GZ) Causes of Soil Degradation and Development Approaches to Sustainable Soil Management Kurt Georg Steiner eeGZ) Kurt Georg Steiner Causes of Soil Degradation and Development Approaches to Sustainable Soil Management Pilot Project Sustainable Soil Management wl Margraf VerlagDie Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Steiner, Kurt G. Causes of soil degradation and development approaches to sustainable soil management / Kurt Georg Steiner. GTZ. [Engl. version: Richard Williams]. - Weikersheim : Margraf, 1996 Franz. Ausg. ud. T: Steiner, Kurt G. Causes de la dégradation des sols et approches pour la promotion d'une utlisation durable des sols dans le cadre de la coopération au développement. - Dt, Ausg, u.d.T. Steiner, Kurt Gz Ursachen der Bodendegradation und Ansitze fr eine Forderung der nachhaltigen Bodennutaung im Rahmen der Entwieklungszusammenarbelt ISBN 3-8236-1259-X Cover photos: S. Krall, K.G, Steiner English version Richard Williams Layout: costa, minde . capra . kassel Printing and binding: fut. millerbader gmbh Filderstadt, Germany © 1996 Deutsche Gesellschaft fir Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH Eschborn, Germany Responsible: Pilot Project Sustainable Soil Management Kurt Georg Steiner Publisher and distributor: Margraf Verlag P.O. Box 105 97985 Weikersheim Germany ISBN 3-8236-1259-X Foreword Soil is being degraded and its productivity is diminishing at an alarming pace world- wide, Higher input may offset lower productivity in the industrial countries, but most «developing counties lack the capabilites for this. The impressive achievements ofthe “green revolution” are therefore in danger of being lost also because they cannot be sustained. Increasingly, too, sols have been imreparably damaged in the tropics and subtropic, so agricultural land is disappearing ‘The challenge now facing us is to ensure the sustainable use ofthe resources, sil, water and nutrients (sustainable soil, water and nutrient management) to secure food sup- ply, conserve the environment and alleviate poverty. German development cooperation is taking up this challenge by placing particular emphasis on implementing the pro- ‘gramme of action (Agenda 21) adopted by the United Nations Conference on Envi- ronment and Development (UNCED) in Rio in 1992, which accords high priority to the preservation and sustainable use of the sol, The Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) has re- sponded by stepping up assistance to resource conservation in both bilateral and sec- toral projects Via sectoral projects the aim isto develop concepts, methods, strategies and innovations for application in bilateral development cooperation. The pilot project, Sustainable Soll Management, which has prepared this publication, is an example of this commitment This report pinpoints the basic bio-physical and socio-economic causes of soll degra- dation and suggests approaches to remedying them, These approaches should be tak lored tothe special needs of and users in individual ecological regions; they should be closely geared tothe specific situation and the interventions must address different levels in both production technology and in the social sphere, Ths cals for new initiatives in development cooperation. The partner countries must be iven more assistance in draft- ing soil policy and soil conservation strategies as well as in developing production tech- niques to conserve soil. Land users will only adopt new, sustainable cropping tech- niques, if these result in economic gains. To ensure this, the legal and economic parameters need to be reformed This reportis the outcome of cooperation amongst the staff of different university inst- tutes and organizations, particularly the Lehrstuhl fir Bodenkunde (Professorship for Soil Sciences) at Bayreuth University, the Lehrstuhl flr Bodenkunde (Professorship for Soil Sciences) at Munich Technical University the Institut fr Planzenproduktion in den Tropen und Subtropen, fir Agrat- und Sozialékonomie in den Tropen und Subtropen and the Institut fur Agrarsoziologi, Lancwirtschaftiche Beratung und angewandte Psy- chologie (Institutes for Plant Production in the Tropics and Subtropic, for Agronomy and Socioeconomics inthe Topics and Subtropics, for Agro-sociology, Agricultural Exten sion and Applied Psychology) atthe University of Hohenheim, the German Development Institute, Berlin, LUSO Consult, Hamburg, ATSAF, Bonn and the ETC Foundation, Leus- den (The Netherlands), We have received suggestions from the Geographisches InstitutForeword (Geographic institute) at Bern Univesity and the Direktion fir Entwicklungszusam- menarbeit und Humanitare Hille (Directorate for Development Cooperation and Huma- nitarian Aid) Bern, We thank all the above for their contributions to this state of the art report, Dr Hel de Haas Agriculture, Fisheries, Agricultural Research, Rural Development and Anti-drugs Measures Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) Dr. J. Friedrichsen Plant Production, Plant Protection, Agricultural Research, Farming Systems Deutsche Gesellschaft fir Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH Page 4. 15 16 16 16 18 19 20 a 24 24 24 5 25. 2B 28 28 2B. 29. 30. 30 31 32 32 33 1. Sustainable soil management ~ introduction 1.1 Aims of the report «1.2. Scope of topic + 1.3 Multcisciplinary dimension of sustainable soll management 1.4. Development policy status of sustainable soll management 1.5. Relevance to Agenda 21 Sustainable soil management 2.1 What is agricultural sil? 2.2. Soil a renewable resource within limits 23 Definition of soil degradation 2.4 Nature and extent of soil degradation 2.5. Impact of soil degradation on the global climate 26 Specifics of topical soils 217. Ecological problem zones 2.8 The role of land in the national economy 2.9 Land as a production factor in farming enterprises 2,10 Raising output with sustainable methods Biological, physical and socio-economic causes of soil degradation 3.1. Biophysical forms and causes of soll degradation 3.1.1. Displacement of soil material — wind and water erosion 3.1.1.1. Definition of sol erosion seees 3.01.2. Water erosion vs 31.1.3 Wind erosion 3.1.1.8 Effects of sol erosion 3.1.1.5 Tolerance thresholds of soil erosion 3.1.2. Chemical degradation 3.1.3 Physical degradation . 3.1.3.1 Compaction 3.1.3.2. Hardsetting ve. 3.13.3 Crusting 3.1.4 Biological degradation 3.1.5. Human-induced degradation 3.2. Socio-economic factors in sustainable soil management 3.2.1. Sustainability — investing in the future 3.2.2. Socio-demographic factors. 3.2.3 Land law and sustainable soil management 3.2.4 Microeconomic factors 3.2.4.1. Financial citeria of farming households 3.2.4.2. Farm enterprises and the market economy 3.2.4.3 Risk assessment and uncertain yield 3.2.4.4 Input level of farming systems 3.2.4.5 Technological progress3 34 34. 3. 36. 38 BSSRREES 50. 50. 51. 52 56 57 57 57 59 66 66 67 68 68 n ne. n R 4 4 74. 3.2.5. Role of agricultural policy ++ 3.2.6: Institutional setting 3.2.6.1. Organizations and institutions 3.2.6.2 Lack of participation by local population in decision making 3.3 Causes of failed projects in sustainable soil management Sustainable soil management - development approaches = 4.1. Creating conductive policies and structures in agriculture 4.1.1. Decision-making criteria for agricultural policy reform = 4.1.2 Approaches in agricultural policy 4.1.3 Land law 4.41.4 Institutional approaches 4.2 Approaches at household and farm level . 4.2.1 Catering for the economic interests of farm enterprises 4.2.2. Economic incentives to adopt sustainable soil management methods «43. Research and extension 43.1. Selection and decision-making criteria of farmers 4.3.2. Target groups and recommendation domains 43.3. Methods in research, development and extension 43.4. Organization and function of extension services 4.3.5. Assessment of participatory approaches in SSWNM 44. Developing technologies for various ecological conditions 4.4.1 Methodological approaches 4.4.2 Approaches and technological options in sustainable soil management 4.5. Promotion of national executing agencies 4.5.1. Selection of executing agencies 4.5.2 Promotion measures 46 Evaluation of available technologies and potential development approaches 4.6.1. Evaluation citeria for sustainable technologies and development approaches = 4.6.2. Technological options versus general economic parameters 4.6.2.1. Sustainable technological options in sol and water management in individual eco-regions 4.6.2.2 Limits of some recommended approaches 46.23 Escalating problems 4.6.2.4 Promising approaches 4.6.2.5 Additional research needs 4.6.3. Socio-economic reforms versus technical options 7. 19 B 29 3B 37 4 43 138 W. 2 a. B 16 W 19 a a1. 48. 61. 64 65 65 69 70 Selected erature Appendix Appendix 1 The extent of human-induced soil degradation Appendix 2 Importance of resource conservation as seen by staf of partner organisations in developing countries Appendix 3 Sustainable agriculture to conserve resources in international agricultural research (1AR) = Appendix 4 Research projects of German institut in sustainable soi management Appendix S German financial contribution (BMZ) to international agricultural research on sustainable soil management = Appendix 6 BMZ promotion of nationaliregional research institutions in developing countries in sustainable soil management Appendix 7 GTZ projects with activities in sustainable soll management Appendix 8 Databases Appendix 9 Case studies: Projects for sustainable soll management List of Figures Figure 2.1 Potential land surface for rainfed agriculture Figure 2.2 Processes and causes of soll erosion Figure 2.3. The downward spiral ofthe poverty trap Figure 3.1. Cycle of unsustainability Figure 3.2. Soil impovrishment due to poor compensation of nutrient loss: NPK balance for Sub-Saharan Africa Figure 4.1 Relationship between soil erosion, land use and agricultural policy Figure 4.2 Assessment of major soil-related problems List of Tables Table 2.1 Major terrain divisions of the GLASOD map (in milion ha) Table 2.2. Human-induced soil degradation between 1945 and 1990 Table 2.3 Biomass ofthe major types of globel vegetation Table 3.1 Causes of sail degradation (in millon ha of affected areas) ‘able 3.2. Soil erosion in selected developing counties Table 33 Soi erosion in diferent farming systems as compared with bare soil Table 3.4 Tolerance thresholds of sol erosion for tropical sols (Examples from the literature) Table 3.5 Impacts of an agroforstry system (Greville contour lines) on land and labour productivity in Nyabisind, Rwanda Table 4.1 Costs to establish physical conservation measures Table 4.2 Measures against various sail factors that inhibit plant growth (Problem factors) and their effects ++ Table 4.3 Soil conservation measures in marginal highlands - Table 4.4 Land and labour requirements of common erosion control measures in Africa Table 45 Yields using different technologies at diferent sites, . Table 46 Definition of successful development approaches Table 4.7 Indicators to evaluate sustainable soil management