
contamination)
880t 3400,
1040, 1080 Glycol ingression
---··- ~·--· ···---·-- ··-- --~-~·~-- ···-
800.... __ ________ --Diesel
--·- ,.._,.
fuel
· ·----
...,
ingression
... - --- ................ ____
.... ,.. ______ ..,. __ ,.__ ... ..
750 Gasoline fuel ingression ~
.. ......... - . . ................ " ..
795 .. 815 Jet fuel ingression
·-- -· · --·-----·-----·--·------ . ~*-----· . -----~- --··
3650 Phenol inhibitors additive depletion
----·------------ -· - --..-. -~- ........ __ - ... -·----····-- ...
980 ZOOP anti·wear/ antioxidant additive
depletion

5.9.10. ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS

• Elemental analysis works on the principles of atomic emission spect roscopy (AES), which is
sometimes called wear metal analysis. This technology is designed to detect the concentration of
wear metals, contaminants or additive elements within the oil. The two most common types of
atomic emission spectroscopy are rotating disc electrode (RDE) and inductively coupled plasma
(ICP). Both of these methods have limitati,ons in analyzin~ particle sizes, with RDE limited to
particles less than 8 to 10 microns and l~P limited to particles less than 3 microns. Nevertheless,
they are useful for providing trend d 9ta. Possible sources of many common elements are shown
in the table below.
/
• The best way to monitor this ty J?Je of data is to first determine what is expected to be in the oil. An
effective oil analysis report y.,ill provide reference data for the new oil so any amounts of additive
elements can be easily djstinguished from those of contaminants. Also, because many types of
elements should be exf{ected at some level (even contaminants in certain environments), it is
better to analyze tren ds ra't her than focus on any specific measurement of elemental analysis data .

149
.r

Table 0-6: Element Analysis tablel

Aluminuitn Pistons. bearings, pun1p·s, thrust washers

----····- .- .~ ... 11- ............. _._
• 4 •

Bearings, g reas,e
Antimony
. ""' ....... -- -
... - - . ... .
Barium Rust and oxidatiori inhibiitor additives. grease
. ----~ - . . .. - ...
Anti-corrosion additives in coolant. dust. 1

Boron
v,ater
---·------- ·----------------------------------------------·
Calcium Detergent/dispersant add~tlves
------ ------------- ---- -- ------------------------------- -·
Chromium Piston rings io internal combustion engines
·--------N-----------------~---- ----~~---------- ----------~
Bearings, brass/ bronzre alloys, bushings,
Copper
thrust V·Jasher s
• . .... ~---·· .... . ~ .. - .
.... _ _._ ...... ~

Shafts, rolli ng- element bearings. cyltnders.

Iron
gears, piston rings
----------------------------------- --- --- ------------------
Lead Bearings, f uel adrditives, ant i-v.rear additives
~--- --- ------------ -------- ------ - ~---- -------------------··
Lithium Grease. additives,
4- --- ----------------------------- ------- ----- --------------
f\~agnesium Transmissions. dete:rge:rit additives
--------------------- ---------- --------------- --------· ---- -
Piston rings, elec.tric motors.
1
extreme-pres-
f\~o lyb-d enun1
sure additives
·-·~....,~ ........ _ ..... ···---··-- ,.. - - . . - .... .r . . . . . . . . . ,,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ""

t,!i cke l '

Bearrngsi valve tr ain~turbine blades
Anti-wear additives. extreme- pressure gear
Phosphorus addiUves
-------------------- ------- ----- ------ ------- -------------·
Potassium Coolant additives
--- --------------------------------------------------------
Silver Bearing cages (plating). gear teeth. shafts
----------------------------------------------------------·
Si licon Oust/ dirt , defoamant .additives
·--- -------------------- --~-------------------------·-----·
Sodium Detergel)t or- cool,an'l add1Uves
-•-•--•--••••-•--•--•-•-••--------~-M-•~--------• a •---·-·

Tin - ... -- - ---- - Journai

-- ... ____ bearings.
. - .... ,_.,._.,
bearing... _.,. ca,
ges, solder --,,;--
____________
Titanium Bearing huh, com pressor b.lades
- ··-· -· - ........... . .
Zinc Neoprene seals. rg reas,e. ant i-v1ear additives

5.9.11 . MOISTURE ANALYSIS

Moisture content within an oil sample is commonly measured ~ith tb.e Ka r l Fischer titration test. This
test reports results in parts per million (ppm), although data is often shown in percentages. It can find
-
water in all three forms: dissolved, emulsified and free . The crackle test and hot-plate test are non-
instrument moisture tests for screening before the Karl Fischer method is used. Possible reasons for a
moisture reading being too high or too low would include water ingression f ro m open hatches or
breathers, internal condensation.

5.10. OIL ANALYSIS REPORTS

(See oil analyses report later in this Chapter of the notes)

The first thing to check o n an oil analysis report is the info~ation about the custom er, originating
piece of equipment and lubricant (see Section A of the sample report) . Including these details is the
customer's responsibility. Without this information, the effectiveness of the re port will be diminished.
Knowing which piece of equipment the oil was sa mpled f rom affects the ability to ide ntify potential
sources of the measured parameters, especially wear particles. For example, t he originating piece of
eq uipment can help associate reported wear particles with certain internal components. The lubricant
information can provide a baseline for several parameters, such as the expected viscosity grade, active
additives and acid/base number levels. These details may seem straightforward but are often
forgotten or illegible on the oil sample identification label or request form.

150
 The next section (Section B) of the oil analysis report to examine is the elemental analysis or FTIR
breakdown. This data can help identify contamination, wear metals and additives present within the
oil. These parameters are reported in parts per million (ppm). Nevertheless, this does no.t mean a
contam ination particle, for example, can only be indicated by sodium, potassium or silicon spikes. In
the example above, the rise in silicon and aluminum could potentially indicate dust/dirt cont amination
as the root ca use. One likely explanation for these spikes is t hat as dirt (silicon) enters the oil from an
external source, three-body abrasion occurs within t he machine, causing wear debris including
aluminum, iron and nickel to increas~.

With a better understanding of the m eta llurgy within the system's components, any spikes in wear
metals can be better associated, allowing a proper conclusion as to which internal components are
experiencing wear. Keep in mind that for trend analysis, it is important that samples are taken at an
appropriate and uninterrupted frequency.

With elemental data related to contaminants and wear metals, alarms are set for upward trends in the
data . For elemental data pertaining to additives, alarms are set for downward trends. Having a baseline
of new lubricant reference data is critical in assessing which additives are expected and at what levels.
These baselines are then established to help determine any significant reduction in specific additives.

Another section of the oil analysis report presents previously identified sample information from the
customer such as oil manufacturer, brand, viscosity grade and in-service time, as well as if an oil change
has been performed. This is important data that can provide an explanation for what could be false
positives in ,alarming data changes.

The "P..hysical tests"

·- -- section of a report offers details on viscosity at both 40 degrees C and 100 degrees
C, along with the viscosity index and perce ntage of water. For common industrial oils, the viscosity
measurement at 40 degrees C is u~ua lly given, since this correlates to the oil's ISO viscosit y grade . If
the viscosity index must also be calculated, such as for engine oil, then these additional viscosity
m easurements will be identified . The viscosity for engine crankcase oils is typically reported at 100
degrees C.

Water conta mination, which commonly is measu red by t he Karl Fischer test, is presented in
percentages or ppm. While some systems are expected to have high levels of water (more t han 10,000
ppm or 10 percent), t he typical alarm limits for most equipment are between SO to 300 ppm.

)I The "additional tests" section shows two final tests: acid number (AN) and particle size distribution
(aka, particle count). When analyzing the acid number, you should have both a reference value and
the ability to trend from past analysis. The acid number often will jump considerably at some point.
This may be your best indicator for when the oil is oxidizing rapidly and should be changed.
\
The last section of the oil analysis report generally provides written results for each of the final few
test samples along with recommendations for required actions. Typically, these recommendations are
entered manually by laboratory personnel and based on information provided by the customer and
the data collected in the lab. If there is an explanation for the data that stems from something not
explicitly stated by the customer, the results must be reinterpreted by those familiar with the
machine's history of environmental and operating conditions. Understanding the information given
here is critical. Remember, there is always an explanation for each exceeded limit, and the root cause
should be investigated .

In addition to the raw data shown throughout the oil analysis report, graphs can help illustrate notable
trends in the data. Below is an example of trended data points from analyzed data, with the water test
having the most not able unfavorable spike. Along with the trend data, graphs should show typical
averages, warning (marginal) limits and alarm (critical) limits. These limits should be modified
depending on the type of data co llected; the type of lubricant and the machine's known operating
conditions.

151
 Standard alarm limits will be set by the oil analysis laboratory. However, if there is any reason to adjust
these limits higher or lower, they should be identified properly. Examples of limits that should be
lowered would be those for highly critical assets or assets that are consistently healthy. A small spike
in data would be cause to run an exception test or an immediate second sample for analysis. In such
cases, a second sample would ensure the data received is representative of the oil conditions and not
simply a human error in sampling or analysis. If exception tests are needed, the chart above shows
which tests would be appropriate when a given routine test limit has been exceeded.

Typically, an oil analysis report comes with a written summary section that attempts to put the results
•
and re commendations in layman's terms. However, since the laboratory has never seen the machine
or know its full history, these recommended actions are mostly generic and not precisely tailored to
your individual circumstances. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the plant personnel who receive the
lab report to take the proper action based on all known facts about the machine, the environment and
recent lubrication tasks performed.

\ 5.11. BENEFITS OF OIL ANALYSES

Each business has different reasons for implementing an oil analysis program. In order to best match
the requirements of an oil analysis program for your business, the following can-be considered.

An assessment of the oil condition rev~als whether the system oil is ready to be changed, or if it is fit
for further service. Save money by maximizing your oil change
,,_._ out intervals
-;--- with the confidence that
_,_,..,,,,..--i
condition monitoring provides. Detecti9n of ingress of contaminants from the manufacturing
environment, including process contam'inants, dirt, and water alerts you in time to perform filtration
service, saving the oil and avoiding unnecessary wear. When the oil condition and contamination is
reduced by routine monitoring, system wear will be minimized. Oil's analysis can detect subtle /( hanges
in the levels of wear metals present in the system oil. Failures due to worn out components can be
avoided long before those components are worn out of specification.

' 5.11.1. THE BENEFITS OF OIL ANALYSIS c_~V~~-

0 j
'
S --- \JV" s.c ~ v \
• Reduction in unscheduled downtime ~ecJvr-tz::· 1 ""' t'(\CA \ ~ t . ~ .("c· ~v'I 1,.AC-
• Effective maintenance scheduling _ <e,~~~ ,ve \ tubt \ " ~ .
• Improved equipment reliability +i .. _,.,_ f D·
\. ,
- "t-
r,uw'--' · v
• Reduction in maintenance costs - Y"("(~ ~
l)~veAl.-'1-.f\- \""' (VL
~t,<l'\<..E'
o.... ,,~
cc&t-J, ·
• Maximization of oil change _ o ut intervals - " O \ \ C. t.Go..a~ V ·vV'-'-
L

• M in i mi zatio n of installation errors ffi ~('(1((~~ ~ ()

Reduction in machine power consumption .--· l~~ \ rVl !~ (lc~\(.h'") er.
•
t I ~~~ t A- L~ ~
5.12. INITIALIZING AN OIL ANALYSES PROGRAM fo~ Ce-~vfV'~
Laying the ground work before starting your oil analysis program will ensure that your program runs
with a minimum of problems and effort and will ensure that you maximize your return on this
investment. The following outline will guide you in setting up an oil analysis program.

5.12.1. SET PROGRAM TARGETS AND GOALS

Setting program goals is paramount to a successful Oil Analysis Program. Doing so ensures that you
are collecting the appropriate data to meet your requirements and measure your progress.
i
Every site or company has many reasons for having a maintenance program . Essentially they generally r
resolve to be either safety or cost (efficiency) driven. An oil program is controlled by these principles. t
Safety is normally referring to the prevention of injury or loss of life during daily operations or during
maintenance periods. Cost has many sub groups including availability of equipment, control of down-
time, limiting the amount of onsite spare parts and support staff, and simply lowering maintenance
costs.

152
•
 The question revolves around " what tests should I do or do I need to do for each unit?" This question
brings us back to cost and safety. The program must be cost efficient and cover most probable or
anticipated failure modes. Research and investigation are the most important backgrol}nd tools.
Armed with an idea of how much you can expect to spend on a program and what results can be
expected from a certain test method are the goal. Many papers, documents, and case studies give
indications as to how much a firm should invest into proactive maintenance depending on the industry
involved.

A facility normally has more than one unit or type of eq uipment that may be considered for predictive
mainte nance. Determination is necessary if a proactive maintenance program is cost efficient and in
the company's best interests (safety and cost). Therefore, each units needs will determine what type
and cost is to be spent.

5.12.2. DETERMINE RESPONSIBILITIES

Your oil analysis program may be managed by one individual or by several people. The key is to ensure
that for each of the areas defined in the oil analysis cycle that you have assigned an individual that is
responsible for the task.

If we look at the oil analysis cycle, we see that we will require persons to:

• purchase oil analysis kits

• take oil samples
• review oil analysis reports
• assign corrective actions
• confirm corrective actions
• perform periodic program review

It is also important to ensure that the individuals involved have sufficient authority to carry out their
functions. For instance, if I am responsible for assigning corrective action, then I will need to have the
authority to ensure that those actions get carried out.

Some of the tasks of an oil analysis program can be carried out by external companies. Today there
exist services that will do everything from taking oil samples to reviewing the effectiveness of your
program.

5.12.3. DETERMINE EQUIPMENT TO BE SAMPLED

Determine the scope of your initia l oil analysis program. Are you going to sample every piece of
lubricated equipment, or does your maintenance department adhere to Reliability-Centered
Maintenance (RCM) principles? Your oil analysis program can start out modestly, and then grow in
accordance with your experience in managing the program.

Once you have determined what wi ll be sampled you must then determine when they will be sampled.
Setting up proper sampling frequencies will ensure that you will be able to catch imminent failures and
signs of oil over-extension in time to take scheduled action.

--~5.12.4. SET-UP SAMPLING POINTS

There are severa I methods of taking oil samples, however, some are better than others. Some methods
may obscure useful data so we recommend setting up sampling ports on all equipment, and providing
training to the people who will be taking the samples on the do's and do not's of oil sampling .

• 153
5.12.5. COLLECT M·ACHINE INFORMATION
Providing the required equipment information is esse11tial to the success of your Oil Analysis Program.
Keeping equipment information up-to-date and communication with the oil analysis laboratory are
essential ingredients in your OA program. //
/

The following equipment information in es ehtial :

7
•
•
•
Equipment Identification
Component Type
Lubricant Brand and Grade /
/'
• Oil Reservoir Capacity //
• Component Make and Model
1
• Filter/Filtration Type anei Micron Rating
• Operating Temperatu !e and Pressure

Providing the laboratt with the necessary information ensures rapid diagnosis and accurate
recommendations. Proper Equipment Information will ensure:

• Quick turn-around on sample diagnosis

• Proper QC on laboratory testing
• Meaningful and detailed recommendations

5.12.6. SELECT LABORATORY

When se lecting a laboratory, many factors can come into play such as location, pricing, quality of work
etc.
'

5.13. THE IMPORTANCE OF TAKING OIL SAMPLES

There are different methods and tools_emplo.yedioiake a.s~mple of oil fro01 machine compartments.
The most common methods are the vacuum pumQ...!!lethod, drain stream method, and Pauge .plug
method . I"". -· ---

5.13.1. VACUUM PUMP METHOD

The vacuum pump sampling method is the most popular method for sampling the various
compartments of mobile equipme0t. Samples may ~e taken from transmissions, engines and other
machine compartment_s by putting the plastic tubing into the dipstick or oil access opening and using
a vacuum pump to draw oil into the sample bottle.

Figure 0-3 : Typical Vacuum pump

5.13.1.1. Sampling Procedure (Vacuuh1 Pump)

• With the engine shut off, insert the two (2) meter piece of clean plastic tubing through the head
of the sampling gun.

154

:ii~, . ',C .
 ._

• The tubing should be cut at a 45° angle for easy insertion through the cap.
• Next, tighten the sampling bottle onto the cap of the vacuum pump.
• For compartments with a dipstick, the tubing should be cut to the length of the dipstick.
• For compartments without a dipstick, such as gearboxes, final drives and other fixed or mobile
equipment, the tubing should be cut to length as necessary.
• Several light pulls of the handle will fill the bottle.
• In order to obtain a homogenous sample it is essential that the oil be at operating temperature.
• The tubing must be used only once and then discarded.
• When you discard the tubing, do not pull the tubing back through the top of the pump, as this
could contaminate subsequent samples. Instead, cut the tubing just above the top of the pump,
and then pull the remaining piece (that was in the bottle) from the bottom of the pump .

'\ \
,

Figure 0-4: Plastic Tubing for taking samples with a vacuum pump

5.13.2. DRAIN STREAM METHOD

This method requires care on the part of the serviceman, as external dirt entry is a likely possibility. An
incorrect diagnosis will be the result. The sample must be taken from the oil when it is hot and well
mixed as i~ flows from the compartment drain. The initial and final parts of the oil stream must not be
used, as this oil is not typical of the oil in the system.

·--
, ... ,~..

) er\\

Q}l'Y1e:~~ -
Bottle
Lid
\roe uuY11 fv-np ft\~

/p;i,n f{)pµ
S~ttL

u~ riva r11e&J
•
Figure 0-5: Drain Port sampling from a reservoir into the sample bottle

• 155
 5.13.2.1. Sampling Procedure (Drain Stream .00:ethod)
• All dirt and debris from around the drain plug must be cleared before the sample is taken.
Compressed air can be used for this.
• Remove the drain plug and allow the oil to start draining.
• Once the flow is clear of visible debris the bottle can be placed under the flow and filled to the
recommended level.
• This bottle must be capped immediately.
• Do not take the oil sample from the drain container

... 5.13.3 . GAUGE P U.G-N!E..T.HOD

This method is most commonly used in fixed plant applications. It is easier, cleaner and faster than
other methods of oil sampling, and it is generally possible to obtain the sample while the machine is
running. This produces a fairly consistent and homogenous sample that is representative of the oil in
I

the compartment.

Figure 0 -6: A typical gauge plug with a dust cap. \

\
5.13.4. GAUGE PLUG LOCATION
\
A gauge plug is permanently installed in the oil line or in an oil gallery. The ideal location of the gauge
plug will change with the machine model, but in all installations, the gauge plug should be installed in
a location where it is easy to access away from any moving parts, protected from damage, and before
any in-line filtration system (if applica,). \

\ - Ou r\-0 t7
\

' \ ic-i~l--e_ ~
\ •
, __ t"cv-e.- p-er~
\
'·

\
Figure 0-7 : Hose assembly

A hose assembly for taking samples in conjunction with a gauge plug. The hose pictured here is for low
pressure systems. Hose assemblies with a threaded connector are also available for high pressure
sampling. ,

5.13.4.1. Sampling Procedure (with Gauge Plug) I

• Step 1 Remove dust cap from the gauge plug on the machine, and with the engine at low idle,
purge the gauge plug by discharging a small amount in a waste container. The sample bottle should
not b~ used for purging.
156
 • Step 2 Push the hose assembly onto the gauge plug and fill the bottle to the indicated level.
Disconnect probe and replace the dust cap on the gauge plug. When taking samples from
additional equipment ensure that the hose assembly has been thoroughly flushed with used oil
from the equipment before taking a representative sample .

. 5.13.5. GENERAL SAMPLING GUIDELINES

• Oil sampling must be done during normal ope ration of the eq uipment or within 30 minutes after
. machine shut down. This ensures that the oil is warm and truly representative of the cond itions
within the compartme nt.
• When using the vacuum pump method, ensure that the sample is drawn from about t he mid-point
or within the working level of the oil in the compartment and not from the bottom where sludge
accumulates.
• It is important that the sample container is totally clean and free of moisture before the sample is
taken.
• The container should be properly sealed to prevent any contamination or loss of oil during transit.
• Ensure the sample information sheet is completely and correctly filled out.

5.13.6. MORE SAMPLING TIPS

However, the ana,~i~ of a sample greatly depends on the quality of the sample itself. A high-quality
sample translates into one that is rich with data and free from noise. The content of this article is
nothing new. Dozens (if not hundreds) .of articles, papers and books have had some advice for us to
follow when extracting a sample of oil from a machine for analysis. However, as an industry, we don't
seem to get it right.

The same rul es for oil sampling still apply, just like they always did. Here is the most rece nt do and do-
not-do list for oil sampling from my .perspective.
\
\

1) DO sample from running machines. DO NOT sample "cold" systems. This rule goes beyond simply
starting the machine to take the sample. The ideology behind oil analysis is to capture a "snapshot" of
the system at the time of sampling. The ~ing of the sampling should be when the system is under
the greatest amount of stress. Typically, th\ best time to sample a system is when the system is under
normal working load and normal conditions,. This can be a tricky task when sampling from a system
that continuously cycles during normal prciquction, such as the hydraulic system on an injection
molding machine . It's under these conditions,that
I
we'll capture a sample that best represents the
machine conditions most likely to cause acceler~ted wear.
\
2) DO sample upstream of filters and qownstream.of machine components. Filters are designed to pull
out wear debris and contaminants, solampling downstream of these data-strippers provides no value.
\

However, taking a sample before and after a filter for a simple particle count will allow you to see how
well the filter is currently operating. Obviously, we 'expect the particle count before the filter to be
higher than after the filter. If it's not, it's time to change the filter. Condition-based filter changes can
be very important for sensitive systems and expensive filters.

3) DO create specific written procedures for each system sampled. DO NOT change sampling methods
or locations. Everything we do in oil analysis and machinery lubrication should have a detailed
procedure to back up the task. Each maintenance point in the plant should have specific and unique
procedures detailing who, what, where, when and how. Oil sampling procedures are no different. We
need to identify the sample location, the amount of flush volume, the frequency of sampling, the
timing within a cycle to sample, and indicate what tools and accessories to use on that specific sample
point based on lubricant type, pressure and amount of fluid requi red.

4) DO ensure that sampling va lves and sampling devices are thoroughly flushed prior to taking the
sample. DO NOT use dirty sampling equipment or reuse sample tubing. Cross-contamination has
always been a problem in oil sampling.
157

•
 The truth of the matter is that flushing is an important task that is often overlooked. Failure to flush
the sample location properly will produce a sample with a high degree of noise. Flushing prior to
sampling needs to account for the amount of dead space between the sample valve and the active
system multiplied by a factor of 10. If there is a run of pipe 12 inches long between the sample valve
and the active system that holds one fluid ounce of oil, you need to flush a minimum of 10 fluid ounces
before taking the sample for analysis. Flushing the dead space also will flush your other accessories
such as your sample valve adapter and new tubing.

5) DO ensure that samples are taken at proper frequencies. DO NOT sample "as time permits." Many
of those responsible for taking oil samples rarely see the results of the analysis. One of the most
powerful aspects of oil analysis is identifying a change in the baseline of a sample and understanding
the rate at which the change has occurred. For example, a sample of new oil should have zero parts
per million (ppm) of iron when tested as the baseline. As regular sampling and analysis continues, we
may see the iron level increase. An increase of 10 or 12 ppm per sample may be considered critical;
however, if the frequency is not consistent, what is considered normal becomes very subjective. If our
frequency of sampling is 12 months, a rise in iron of 12 ppm isn't a major cause of concern. If our
frequency is weekly, a rise in iron of 12 ppm is very concerning. Setting up the appropriate sampling
frequency and adhering to it will allow for precise analysis and sound maintenance decisions.

6) DO forward samples immediately to the oil analysis lab after sampling. DO NOT wait more than 24
hours to send samples out. As mentioned earlier, oil sampling is much like taking a snapshot of your
system at a point in time. The health of a lubricated system can change dramatically in a very short
period of time. If a problem is detected in a system, the earlier it is detected, the less catastrophic
potential it may have. Jumping on a problem early will not only allow you time to plan for a repair, but
the repair wiU=potentially be less significant.

)<.5.14. SCORING THE CONDITION-BASED OIL CHANGE

'\ - DECISION
There are many factors that influence the decision of when to change oil. And in many cases, the oil
may never need to be changed . With increasing pressure to drive down operating costs in order to
boost operating profits, there is real need to define an optimum approach.
- '

In the past, many organizations have exclusi.v ely used int_erval-based oil change critfilia. The interval
was based on an assortment of considerations, such as the calendar, operating hours (meter), fuel
consumed, miles/kilometers driven or production/work performed. In many cases, an approaching
outage and shutdown have a drjving influence- on the decision, coming from the desire to avoid
unscheduled downtime later or t be neeJl_~ aoge lubricant~__:on the run". In addition, new
equipment still under warranty ma~e OEM-~gecifj_ed lyp~ .f h_~~n.g.e..:..ou.Uotervalswhich can make
the m~~Jfil:..j§_SS,..? y_bJective-4~Jc1.Q.~Qpt~mi.zedJ.. t
_ _ _ ...,d"'

The condition-based oil change strategy is indeed important in reducing oil consumption and
associated costs, however, there are many situations with certain machines when maintenance and
reliability are not "optimized" when the strategy is applied. In order to perform a condition-based oil
change, there is added cost to monitoring the conditions, namely oil analysis. There may also be added
risk from running the oil too close to end-of-life, which could lead to such challenges as the following:

1. A sudden and inconvenient need to change the oil.

J
2. Wear and damage to the machine.
-
C

3. The need to perform an expensive system flush prior to introducing new lubrica nts (resulting from
oxidation of the belatedly changed oil). ,, E

Regardless, for most companies and machinery applications, the benefits of the condition-based oil ~
change far outweigh the risk and cost. , f;

158

•
 This article presents a systematic approach to making a maintenance and reliability optimization
decision with respect to interval-based vs. condition-based oil changes. Several factors and elements
of the decision are presented in the form of a worksheet or scorecard. The approach weighs the factors
according to estimated importance. This leads to a total score, which is used as a tool to steer the
decision. d r/ p
·5.14.1. HIDDEN COST OF AN OIL CHANGE ,_ )cg-3
.....---..,--.-
c:::::::=:
There are many hidden costs of an oil change that have influenced companies to find a more efficient
approach to keeping oil healthy and r~liable. A recent study on the subject found that the true cost of
an oil change frequentJ.v-
-=-- exceeded 40 times the cost of the oil itself. 2 Following are a few of th e many
factors that co.ntribute to the true cost of an oil change:

Lost Production. Machine downtime and longer outage intervals needed to change oil, flush and
prepare equipment to return to service. \ o@c-

work orders, documentation, et c. F~e-{·

Paperwork. Includes maintenance schedules, data entry, manpower planning, inventory management,
~

Labor, Supetvision, Benefits. The time required to drain a compartment, transfer lubricant and
associated equipment to the machine, flush, fill and prepare the machine for service. t~
l4\co r J svre<V~l-lM I ~ 1 _ , ,
Handling and Storage Costs. For lubricants and associated equipment (filters, funnels, drum pumps,
etc.). ~Vt_c J\l\~ ~ ~ c~ t
Purchasing an,,st-tnspection. There are many real costs associated with purchasing lubricants. Also, new
lubricant deliveries involve inspection, labeling, stocking and more paperwork. Inspection often
involves lab costs. p~.~ 1l, \ \A.{ Y,~lM
Disposal Cost. Relates to solid and liquid waste resulting from disposal of oil, sludge, rags and cleaning
equipment. Q, ~re~<.J (CA t
...If it Ain't Broke . .. Don't Fix It. Often a lubricant remains serviceab le for long periods of time without
a drain and new lubricant charge (influenced by makeup rates, operating temperature, fluid volume,
cleanliness, etc.). Draining an oil and adding new lubricants into a system presents risks such as:
1. Introduction of a wrong oil. , _0;1 c~~-G
2. Introduction of a contaminated oil. c... / U:~ f-- . _-V
3. Introduction of an incompatible oil (with residual oil remaining in the machine).
(..._ f' vr.,f~ ~L

4. Re-suspension of settled contaminants in tank/sump floors and inactive zones.

5. Human agency failures (dead-heading pumps on restart, cleaning solvents not removed,
introduction of contaminants, loosening of machine parts, etc.).

When compiled, with real cost and associated risk of an oil cha nge factored in, it is often wise to let
the conditions of the oil drive the decision.

Side Benefits to Monitoring Remaining Useful Life of Lubricant using oil analysis to monitor the
remaining useful life of lubricants is often thought of as its primary application . However, as many
proponents of oil analysis will profess, there is an assortment of other important benefits as well. Afte·r
all, when monitoring the oil you should, at the same time, be monitoring other vital signs of machine
hea lth and oil condition including wear, lubricant contamination, wrong oil, lubricant compatibility,
etc.
•
Not all in-service lubricants have a well-defined and predictable wear-out rate or mean time between
failures (MTBF). •

) r~
I

: 159

~---
/
/
....

The reason for such randomness stems from varying lubricant quality, changing contaminant
ingression rates, application-dependent duty cycle, seasona l ambient conditions and other forcing
functions of degradation. If an interval-based oil change criterion was used with a reasonable safety
margin (confidence level: changing the oil ahead of actual need more than 95 percent of tile time) then
on average, many lubricants would be changed when the remaining useful life is more than 50 percent
of the new oil. Naturally, such guesswork results in wasted effort, time, money and resources in the
same proportion.

Other Factors to Reducing Lubricant Consumption. The act of effectively performing a co ndition-based
oil change helps schedule the oil change with greater precision, such as not too late, not too soon. In
essence, the oil communicates that it is "tired" and needs to "retire", but we must be tuned to its
message. Whi le timing is important, perhaps more important is the strategy to proactively improve
conditions that extend oil life. When applied correctly, a proactive maintenance strategy can double
or triple lubricant service life. This is achieved by reducing the conditions that stress an oil (cleaner,
cooler, dryer, etc.).

Table 0-7: Trend Oil Consumption Ration

10,000
4,500 gal 2,100gal 1,420 gal
gal
-..
-~
4,200
4,600 gal I 4,600 gal 4,800 gal j
gal
I---··-·-· ··-··-·-·..-·
.. I
2.4 0.98 0.49 0.29

j Consumption Ratio = Seek 50°/o reduction each year until a

j Annual Oil consumption ratio of less than 0.1 is
I Purchases/Machine Charge achieved . Varies by industry and age of
Volume machine.
Many people monitor improvements in lubricant consumption by monitoring the Lubricant
Consumption Ratio (LCR). LCR is the ratio of the amount of lubricants and hydraulic fluids added to
machines each year divided by the amount of fluids these machines hold. By applying oil analysis along
with proactive maintenance, a significant downward trend in consumption ratio is generally achieved
in the first several years. An example of how to achieve improvements in consumption ratio is
presented in the Tutuka Power Station case study in the May-June 2001 issue of Practicing Oil Analysis
~

magazine.
\ 52,,~\
5.14.2. CONDITION-BASED OIL CHANGE SCORECARD
Because the decision to sc_~-e ~_oil chan~s, either interval-based or on-condition, must take into
consideration a number of factors, a worksheet or scorecard has been developed to guide the process.
This is referred to as the Condition-Based Oil Change Scorecard. C%:7

•
 - ~ . [CA.fa\.. ~~
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Figure 0-8: Condition Based Oil Change Scorecard

The Scorecard deploys a scoring system that enables the user to simply complete a series of nine
questions, which when totaled, give a composite score. A composite score of 100 or more suggests
that the machine is a good candidate to run oil changes based on- condition. A score greater than 200
gives near certainty to the decision. Following is a discussion of the rational · · ----
elements:

1. Lubricant Volume. If time and effort must be exerted to extend oil drains using a condition-based
strategy, the total amount of lubricant involved needs to be factored in. If the extended drain saves
very little fluid (small oil compartment) the cost may not be justified, even if the benefits were
extended threefold . Read on, because there are other cost/benefit factors to consider.

2. ,Makeup Rate. Lubricant compartments that undergo high makeup rates due to leakag~,~oil burn
or other causes of flu rd loss may never need to be changed. The new makeup fluid not only introduces
r·- - -- - ._.,
more additive to the system .. ..,,,,,.
b__ut-also dilutes
- _... -
!h.e_...1:oncentration....._gf contamination (water, dirt, etc.),
acids and other degradation precursors.

3. Lubricant Cost. The more expensive a lubricant, the greater the motivation to save the oil from a
premature drain. Many specia lty and synthetic fluids can cost 10 times more than their less expensive
counterparts. Because one of the driving factors for purchasing specialty lubricants is long life, a more
precise decision in timing the oil change is justified in most cases. Reclaiming used oils is also a
consideration here. The cost of reclaiming and reconstructing additives, when needed, is in essence an
oil change but at a lower cost (potentially) than the physical replacement of the oil. A partial drain
(bleed and feed) is yet another consideration .

4. No lubricant Costs. There are many cost factors in perform ing an oil change that go beyond the
cost of the oil itself. I hese need to be weighed in terms of the benefit coming from more precisely
selected lube change intervals using the on-condition strateiy. For typical examples of such costs, refer
to the above list in the article " Hidden Costs of an Oil Change" .

5. ~hine ~ssibil ity. ~any m achine lubricant compartments, including fill and drain ports, are
not accessible fo r routine maintenance.

161
 In such cases, the need for access must be planned well in advance, keeping _the freq uency to a
minimum. The use of oil analysis t o forecast oil change needs to avoid unnecessary change-outs could
be of considerable practical benefit.
.
6 . .OEM Recomm.ended-Change...lsAtetval. Many OEMs have precise guide lines for when lubricants
shou ld be serviced. Others offer minima l advice. Because machine operating conditions (loads, speeds,
- temperatures, etc.) vary considerably, the service manual recommendation w ill often be on the far
side of co nservatism . This ca n lead t o repeated premature interva l-based scheduled cha nges. This part
of the scorecard favors conditi.o n-based o il changes when the OEM advises longer change-out
•
inte rvals. In such case, the re is a more manageable timeline to monitor the oil and plan lubrication
work orders.

7. Oi! Analysts-Availab1hty. W hile oil analysis is highly accessible for most organizations, there are
many instances when machine lubes cannot be sampled or convenient laborat ory analysis is not
available. This may be due to geography (remote locations of equipment), manpower issues or a host
of other reasons. Clearly, the more frequently oil analysis can be performed, t he more effective and
dependable the on-condition oil change strategy can be. Onsite oil analysis offers clear benefits here

--
f
but the cost and manpower to provide e service onsite can, in cases, be a significant offset.

8,. Penalty of Failure. For machines that present high safety risk or downtime cost in t he instance of
operational failure, it may be prohibitive to switch entirely from interval-based programs. In these
cases, the benefits don't outweigh the ri sks. Often, when a high degree of reliability is desired, the best
plan is a combination of condition-based and interval-based - the oil is changed whenever either first
occu rs. Because oils can occasionally experience premature failure or a wrong lubricant is introduced,
such a combined strategy can make the best business sense.

-
9. Quality of Filtrati~ Proactive maintenance is what gives lubricants longer and more reliable
.
service life . When lubricants are routinely kept clean, dry add itives last longer and lubricated surfaces
are less challenged (corrosion, abrasion, etc.). High quality contam ination control improves the
opportunity t o extend and plan drain intervals on condition. In contrast, lubrica nts loaded with
contaminants due to high ingression or poor filtration w ill often need to be changed to avoid distress
to surfaces, regardless of whether other fluid properties have degraded. In such cases, the oil change
becomes the default maintenance procedure for eradicating dirt and water from the machine - not
exactly idea l, but often the only practical plan. Also wo rt h consideration is t he concern that new
lubricants may not be much clea ner than the lubricant being replaced. Moreover, t he cost of filtration
is a factor as well.

Summary -
There are many facto rs and considerations to making the oil change decision. For critica l machinery
and in cases when the cost of the oil change is high, there is real need to challenge the norm and past
I
assumptions. The scorecard presented in this article offers a systematic process to efficiently use a c::

customized weighing process to arrive at a near optimal decision .

5.15. ~ WHAT TO LOOK FOR W EN REVIEWING AN OIL

ANALYSIS REPORT f<------
1nterpreting an oil ana lysis report can be overwhelming to t he untrained eye. Oil analysis isn't cheap,
and neither is the equipment on which it reveals information. Every year, industrial pla nts pay millions
of dollars for commercial laboratories to perform analysis on used and new oil samples. Unfortunately,
a m_ajorit y of the plant personnel who receive these lab reports do not understand the basics of how
to interpret them.

1. Read and check the data on the oil type and machine type for accuracy.
2. Verify that reference data is shown for new oil conditions and that t rend data is at an understood
freq uency (preferably consistent).
3. Check the measured viscosity.
162

- -

~ -
 4. Verify elementa l wea r data and compare to reference and trended data. Use a wear debris atlas
to match elements to their possible source.
5. Check the elemental additive data and compare to reference and trended data. Use _a wear debris
atlas to match elem ents to their possible source.
6.Verify elemental conta mination data along with particle counts and compare with reference and
trended data. Use a wea r debris atlas to match elements to their possible source.
7. Check mo isture/ water levels and compare to reference and trended data.
8. Verify the acid number and base number and compare to reference and trended data.
9. Check other analyzed data such as FTIR oxidation levels, flash point, demulsibility, analytical
ferrography, etc.
10. Compare any groups of data that are trending toward unacceptable levels and make justifications
based on these tre nds.
11. Compare written results and recommendations with known information on the oil and machine,
such as recent changes in environmental or operational conditions or recent oil changes/filtration.
12. Review alarm limits and make adjustments based on the new information.

Typically, 13n oil analysis report comes with a written summary section that attempts to put the results
and recorlnmendations in layman's terms. However, since the laboratory has never seen the machine
or know its full history, these recommended actions are mostly generic and not precisely ta ilored to
your individual circumstances. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the plant personnel who receive the
lab report to take the proper action based on all known facts about the machine, the environment and
recent lubrication tasks performed.

5.15.1. INTERPRETING OIL ANALYSIS REPORTS

The first thing to check on an oil analysis report is the information about the customer, originating
piece of equipment and lubricant (see Section A) . Including these details is the customer's
responsibility. Without this information, the effectiveness of the report will be diminished . Knowing
which piece of equipment the oil was sampled from affects the ability to identify potential sources of
the measured parameters, especially wear particles. For example, the originating piece of equipment
can help associate reported wear particles with certain internal components. The lubricant information
can provide a baseline for several parameters, such as the expected viscosity grade, active additives
and acid/base number levels. These details may seem straightforward but are often forgotten or
illegible on the oil sample identification label or request form.

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Figure 0-9: Oil Analysis Report

~
/ The next section (Section B) of the oil analysis report to examine is the elemental analysis or FTIR
breakdown. This data can help identify contamination, wear metals and additives present within the
oil. These parameters are reported in parts per million (ppm). Nevertheless, this does not mean a
contamination particle, for example, can only be indicated by sodium, potassium or silicon spikes. In
the example above, the rise in silicon and aluminum could potentially indicate dust/dirt contamination
as the root cause. One likely explanation for these spikes is that as dirt (silicon) enters the oil from an
external source, three-body abrasion occurs within the machine, causing wear debris including
aluminum, iron and nickel to increase.

\ With a better understanding of the meta llurgy within the system's components, any spikes in wear
metals can be better associated, allowing a proper conclusion as to which internal components are
experiencing wear. Keep in mind that for trend analysis, it is important that samples are taken at an
appropriate and uninterrupted frequency .

164
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Figure 0-10: Top Trend Analysis

With elemental data related to conta minants and wea~ etal~, al~.i:m.s_a~ set for upward trends in the
data. For efeme.[ltjll.g_g~pertaining toaaaitive~ ~arms are set for 9ownward trends. Having a baseline
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These baselines are then established to help determine any significant reduction in specific additives.

165
 -
Another section of the oil analysis report presents previously identified sample information from the
customer Sl:JCh as oil manufacturer, brand, viscosity grade and in-service time, as well as if an oil change
has been performed. This is important data that can provide an explanation for what could be false
positives in alarming data changes.

The "p hysica l tests" section of a report offers details on viscosity at both 40 degrees C and 100 degrees
C, along with the viscosity index and percentage of water. For common industrial oils, the viscosity
measurement at 40 degrees C is usually given, since this correlates to the oil's ISO viscosity grade. If '
the viscosity index must also be .ca lculated, such as for engine oil, then these additional viscosity
measurements will be identified. The viscosity for engine crankcase oils is typically reported at 100
degrees C.

Water contamination, which commonly is measured by the Karl Fischer test, is presented in
percentages or ppm. While some systems are expected to have high levels of water (more than 10,000
ppm or 10 percent), the typical alarm limits for most equipment are between 50 to 300 ppm.

i\ie "add itional tests" section shows two final tests: acid number (AN) and particle size distribution
(aka, particle count). When analyzing the acid number, you should have both a reference value and
the ability to trend from past analysis. The acid number often will jump considerably at some point.
This may be your best indicator for when the oil is oxidizing rapidly and should be changed .

166

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 Table 0-8: Selecting oil Analysis tests by Application

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>*Gas compressors only** Air compressors only ***For phosphate ester fluids, consult the fluid
supplier and/ or turbine manufactu rer. R = Routine testing E =Exception test keyed to a positive
result from the test in parentheses

The last section of the oil analysis report genera lly provides written results for each of the final few
test samples along •:it!l recommendations for required actions. Typically, these recommendations are
entered ma nuall' h • .aboratory perso nnel and based on information provided by the customer and
the data collected i " -.... :: .ab. If there is an explanation for the data that stems f rom something not
expl icitly stated b ·~::: ... vstomer, the results must be reinterpreted by those familiar with the
machine's histOP/ o= e-. · ~""~::ntal and operating conditions.

167
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Understanding the information give n here is critical. Remember, there is always an explanation f\J""
each exceeded limit, and the root cause should be investigated.

In addition to the raw data shown throughout the oil analysis report, graphs can help illustrate notac :
trends in t he data. Below is an example of trended data points from analyzed data, with the wate r tE ~
having the most notable unfavorable spike. Along with the trend data, graphs should show typic:
averages, warning (marginal) limits and alarm (critical) limits. These limits should be modif1:::
deper:iding on the type of data collected, the type of lubricant and the machine's known operaf"':;
conditions.

Standard alarm limits will be set by t he oil analysis laboratory. However, if there is any reason to adjus:
these limits higher or lower, they shou ld be identified properly. Examples of limits that shou ld be
lowered would be those for highly critical assets or assets that are consistently healthy. A small spi: :
in data would be cause to run an exception test or an immediate second sample for analysis. In suer
cases, a second sample wo uld ensure the data received is representative of the oil conditions and no:
sim ply a huma n error in sampling or analysis. If exception tests are needed, the chart above shows
which tests would be appropriate when a given routine test limit has been exceeded .

..

168
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Mail to: OAL

OIL ANALYSIS LAB, INC.

Cu stomer Account No:
Un it Number:
Com partment:
20 I I_GM C_2500HD_T
Transm 1s~1on
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Solving Problems Through Science

Co mpartment Locatlon:
Equlp111 ent Make & Mod el Allison
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Attn: Cody Crandall Manufacturer of Compartment: Pickup Truck .0

Equipment Condition Report Oil Capacity: 0 --0C ·

TypelSAE OJI Used: GM FACTORY ATF OIL
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Work Sito: ......
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w a.
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I
1 .18 2.96
S774 At A A A A A A A A A A A' A A A A A A A A A B A Al B

Report Date:
~

05/09/2013 • = See Test Variation Commenl MAINTENANCE RECOMMENDATIONS Vl1lt us at: www.olllab.com
-
ISO 11171
Current Sample Taken: 03/07/2013 96873: 07/1 2/201 2 : PARTICLB COUNT BLBVATBD WI TH CARBON , GRIT &
MINOR FINE M£'rALS ' ADDI'rIVE:S SLIG HTLY HIGH FOR PRODUCT TY PIC.>,LS . 3 PT
63632 : PARTICLE COUNT DOWN, BUT STI LL HIGH. OXID.l>.TI ON & NITRATI ON UNO BTAI NABLB DOB TO E'OSS I BLB MIXED OIL
05/08/2012 : P.ARTICLES ARE CARBON, GRIT & METALS . TYPES . W.l>.TBR SLIGHTLY HI GH @ 6 2 3 PPM BY VAPOR PRO METHOD, I DENT I FY -l 122 .. s
ADDITI VES SLIGHTLY HIGH FCIR PRODUCT TYPICALS. SOURCE. ASSURE SAMPLING NEXT INTERV.<\L . 22/ 1 9/ 16
CHANGE OR REF ILTE R OIL. WATER 276 PPM BY VAPOR PRO METHOD. ASSURE :> f 653
SJ:1.MPLI NG NEXT I NTERVAL. 22/ 19/ 13
0 l-i 65

21. 34
1 4261 :AODITIVE SLI GHTLY HIGH FOR PRODUCT TYPICJU.S .
92967 : 06/07/2012 :SAM l?LE DA'rE 6/06/2012 : .NO ABNORMAL WEAA 03/07/201 3 : PARTICLES ARE GRIT, CARBON & MI NOR METALS. PARTICLE ~ J: 16
DETECTED. PARTICLE COUNT DOWN , BUT STILL ELEVATED. PARTICLES ARE COUNT DOWN BUT S'fILL ELEVATED . ~ilATE R CONTEN'l' : 1 99 PPM( BY KARL
CARBON, GR IT & MI NOR METALS . ADDITIVES SLIGHTLY HIGH FOR PRODUCT FI SHER ~~THOD. ASSURE SAMPLI NG NEXT INTERVAL. 7· 10
TYPICAL$ . WP.TER SL:CGH'l'LY l'IIGH @ 57 5 PPM BY VAPOR PRO ME:THOD. 2 1/17/13
ASSURE S1'MPLING NF.:X'f I NTERVAL . ISO
2 1/ 17/13
21/ 1 7/13
Per 1ml
1614 E Sprague Spokane WA 99202 • Tollrree: 800-366-8696 • Local: 509-636-8791
Smee services are based on sample& and mfonnatlon suppll&d by others. and since correcuve actions, II any, were taJlen by oth&1'5, S'l1",1C&s rendered by the Oil Analysis Lat,. Jnc, arewitlloutwarnnl'{ or llabillly. Copvnght: 2001 The Otl Analys,s Lab. Inc

-·
~
0)
~
 5.16. PRACTICAL SAMPLE LIMITS
Table 0-10: Acceptable Silicon Contamination levels

Silicon Limh: I
!~~C lass -- (ppm] I
Engine I 25 I
Drivetrain I 100
I Hydraulic/ com; essor / turbine T7s_t_o _4_5 _..,.i

: Automatic transmission G to 45

Table 0-11: List of most commonly occurring elements and their probable sources

IElement ISymbol IFound in J I

!Iron T--~- l Gears, r~;r beari·~-

- g-s,-c-y-li-nd- er~ ers, shafts -j
~ -~ ~ ~--, Cr j Roller Bearin~s, ,piston rings
1 .....__ 1 N., ,! Roller Bearings; camshafts a~·-d- f_o_ll_o w
_ _e_rs-,-t -h~~ st washers, ~;ve - ·i.,
l Nickel ,
~ --·-·- - - - -
I
1
1
1 stems, valve ~uides ____ ___ J
i Molybdenum Mo Piston rings,/ additive, solid additive (Mo-di)
I ·-------·--
Al

!, Copper I Cu
!Brass/bro1~ze bushes, gears, thrust washers, oil cooler cores,
1 internal coolant leaks
i Tin --~-----·-,....--S-n- .....j~;onzet shes, washers and ge;;:·s- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·

Pb !
:s ilver ---·-···· .. 1 Ag I Silver ,sold;r, journal bearings (seldom) . _....
i---------+---+--...-----------·----------------•---•-•H•H
, Silicon / Si j Dirt, f rease, additive
!Sod iu-~----·1 Na I 1
Int~ ~na I coo-Ia_n_t_l_e_a_-ks_,_a_d_d-it-iv_e_, _s_
ea_ -w-a;;;~ o
--n
-t_a_m_i_n-a-t io
- n - ~.......... ..·

1
j Lit hi~~~-~--- ·-·-.-/_ L_i_~I_G_r......_as_e___ - -...............·-···---·----- j
•
t Magnesium
'
Mg I Ad \ itive, sea water contamination I
IZinc I Zn ~ Additive ·(anti-wear)
/ Phosphor~~ I P ! Additive (,_a-nt- i-- w
- e_a_r_
, e- xt
- re._m
_e_ p-re_s_s-u r~) j
IBoron B Additive, internal coolant leak, brake fluid contamination
r--···-..·-
/ Sulphur S J Lubricant b~se stock, additive
-
Knowing where the elements may be found is useful, but it is more important to be able to determine
the actual sou rce as accurately as possible.

170
 Table 0-12: Common Wear and Contamination Indicators

t
; Situation j Resu Its / / -----·
c -·--·--····---- --- - - ·---.......·--·-........ - - __ .......--..··------..,. --·-
oirt entry Si and Al present, usually between 2:1 and 10:1. Watch the (ncrease in
the trend . Often accompanied by associated wei r whe9 'present over
acceptable limits. /
-----·------·
Piston Al and Siratio is 2il:T·i;;;-Si-originatesfr~~li~~ bide in the piston
torching crown used to reduce the co-efficient of expan~·o n. Seldom seen, as
I
failure is usually rapid, and statistically there i little chance of getting a
sample while occurring.

High Fe Because iron is the-most us~d ~~~ructiol m~t~~i~~ sources are often ·-I
(a lone) Ivaried. Consider valve gear and oil pump,1 wear. Rust formation also
j produces high Fe.
High Si Silicon by itself comes from a few ma ~n sources - anti-foaming agent
(alone) additive, grease and silicon sealant. Usually seen in new/recently
overhauled components. Us_u_a_ll_y_c..J-
a_,h be__~~-no r.:_~·-·- ·---------J
Top-end- Characterized by increased levels f Fe (cylinder liner), Al (pistons), and
wear Cr (rings). The presence of Ni usl'.Jally indicates camshaft/cam follower
(engines) wear.
--------i-------------4--------
Bottom end Characterized by increased~ vels of Fe (crankshaft) and Pb, Cu, Sn (white
wear metal bearings and bronz,r bushes). This wear is often precipitated by
reduced base number (~r<J ) or over-cooling as bearings become subject
to corrosion from com , ustion by-products (acids). Fuel dilution often
causes th is too, but e ects may be masked as diesel dilutes the oil and
Ithe wear readings.
'----·---- -- .. ,...._.. _.._,.__...,..........._._ ..... - - ---1

Overheating Increased additive levels (Mg, Ca, Zn, P, S) and viscosity. When light ends
(some in the oil vapori$I, the oil level decreases. Topping up increases the
cases) in additive concen'trations, as the additives themselves do not evaporate.
engines Oxidation offun not evident, as topping up replenishes antioxidants and
boosts the BN. Often accompanied by Pb, Sn, and Cu as bearing wear can
result from this situation .
• r __..... . ........ .-.. . -.. -
, bBronh~e 1ncreased Cu and Sn levels. Cu:Sn ration usually approximately 20:1. j
J
1·

. us 1ng wear
....-------4-----------·--- ---·-----------,
' Bronze
· gear/thrust Increased Cu and Sn levels. Cu:Sn ration usually approximately 20:1.
1 washer wear
I
; - - - - - · - - - r - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - -·---·. ·---.. .--..-·. -·-- · - - - - - - !
1 Internal Increased Na, B, Cu, Si, Al, and Fe. Not all elements may be present.
I
· coolant Often accompanied by increased Pb, Cu, and Sn as white-metal bearing
leaks wear often accompanies this. Water usually not evident, as it tends to

r
I
Roi ~ -
boil off at normal operating temperatures.
Increased Ieve Is ofFe~ Cr, a ~N··i-, _a_ll_c_o_m_p_o_n_e_n_t_-s -o-f -ra_c_e__a_n_d- ro_l_le-r ··-········-···-·-···
bearing wear materials. Increased Cu might result if brass/bronze cages are employed.
1
1Hydrauli; -· - - .
1 . d Increased levels of Fe, Cr, and N1.
cy 1,n er wear
____
1 . ____., . __.---!..____ ,___________ ·--·----------··

171
 At this stage the importance of submitting sample information, particularly service meter reading,
overhaul/replacement information and period oil in use must be strongly emphasized. The service
meter reading and overhaul/replacement information tells the diagnostician what sort of wear rates
to expect. A new component can be expected to wear faster than a component in the middle of its life
span because it "seats" into other wear surfaces. A component with high hours of service can be
watched for increased wear as fatigue sets in. The hours of use on the oil strongly influences what can
be considered normal. An engine with 100 ppm Fe at 250 hours is likely to be healthy. The same reading
at 10 hours probably indicates a serious problem. The chances of inaccurate diagnosis, particularly in
the latter situation, increase without this information. Furthermore, indicating a usage time value in
months, especially for automotive components, is not particularly helpful - the vehicle could have been
parked for that time or it could have had long daily commutes. For components without service meter
readings, such as industrial gearboxes, an educated guess in months or years is better than nothing.

5.16 .1. VISCOSITY

The table shows some of the causes of changes in viscosity. It is important to note t_tlat concurrent
conditions can mask the effects of changes of viscosity. Fuel dilution accompanied by overheating
could leave the viscosity reading looking normal.

Table 0-13: Viscosity

r---·--···
l .·---.------,..---------------·-------·----·--
Viscosity
Component Cause
change
-------__;.,___,.,. __ __~--------.........---·-····"·····"··-·--------·------
......;..,
Overheating (may or may not be accompanied by oxidation) :
l -- -=~~ -"--
· ~=~;=;_;.;.;·=~--
' Sludging (poor combustion or overext-~ nded use)
Increase
~ el dilution (-~ rin~ engines fired··~ ·i-~h·..·h;;~Y fuel oii J·- -·-·-~·-··

Engine j Severe wat~.'.:._co~tamination ----- -

'
Fuel dilution
·· _.....;:.-...........~.===="------------~=~c......:..=-----=----'-'-=....;..-.. -.. ... . .
~::;:..:-=-=
Breakdown of VI improver additive in multi-grade oils with
Decrease
extended use
fO~erhe; ti~~ - - - - - - - -_- - - - · - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.. ----1

'

I Grease contamination j
II Increase
: S~vere w_a:~r contaminat~o~· - -_...,....,,...
_ ·~·-·--=----.- -
_ --
__ --~~-..--.... ..~:·:~

I f General breakdown of the oil

I

I ,.-------------------·-··-·----------~
I Other tMixtu.~e o~oils ..
-··· -- -
1 components 1
.-.

j Contamination by a volatile substance

---- --..-·....-...-·~-----
I Breakdown of VI improver additive (particularly noticeable in
Decrease . . f. d . h • d )
transm1ss1ons I11 e wit a mu 1t1-gra e

j General breakdown of the oil

Once again, the importance of submitting accurate information should be emphasized. Perfectly good
oil may be recommended for change-out due to discrepancies between the oil grade in the machine
and the oil grade identified in the paperwork. Furthermore, an engine described as having an SAE 30
or a SAE 15W40, but actually running an SAE 40 or SAE 20WSO, may go unchecked for fuel dilution,
because the decreased viscosity resulting from fuel dilution may compare favorably with the normal
viscosity of the described oil.

172
5.16.2. WATER
Water is one of the more common contaminants. If it can be introduced via internal coolant leaks,
high-pressure hose cleaning procedures or condensation. Water has several negative effects on the
performance of oil, including: /

• Formation of rust, which in turn contaminates the oil.

• Increased wear rate from decreased lost load-bearing capacity.
• Creation of weak and strong acids from chemical reactions between additives and base oils.
• Biological formation and growth in low-temperature applications.
• Loss of critical additives and additive function.

It is important that water contamination be kept to the absolute minimum. Seals and breathers should
be regularly inspected and maintained. Pressurized cooling systems need to be pressure-tested
regularly to confirm their integrity.

Engine samples are screened for water using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis and every other
sample is screened for water using the crackle test. This test involves putting a drop of oil onto a steel
surface which is maintained between the boiling points of water and oil. If the oil drop contains water
it spits and crackles, hence its name. The crackle test can detect water contamination of less than 0.1
percent, or 1,000 ppm. If a sample fails the crackle test, t he actual water content is measured. Once
again, tentative limits for water contamination are used (Table Below), although these will vary in
situations of abnormal or unusual usage.

Table 0-14: Water Limits

----··~~~~
~

Limit[%]
-------·----~
Engin:__t ~ 0.0 -·········-_JI
Drivetrain 1.0
Transmis;i-on [
1
0.5 -·· 1
Hyd ~lics___ L _ 0.5 ---- j
Compresso.~s } Variable accor~g to typ!._J
Water should not be relied upon as an indication of an internal coolant leak, particularly in engines. It
tends to evaporate at normal operating temperatures. /
/

5.17. GREASE /
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM / defines lubricating grease as: "A solid to
semifluid product of dispersion of a thickening agent i 1quid lubricant.

As this definition indicates, there are three S,Q ponents that form lubricating grease. These
components are oil, thickener and additives/ the base oil and additive package are the major
components in grease formulations, and ~S'Gch, exert considerable influence on the behavior of the
grease. The thickener is often referred tefas a sponge that holds the lubricant (base oil plus additives).

173
-

+ + -

• Mi ne;ral oil ·• Si•npl e, nie1al :soaps

-
• ft1lla nee destra~rit pri() perlies
• Synthetic tluid • Co,mp!ex- r:netaJ ~oaps • Suppra~s undesilrab1e propenies
·• H11msoop lhicleners • Add 111 ew pn>perties

Figure 0-11: Grease Anatomy

5.17 .1. BASE OIL

Most greases produced today use mineral oil as their fluid components. These mineral oil-based
greases typically provide satisfactory performance in most industrial applications. In temperature
extremes (low or high), a grease that utilizes a synthetic base oil will provide better stability.
I

5.17.2. THICKENER
The thickener is a material that, in combination with the selected lubricant, will produce the solid to
semifluid structure. The primary type of thickener used in current grease is metallic soap. These soaps
include lithium, aluminum, clay, polyurea, sodium and calcium. Lately, complex thickener-type greases
are gaining popularity. They are being selected because of their high dropping points and excellent
load-carrying abilities.

Complex greases are made by combining the conventi onal meta llic soap with a comp lexing agent. The
most widely used complex grease is lithium based. These are made with a combination of conventional
lithium soap and a low- molecular-weight organic acid as the complexing agent.

Non-soap thickeners are also gain ing popularity in special applications such as high-temperature
environments. Bentonite and silica aerogel are two examples of thickeners that do not melt at high
'
temperatures. There is a misconception, however, that even though the thickener may be able to
withstand the high temperatures, the base oil will oxidize quickly at elevated temperatures, thus
requiring a frequent re-lube interval.
!
5.17.3. ADDITIVES I
;

Additives can play several roles in a lubricating grease. These P.rimarily include enhancing the existing
'
desirable properties, suppressing the existing undesirable properties, and imparting new properties.
• l

The most common additives are oxidation and rust inhibitors, extreme pressure, anti-wear, and
friction-reducing agents.

In addition to these additives, boundary lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide (moly) or graphite
may be suspended in the grease to reduce friction and wear without adverse chemical reactions to the
metal surfaces during heavy loading and slow speeds.

174
Table 0-15: NLGI Consistency

Sem1fluid +
00 400 130
0 3-5.335 Bro n u.stard
1 310. ~o To co Past·
2 265-195 Peanut Sutti'r
J 220-2.50 'e6ttablt Shortening
11.s.20~ F,oien Yr,...,iurt
130·160 Smoorh Patt
6 tlS·l IS Cht.: dar ,\;~ Spread

5.17 .4. FUNCTION

The function of grease is to remain in contact with and lubricate moving surfaces without leaking out
under the force of gravity, centrifugal action or being squeezed out under pressure. Its major practical
requirement is that it retains its properties under shear forces at all temperatures it experiences during
use.

5.17.5. APPLICATIONS SUITABLE FOR GREASE

Grease and oil are not interchangeable. Grease is used when it is 'n ot practical or convenient to use oil.
The lubricant choice for a specific application is determined by matching the machinery design and
'
operating conditions with desired lubricant characteristics. Grease is generally used for:

1. Machinery that runs intermittently or is in storage for an extended period of t ime. Because grease
remains in place, a lubricating film can instantly form. ,·
2. Machinery that is not easily accessible for frequent luorication. High-quality greases can lubricate
isolated or relatively inaccessible components for extended periods of time without frequent
replenishing. These greases are also used in sealed-for-life applications such as some electrical
motors and gearboxes.
3. Machinery operating under extreme conditions such as high temperatures -and pressures, shock
loads or slow speed under heavy load.J
4. Worn components. Grease maintains thicker films in clearances enlarged by wear and can extend
the life of worn pa rts that were previously lubricated by oil.

5.17 .6. FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF GREASE

1. Grease functions as a sealant to minimize leakage and to keep out contam inants. Because of
its consistency, grease acts as a sealant to prevent lubricant leakage and also to prevent entrance
of corrosive contaminants and foreign materials. It also acts to keep deteriorated seals effective.
2. Grease is easier to contain than oil. Oil lubrication can require an expensive system of circulating
equipment and complex retention devices. In comparison, grease, by virtue of its rigidity, is easily
confined with simplified, less costly retention devices.
3. Grease holds so lid lubricants in suspension. Finely ground solid lubricants, such as molybdenum
disulfide (moly) and graphite, are mixed with grease in high-temperature service or in extreme
high-pressure applications. Grease holds solids in suspension while solids will settle out of oils.
4. Fluid level does not have to be controlled and monitored.
175
' . ---=-- - - - - - - -- - --- -- -- - - - - - - -------- - -

5.17. 7. CHARACTERISTICS L
As with oil, grease displays its own set of characteristics that must be considered when being chosen
for an application. The characteristics commonly found on product data sheets include the following:

5.17. 7 .1. Pump ability

Pump ability is the ability of a grease to be pumped or pushed through a system. More practically,
pump ability is the ease with which a pressurized grease can flow through lines, nozzles and fittings of
grease-dispensing systems.

5.17.7.2. Water resistance

This is the ability of a grease to withstand the effects of water with no change in its ability to lubricate.
A soap/water lather may suspend the oil in the grease, forming an emulsion that can wash away or, to
a lesser extent, reduce lubricity by diluting and changing grease consistency and texture.

5.17.7.3. Consistency
Grease consistency depends on the type and amount of thickener used and the viscosity of its base oil.
A grease's consistency is its resistance to deformation by an applied force. The measure of consistency
is called penetration. Penetration depends on whether the consistency has been altered by handling
or working. ASTM D 217 and D 1403 methods measure penetration of unworked and worked greases.
To measure penetration, a cone of given weight is allowed to sink into a grease for five seconds at a
standard temperature of 25°C {77°F).

The depth, in tenths of a millimeter, to which the cone sinks into the grease is the penetration . A
penetration of 100 would represent a solid grease while a penetration of 450 would be semifluid. The
NLGI has established consistency numbers or grade numbers, ranging from 000 to 6, corresponding to
specified ranges of penetration numbers. Table 1 lists the NLGI grease classifications along with a
description of the consistency of how it relates to common sem ifluid's.

5.17. 7 .4. DROPPING POINT

Dropping point is an indicator of the heat resistance of grease. As grease temperature increases,
penetration increases until the grease liquefies and the desired consistency is lost. The dropping point
is the temperature at which a grease becomes fluid enough to drip. The dropping point indicates the
upper temperature limit at which a grease retains its structure, not the maximum temperature at
which a grease may be used.

5.17.7.5. Oxidation stability

This is the ability of a grease to resist a chemical union with oxygen. The reaction of grease with oxygen
produces insoluble gum, sludge's and lacquer-like deposits that cause sluggish operation, increased
wear and reduction of clearances. Prolonged exposure to high temperatures acce lerates oxidation in
greases.

5.17.7.6. High-temperature effects

High temperatures harm greases more than they harm oils. Grease, by its nature, cannot dissipate heat
by convection like a circulating oil. Consequently, without the ability to transfer away heat, excessive
temperatures result in accelerated oxidation or even carbonization where grease hardens or forms a
crust.
\
Effective grease lubrication depends on the grease's consistency. High temperatures induce softening
and bleeding, causing grease to flow away from needed areas. The mineral oil in grease can flash, burn
or evaporate at temperatures greater than 177°C {350°F).

176
 5.17.7.7. Low-temperature effects
If the temperature of a grease is lowered enough, it will become so viscous that it can be classified as
a hard grease . Pump ability suffe rs and machinery operation may become impossible due to torque
limitations and power requirem ents. As a guideline, the base oil's pour point is considered the low-
temperature limit of a grease.

5.17.8. APPLICATION OF GREASE

Greases are typically applied in areas where a continuous supply of oil cannot be retained, such as
open bearings or gears. Factors to be considered when selecting a suitable grease are operating
temperatures, water resistance, oxidation stability etc. The second factor, not less important, are the
grease's characteristics, including viscosity and consistency.

A lubricating grease consists of a base oil, performance additives and a thickener which forms a matrix
that retains the oil in a semisolid state. Most grease thickeners are soaps, i.e. lithium, calcium, or
( aluminium soap. Complex soap greases have superior temperature resistance and are commonly
usable up to 18QQC, at which the mineral oil vaporizes. A smaller number of greases, restricted to very
special applications, are manufactured with non-soap thickeners such as organoclays, polyurea or silica
compounds.

Grease is the most widely used lubricant for roller bearings and low velocity applications, mainly
because grease type lubricants are relatively easy to handle and require only the simplest sealing
devices.

Grease and oil each have individual merits as lubricants. Each will perform to the general applications
it is intended to satisfy.

Each has individual strengths and weakn esses which are evaluated to meet certa in requirements.

5.18. SOLID LUBRICANTS

Solid lubricants are key ingredients in high-performance anti-seize pastes and anti-friction coatings,
used as additives in some greases and oils, and can be provided as free-flowing powders. These
special lubricant powders and additives fill in and smooth surface asperity peaks and valleys as they
adhere to the substrate and cohere to each other. The solids provide effective boundary lubrication,
optimizing friction and reducing wear under extreme operating conditions. Boundary films formed by
solid lubricants can maintain a steady thickness that is unaffected by load, temperature or speed,
unlike oil or grease fluid films for hydrodynamic lubrication.

5.18.1. SOLID LUBRICANT TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS

Solid lubricants vary widely in terms of composition and properties. The most common types of solid
lubricants used in Molykote ® brand anti-seize pastes and anti-friction coatings are described here.

Graphite has a layered lattice structure with weak bonding between layers, providing excellent
lubricity as long as moisture is available. Graphite solids provide:

• High-temperature stability
• Good lubrication in high humidity
1 • Low coefficient of friction under high loads
• Protection against fretting corrosion

Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) has a lamellar structure, easily sheared in the motion direction.
Particle size and film thickness can be matched to surface roughness.

177
 MoS2 solid lubricants offer:

• High load-carrying capacity

• Wide service-temperature range
• Excellent adhesion
• Protection against fretting corrosion
• Decreased friction with increasing loads
• Stick-slip prevention

PRECAUTION: MoS2 should not be used in wet environments; moisture can increase friction.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) consists of carbon and fluorine atoms. Low surface tension makes this
one of the most slippery man made materials known. PTFE solids provide:

• Colourless film lubricity

• Low load-carrying capacity
• Low coefficient of friction at low loads
• Good chemical resistance
• Good sliding-friction reduction

Cop~er is one of several soft metals that have low shear strength and high plasticity to provide good
lubricating capabilities. Soft-metal solid lubricants offer:

• High load-carrying capacity

• High-temperature stability

PRECAUTION: Should not be used with stainless steel at temperatures above l ,000°C (1,832°F); may
promote galvanic corrosion.

White solids are various inorganic compounds that can form a reactive lubricating layer for excellent
wear protection. White solids provide:

• Good protection against fretting corrosion

• Resistance to high temperatures

5.18.2. PRODUCT SELECTION BY INGREDIENTS

Typically, an anti-seize paste will contain 40 to 60% solids in a base-oil carrier, while an anti-friction
coating will contain about 30% solids blended with a solvent carrier and resin binder. Solids ( up to
10%) may be used in greases and oils for lubrication during start-up, shutdown and shock-load
conditions.

Solid lubricants like graphite and MoS2 typically provide higher load-carrying capacity (up to 1,000
N/mm2). They can help prevent galling and cold-welding, as well as provide "lifetime" lubrication in
dusty, dirty environments. PTFE has a lower load-carrying capacity ( up to 250 N/mm2) but helps
achieve a low coefficient of friction in sliding-load conditions. Metal pastes are often used as anti-
seize compounds on threaded connections. Metal-free white pastes are good choices for use in
extreme heat and for preventing solder embrittlement and stress-corrosion cracking.

5.18.3. COMBINATIONS ENHANCE PERFORMANCE I

I Different types of solid lubricants also can be combined in a paste or coating formulation to provide
certain synergistic results. For instance, combinations can be se/ected to improve fretting-corrosion
I
protection, to increase load-carrying capacity, or to optimize friction control and wear prevention.
What these solids can achieve together is superior to what they offer separately.

178

~---- -
1
1, ·---·-- I, -
 5.19. 5200 TRIVECTOR OIL ANALYSES TEST EQUIPMENT.

2.
-----
.__----:=
Iron and Water 1.
Oil Chemistry and
3. .-.. Viscosity
Particle Count with t--
Size Distribution

4.
Wear Debris Analysis
EMERSON.

Figure 0-12: 5200 Trivector Machine

5.19.1. 5200 TRIVECTOR ANALYZER WITH A DIGITAL

VISCOMETER AND A MICROSCOPE THAT CAN PERFORM
• Aujomatic wear debris anal~to. measure mechanical failure in progress;
• Analytical wea r debris analysis to identify severity and root cause;
•
______ _____ -
Particle counting to achieve target cleanliness and contamination control;
Measureme nt of oil chemistry - and the use of the wrong oil for that equipme'n1~. _
to detect oxidation
,.;._- j

5.19.2. TECHNICAL RESOURCES

5.19.2.1. Hardware: OilView Minilab with the following features

.
• 51DV Digital Viscometer;
• 5200 Trivector Analyzer
• ACCULAB Vl-400 Scale;
• 52ZM Stereoscopic Zoom Microscope for analytical wear debris analysis to identify severity and
root cause.

5.19.2.2. Software: AMS Machinery Health Manager - OilView

Analysis
This software includes:

• Route Manager;
• Case History Manager;
e.. Status at a Glance;
• Data Plotting/Analysis;
• Automated Statistical Calculation;
• Component and Working Environment Databases for Pumps Motors, Gears, et c;
• Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS);
• Reporting and Graphics Generator

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 .. .
• - -

5.19.3. THE OIL ANALYSIS LABORATORY CAN PERFORM A

COMPLETE ANALYSIS IN 3 STEPS
Step 1: Is a precise measure of dielectric constant (or "permittivity"). This is a way of identifying new
, oil and it can measure oil degradation.

Step 2: Is a test for dielectric measurement with switchi ng electromagnetic field s. It can also measure
the contamination degree and wear debris. This test reports the ferrous index, contam inant index,
large ferro us and non-ferrous indications and estimated water content.

Step 3: Is an advanced design laser particle cou nter that measures particle in eight independent size
ra nges.

5.19.4. OUTPUT PARAMETERS

• Particle counts are measured to ISO 4402 and NAS 1638 as well as corresponding ISO 11171 sizes
and counts.
• Ferrous index
• La rge ferrous and large nonferrous indications
• Contaminant index
• Estimated water and free water droplet indication
• Chemical index

After the ana lysis is finished, the output parameters are put in to easy-understanding graphica l plots
(e.g. Trivector Diagram, Figure 2) that show machine wea r, lube system contaminat io n, and oil quality.

Oil Ana lysis, as Predictive Maintenance instrument, is used to identify the factors that decrease the
lifetime for components of dynamic equipment, while operating.

Rominserv has an oil ana lysis laboratory, 5200 Trivector Analyzer with a digital viscometer and a
microscope that can perform:

• Automatic wear debris analysis to measure mechanica l fa ilure in progress;

• Analytical wear debris analysis to identify severity and root ca use;
• Particle counting to achieve target cleanliness and contamination control;

Measurement of oil chemist ry to detect oxidation and the use of the w rong oil for t hat equipment.

180
 -= ecpabilities of Rominserv Oil Analysis Laboratory with an industrial Oil

Ernission Spectroscopy Ferrous Index

Large Ferrous lndicaion
-· :'--=
- =- Autornatic Wear Debris Ana lysis
Large Nonferrous lndicaion
-_:.-:s:'n Analytical ·wear Debris Analysis
-=:.
~ ear Particle Count Analytical Wear Debris .A.nalysis
Particle Count
Particle Count
Analytical \/Vear Debris Analysis Particle Co unt
Dust Emission Spectroscopy .A.nalytical VI/ear Debris Analysis
W ater Crackle Contaminant Index
Coolant Karl Fisher EstirT,ated \Pv'ate in Oil
Soot Fourier Transform Infrared Droplets Indication
Fuel Spectroscopy Termogravimetric Chimical Index
Analysis Viscozity
( \/iscosit\,

Oxidation Fourier Transform Infrared

Depleted Base Spectroscopy Dielectric Perrnitivity
Acidity Base Nurnber Chimical Index
V\/rong Oil Acid Number Viscozity
Viscosity

Rominserv Oil An alysis Laboratory can perform a complete analysis in 3 steps:

Stepl: Is a precise measure of dielectric constant (or "permittivity"). This is a way of identifying new
oil and it can measure oil degradation.

Step2: Is a t est for dielectric measurement with switching electromagnetic field s. It ca n also measu re
the contamination degree and wear debris. This test reports the ferrous index, co ntaminant index,
large ferrous and non-ferrous indications and estimated water content.

Step3: Is an advanced design laser particle counter that measures particle in eight independent size
ranges.

• Particle counts are measured to ISO 4402 and NAS 1638 as well as corresponding ISO 11171 sizes
and counts
• Ferrous index
• Large ferro us and large nonferrous indications
• Contaminant index
• Estimated w ater and free water droplet indication
• Chemical index

After the analysis is finished, the output parameters are put in to easy-understanding graphical plots
(e.g. Trivector Diagram) that show machine wear, lube system contamination, and oil quality.

181
 - Extreme

C]Bad
Vv'ear

· ~Aarginal

Fair

- Good

Cont a rnination Che rni stry

Figure 0-13 : Trivector Diagram

Principal Root causes of equipment failure include unsee n corrosion, contam inants, improper
lubrication and machine wear.

The Spectra/ CSI 5200 Trivector Oil Analyzer is a multi-function instrument that detects most lubricant-
related problems and enables on-site analysis of machinery oils and lubricants. It provides
comprehensive indications of metal wear, lubricant chemistry and contamination . The Spectra / CSI
5200 combines a range of tests into one piece of equipment, including dielectric measurement,
magnetic differentiation of wear particles, water detection, laser particle counting, viscosity and the
ability to make wear debris filter patches for microscopic examination.

The Spectra/ CSI 5200 Trivector measures, logs and trends the lubrication condition of rotating
industrial machinery and detects contamination and machine wear per ASTM Standard Practice
D7416.

Primary applications include lubricants for rotating machinery such as pumps, motors, compressors,
gearboxes, air handlers, turbines, feed pumps, drives, transmissions, and hydraulic systems.

Features & Benefits:

• Reduce unexpected downtime

• Provides a comprehensive overview and indication of metal wear, lubricant chemistry and
contamination
• Generates machinery health trend analyses to support data driven predictive and preventive
maintenance decisions
• Reduce maintenance and replacement parts costs.
• Early identification of particle contamination from lubricated metal parts wear allows early,
preventive intervention prior to catastrophic failure.
• Lubricant condition monitoring conserves oil and reduces oil disposal costs by driving maintenance
on an as needed basis.
• Immediate, on-site lubricant analysis (<10 min) for informed preventive maintenance decisions.

182
 • Includes 2 .____,:=:- -~,~~-.. -=- --:=g1al part of the Emerson AMS Machinery Health Manager
software - -
• Com pac: .._-=_- ~---:,c-- - ~ - ·_es cost and footprint

Highlights

The Basic : .s:::x> Trivector Analyzer, Digital Viscometer and the Oilview Minilab
software-:: -

• Ea~-::~ r: =--=-·.:21 plots and trends illustrate every measurement.

• Auto-~=== -.::.. - .:- : ---:::~ret ation and recommendations.
• .:--=.o--rough operation of each Minilab instrument.
• Sta2.... :: ..: _ _ --: =.::.5".•· .vith an editable reference database of common lubricants .
• Set ==- - = --
5 s:atistical analysis.
• Cus:::;- _ - 3 _--=:.: _ :-cpo rt.

( The Co~p:E,.--':: - = wc·nilab includes the 5200 Trivector Analyzer, Digital Viscometer, Stereoscopic
Zo o m: •.--~:&:u::::, :.ar Debris Image Capture System, and Oilview Minilab, WDA, and LIMS software
m odules.

• lzi)C""":::c.-/ Information Management {LIMS) Software

- =>ata import and management
• • ea:- :)ebr is Analysis Module
:: Im port electronic image of wear debris from any TWAIN compatible camera.
o Vi ew sample image and compare to wear debris library images
o Standardize wear debris analysis using a multiple-choice matrix.

5.20. WEB SITES TO VIEW

The follow ing website shows 1 the typical equipment for oil analyses.

http://www.mrtlaboratories.com!Tests.htm

183