SECTION I

PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

Unit 1
Grammar: The Adjective and the Participle as an Attribute
Word List:
1. guest-host «гость-хозяин» – один из эффектов
в жидких кристаллах
2. to be doped with достраиваться
3. elevated temperatures повышение температуры
4. molecular ordering упорядоченное расположение молекул
5. to be bonded together, соединяться, цепляться
to be crosslinked
6. crosslinking образование поперечных межмоле-
кулярных связей; структурирование,
сшивание полимеров
7. to be aligned выравниваться, устанавливаться
в ряд/линию
8. straight-forward прямой, простой
9. with respect to по отношению
10. second-order нелинейные оптические эффекты
nonlinear optical effects второго порядка
11. submicrometer нанометровый диапазон волн, 10–9 м
12. optical coefficients коэффициент отражения
и коэффициент преломления
13. non-centrosymmetrical расположение, не симметричное
arrangement относительно центральной оси
14. gradual relaxation постепенный отход/уход
15. orientation = arrangement расположение
16. reactive site месторасположение в результате
химической реакции

“Guest-Host” Systems
The move toward small-scale, submicrometer, integrated optical circuits
has revealed fundamental disadvantages in the use of traditional inorganic
materials for the required nonlinear optical devices. Organic chemistry has
promised materials with not only large nonlinear optical coefficients but

1
also the structural properties required for the production of these small-
scale devices. The simplicity of the so-called guest-host system, in which a
polymeric matrix is doped with molecules possessing high nonlinear
optical coefficients, has made such materials a popular choice in the
production of many prototype systems. An external electric field, applied at
elevated temperatures, induces the non-centrosymmetrical arrangement of
nonlinear molecules required for second-order nonlinear optical effects.
However, this molecular ordering has been shown to be unstable resulting
in a gradual relaxation in the induced orientation.
Possibly the most promising alternative to the straight-forward guest-
host system is to chemically functionalize the guest molecule by generating
several reactive sites within its structure. The idea behind such a
development is that once aligned, the nonlinear molecules can be
chemically bonded together (crosslinked) to form a long-ranged network.
Such a network will dramatically reduce the mobility of the nonlinear
molecules and thereby preserve the non-centrosymmetrical arrangement.
The stability of the induced orientation of these materials has already
been demonstrated with respect to electro-optic modulation devices. The
subject of the work being done is a study of the optically nonlinear guest
molecule with respect to its nonlinear optical properties and its
crosslinking process.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What has the move toward small-scale optical circuits revealed?
2. Why is the so-called guest-host system a popular choice in the
production of many prototype systems?
3. What is the most promising alternative to the straight-forward guest-
host system?
4. What is the idea behind such a development?
5. Will a long-ranged network reduce the mobility of the nonlinear
molecules?
6. What has already been demonstrated?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Guest-host systems.

2

Grammar: The Simple Predicate
1. SPT
2. satellite
3. propulsion devices
4. Hall thruster
plasma thruster
5. orbit transfer
6. reposition
7. station-keeping
8. contamination
9. plume
10. propellent
11. charge exchange plasma
12. concern, n
13. influence of
experimental facilities
14. codes = software
15. verification
16. Particle-in-Cell (PIC)
technique
17. simulation
18. DSMC
19. momentum transfer
20. overabundance
Unit 2
Word List:
стационарный плазменный реактивный
двигатель
спутник
двигатели
ракетный двигатель малой тяги Холла
плазменный ракетный двигатель малой тяги
переход на другую орбиту
изменение положения
позиционирование, удержание станции на
орбите
загрязнение
струя, шлейфовый факел
ракетное топливо
плазма, образующаяся за счет обмена
зарядами
беспокойство, озабоченность, проблема
инструментальные ошибки
компьютерные программы
подтверждение
методика PIC
моделирование
моделирование по методу Монте-Карло
передача кинетической энергии
переизбыток

Particle Simulations of the SPT

As with other electric propulsion devices, Hall thrusters offer a high
specific impulse well-suited for satellite station-keeping, repositioning, and
orbit transfer. The Stationary Plasma Thruster (SPT) variety has been
flown for many years on Russian satellites and has been reliable. However,
there is concern about contamination of the satellite surface due to the
plasma in the plume. Xenon gas is currently the propellent of choice for
such devices, because it is an inert gas with a relatively low ionization
potential. The charge exchange plasma, created by collisions between ions
and un-ionized propellent in which an electron is transferred, is of
particular concern. The charge exchange ions have much lower velocities
3
than the beam ions; therefore they are more influenced by the self-
consistent electric fields and may interact with spacecraft surfaces.
Computational modeling allows the dynamics of the plume and its
interaction with its environment to be examined. The ability to simulate the
plumes of these devices allows a wider variety of operating conditions to
be tested and also eliminates the influence of the experimental facilities.
However, computer codes need verification from experimental data.
To assess the ability to simulate these plumes accurately a computer
code which combines the direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) and the
Particle-in-Cell (PIC) techniques is being developed to understand in detail
the plasma behavior of the plumes of Hall thrusters. The PIC method
determines the trajectories of charged particles as predicted by imposed
and self-consistent electric fields. The DSMC method is used to deal with
the collisional effects in the flow field. Both charge exchange and
momentum transfer collisions are modeled. Ions, neutral atoms from the
thruster, and background atoms are simulated. The code has previously
been verified for an ion thruster and is currently being applied to Hall
thrusters. The plumes of these two types of thrusters are similar. The main
differences in modeling are in the geometry and the ratio of neutral atoms
to ions.
Since electric propulsion devices such as ion thrusters, arc-jets, and Hall
thrusters inherently involve charged propellent, the PIC technique is well-
suited to simulate their plumes.
The behavior of the ions is of primary interest. A sufficient number of
ion particles are needed in each cell to avoid statistical effects in the PIC
method. Therefore, to increase the ion particle count without creating an
overabundance of neutrals, a particle weighting scheme is used.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What do Hall thrusters offer?
2. Why is there concern about contamination of the satellite surface?
3. Why is the charge exchange plasma of particular concern?
4. What do computer codes need verification from?
5. What are the methods used to understand the plasma behavior of the
plumes of Hall thrusters?
6. Why is the PIC technique well-suited to simulate the plumes of
electric propulsion devices?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: 1. Hall thrusters. 2. DSMC and PIC methods.

4
 Unit 3
Grammar: Modal Verbs – would, should, could.
The Inversion
Word List:
1. cortex кора больших полушарий головного мозга
2. motor cortex часть коры головного мозга, которая отвечает
за движение
3. owl monkey- маленькая обезьянка с глазами, как у совы,
dowroucouli обитающая в Южной Америке, ведущая
ночной образ жизни. Относится к роду Aotus;
вымирающий вид
4. soundproof звуконепроницаемый
5. joystick ручка управления
6. dispenser разливочный автомат
7. plastic connector пластиковый разъём
8. brain tissue ткань мозга
9. spinal cord спинной мозг
10. multijointed многошарнирный
11. limb конечность
12. prone склонный к чему-либо
13. randomly, at random наугад, наобум, случайно
14. a box of electronics электронное устройство

Controlling Robots with the Mind

Belle, our tiny owl monkey, was seated in her special chair inside a
soundproof chamber at our Duke University laboratory. Her right hand
grasped a joystick as she watched a horizontal series of lights on a display
panel. She knew that if a light suddenly shone and she moved the joystick
left or right to correspond to its position, a dispenser would send a drop of
fruit juice into her mouth. She loved to play this game. And she was good
at it.
Belle wore a cap glued to her head. Under it were four plastic
connectors. The connectors fed arrays of microwires - each wire finer than
the finest sewing thread - into different regions of Belle’s motor cortex, the
brain tissue that plans movements and sends instructions for enacting the
plans to nerve cells in the spinal cord. Each of the 100 microwires lay
beside a single motor neuron. When a neuron produced an electrical
discharge - an “action potential” - the adjacent microwire would capture
the current and send it up through a small wiring bundle that ran from
5
Belle’s cap to a box of electronics on a table next to the booth. The box, in
turn, was linked to two computers, one next door and the other half a
country away.
In a crowded room across the hall, members of our research team were
getting anxious. After months of hard work, they were about to test the
idea that they could reliably translate the raw electrical activity in a living
being’s brain - Belle’s mere thoughts - into signals that could direct the
actions of a robot. Unknown to Belle on this spring afternoon in 2000, we
had assembled a multijointed robot arm in this room, away from her view,
that she would control for the first time. As soon as Belle’s brain sensed a
lit spot on the panel, electronics in the box running two real-time
mathematical models would rapidly analyze the tiny action potentials
produced by her brain cells. That lab computer would convert the electrical
patterns into instructions that would direct the robot arm. Six hundred
miles north, in Cambridge, Mass., a different computer would produce the
same actions in another robot arm.
If they had done everything correctly, the two robot arms would behave
as Belle’s arm did, at exactly the same time. We would have to translate her
neuronal activity into robot commands in just 300 milliseconds - the
natural delay between the time Belle’s motor cortex planned how she
should move her limb and the moment it sent the instructions to her
muscles. If the brain of a living creature could accurately control two
dissimilar robot arms - despite the signal noise and transmission delays
inherent in our lab network and the error-prone Internet - perhaps it could
someday control a mechanical device or actual limbs in ways that would be
truly helpful to people.
Finally the moment came. They randomly switched on lights in front of
Belle, and she immediately moved her joystick back and forth to
correspond to them. The robot arm moved similarly to Belle’s real arm. So
did a computer in Cambridge. Belle and the robots moved in synchrony,
like dancers choreographed by the electrical impulses sparking in Belle’s
mind. Amid the loud celebration that erupted Cambridge, the team could
not help thinking that this was only the beginning of a promising journey.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Who was the main participant of the experiment?
2. Where did the experiment take place?
3. What was the essence of that experiment?
4. What idea was the research team about to test?
5. What results did the research team expect from that experiment?
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 6. What was the final stage of the experiment?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The idea of the experiment.

Unit 4
Grammar: The Complex Sentences
Word List:
1. magnetron специальная усилительная лампа
2. sputtering распыление пучка
3. target мишень
4. vacuum вакуумная камера
chamber
5. ground корпус камеры
6. removal of heat отвод тепла
7. substrate подложка
8. bias напряжение, подаваемое заранее
9. background gas фоновый (уже имеющийся) газ
10. field lines силовые линии
11. 50 mTorr 50 мТорр (значение давления, показывающее
степень разрежения вакуума)
Magnetron Sputtering
Magnetron and ion beam sputtering differ in the means used to create
and maintain a plasma and the method used to generate and extract
energetic ions from this plasma. Magnetron sputtering is a modification of
diode sputtering which affords some specific advantages. The essential
element of magnetron sputtering is a sputter source which serves to
insulate the target from the vacuum chamber and ground, while allowing
for the application of a large negative voltage to the target, and for the
removal of heat from the target. In addition, the planar magnetron source
provides a magnetic field which serves to confine electrons to a race track
shaped region on the surface of the target. In practice the vacuum chamber
is backfilled with the desired sputtering gas to a pressure typically between
1 and 50 mTorr, and a large negative bias is applied to the target. This bias
accelerates any ions and electrons which are present. The ions strike the
target and emit secondary electrons and sputtered atoms. The electrons, in
turn, collide with neutral argon atoms resulting in ionization of the argon.
This process is self-sustaining and results in the formation of a glow
discharge. Since the generation of ions depends upon collisions of
7
background gas atoms with electrons, the efficiency of this process is
improved when the electrons are confined to the region near the target
surface by a magnetic field. This magnetic field also has the advantage of
confining the electrons which might otherwise bombard the substrate and
cause excessive substrate heating. In magnetron sputtering, there are large
electric fields (roughly perpendicular to the target surface) present in the
region between the target and the substrates. Any negative ions, or
electrons which have not been confined by the magnetic field, will
accelerate along these field lines, resulting in energetic particle
bombardment of the substrates.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is magnetron sputtering?

2. What is the essential element of magnetron sputtering?

3. What does the planar magnetron source provide?
4. What does a large negative bias applied to the target accelerate?
5. How are secondary electrons and sputtered atoms emitted?
6. When is the efficiency of the generation of ions improved?
7. Where are large electric fields present in magnetron sputtering?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Magnetron sputtering.

Unit 5
Grammar: The Passive Voice
Word List:
1. strong particle-induced ослабление сильной турбулентности
turbulence attenuation (завихрения), обусловленной (наведенной,
вызванной) частицами
2. wake след (за телом в потоке), вихревая зона
3. eddy вихревое движение, вихрь
4. particle Reynolds numbers числа Рейнольдса для частиц
5. dissipating scales значения рассеивания
6. center-plane диаметральная плоскость
7. blower нагнетатель воздуха
8. 10:1 contraction десятикратное сужение

8
 Particle-Induced Turbulence Attenuation
Experiments show that strong turbulence attenuation occurs with
particle Reynolds numbers in the range of 10 to100. This indicates that the
particles have long wakes which may have scales comparable to energy
containing eddies in the flow. Distortion of eddies by these wakes is in
some way responsible for the large reductions in turbulence levels. In a
manner not fully understood, these wakes modify the turbulence so that
energy is passed more rapidly from the energy containing eddies to the
dissipating scales. This mechanism is studied by measuring the spatial
structure and the dissipation rate for flows with strong particle-induced
turbulence attenuation. In particular, the center-plane region of the fully-
developed channel flow is examined. The experiments showed turbulence
reductions by as much as a factor of 3 for particle mass loading ratios
ranging up to 80 %.
The experiments were conducted in the vertical fully developed channel
air-flow. The tunnel consists of an inlet and blower section, a flow
conditioning section, a particle-feeding section, a 10:1contraction, a 5.2 m
long development section, a test section, and a particle removal system.
The particle feeding section provides a uniform and steady flow of
particles that accelerate to their terminal velocity in the long development
section. The development section also allows the gas flow to reach fully
developed conditions. The acrylic test section has a channel half-width of
2 cm and a spanwise width of 46 cm. All experiments were conducted with
a mean velocity of 10.5 m/s in the test section. The mean properties of the
flow were largely unchanged by the addition of particles while the
turbulence was changed substantially.

Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What do the experiments on turbulence show?
2. What do the particles have?
3. How do the long wakes modify the turbulence?
4. How is the mechanism studied?
5. What is examined in particular?
6. Where were the experiments conducted?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The vertical fully developed channel air-flow.
9
 Unit 6
Grammar: The Impersonal Construction. The Passive Voice
Word List:
1. injector впрыскиватель, пушка
2. euterium тяжелый водород
3. barrel цилиндр, барабан
4. gradient перепад
5. gun пушка
6. decay угасание, распад
7. pellet пулька, шарик, дробинка
8. flange фланец, кромка, борт

Tritium Pellet Injector Results

Many types of pellet injectors have been successfully used to produce
and accelerate hydrogen and deuterium pellets for fusion experiments.
However, no previous attempt has been made to produce tritium pellets.
The properties of tritium, especially its radioactive decay, are quite
different from those of the other hydrogen isotopes. Decay heating, the
production of 3He and its effect on the physical properties of solid tritium,
the need for tritium-compatible materials of construction, and use of
double containment to prevent tritium release are all problems unique to
tritium. Because of these differences, it is desirable to demonstrate the
production and acceleration of tritium pellets.
Pneumatic guns produce pellets by direct condensation of hydrogen
from the gas phase into the chamber or chambering mechanism of the gun.
Because of their simplicity, they appear to be appropriate for initial tritium
experiments. Milora and co-workers used a disk-shaped pellet carrier with
pellet-size holes (1 and 1.6 mm in diameter) to transport pellets from a fill
station to the barrel for firing. Pellets were formed at the fill station by
direct condensation from the gas phase. Pellet length in this device was set
by the thickness of the disk which sheared off any excess solid as it was
rotated. Lafferranderie and co-workers later used an approach in which the
pellet was frozen directly in the barrel in a position ready for firing; they
referred to this approach as in situ condensation. A pellet-length copper
section was sandwiched between two stainless-steel flanges in the barrel.
Gas admitted from both ends of the barrel was frozen into a pellet ready for
firing. This concept simplifies gun operation because it eliminates all
moving parts inside the gun. However, since pellet length is not
10
mechanically constrained, pellet size is more difficult to control. Pellets
have a tendency to grow beyond the ends of the cooled section of the
barrel. Lafferranderie attached heaters to the stainless-steel flanges near the
pellet to increase the temperature gradient to the pellet and reduce its
length.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What have many types of pellet injectors been used for?
2. Has any previous attempt been made to produce tritium pellets?
3. What property of tritium is quite different from that of the other
hydrogen isotopes?
4. Why is it desirable to demonstrate the production and acceleration of
tritium pellets?
5. How do pneumatic guns produce pellets?
6. What did Milora and co-workers use a disk-shaped pellet carrier with
pellet-size holes for?
7. What approach did Lafferranderie and co-workers use?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Problems unique to tritium

Unit 7
Grammar: The Attribute
Word List:
1. vapour state парообразное состояние
2. atmosphere единица измерения давления
3. kPa килопаскаль (единица измерения
давления)
4. vapour compression оборудование компрессионного
refrigeration equipment охлаждения пара
5. boiling point точка кипения
6. freezing point точка замерзания
7. versus в зависимости от

Fundamental Characteristics of a Fluid

The triple point, normal boiling point and critical point parameters are
fundamental characteristics of a fluid. The triple point is the state at which
three phases (solid, liquid and vapour) coexist; it is virtually identical with
the more often reported freezing point. The normal boiling point is simply

11
the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a fluid is one standard
atmosphere (101.325 kPa, 14.696 psia). As the vapour pressures of nearly
all fluids are approximately parallel when plotted as the logarithm of
pressure versus inverse temperature, the normal boiling point is a rough
predictor of the vapour pressure at all temperatures. The critical point is the
state at which the properties of the saturated liquid and vapour become
indistinguishable: coexisting liquid and vapour are possible only at
temperatures and pressures below the critical point values.
These parameters, often in the absence of any other information, are
frequently used in screening many different compounds to select a more
limited set for further study. For many applications they define the
temperature limits for the use of a particular fluid. Clearly a refrigerant
cannot be used below the triple point temperature. For many refrigeration
applications, operation at sub-atmospheric pressures is avoided and, thus,
the normal boiling point is a more practical lower limit. Vapour
compression refrigeration equipment transports heat through condensation
and evaporation (i.e. two-phase) processes and thus the critical point
represents an upper temperature and pressure limit. The critical point
parameters are the essential inputs to estimation techniques based on the
law of corresponding states, which is the observation that, when scaled by
the critical parameters, the properties of nearly all fluids are similar.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What are fundamental characteristics of a fluid?
2. Which state do three phases coexist at?
3. What is the normal boiling point?
4. When are the vapour pressures of nearly all fluids approximately
parallel?
5. What is the critical point?
6. What does vapour compression refrigeration equipment do?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The normal boiling point.

Unit 8
Grammar: The Gerund
Word List:
1. axial flow осевое течение, поток
2. enhancement ratio степень интенсификации (теплообмена)
12
 3. film condensation
4. fine wire
5. fins
6. pressure gradient
7. surface tension
8. thermal conductivity
9. wire wrap
10. curvature
11. heat transfer
12. refrigerant
13. momentum
плёночная конденсация
тонкая проволока
пластины радиатора
градиент давления, перепад давления
поверхностное натяжение
теплопроводность
монтаж проводов накруткой
кривизна
теплоотдача
охладитель
количество движения

Enhancing Film Condensation Heat Transfer

Several workers have investigated the simple and cheap method of
enhancing film condensation heat transfer by winding fine wire on the
surface of a condenser tube. The wire wrap does not act in the same way as
fins and the wire does not need to have high thermal conductivity.
Enhancement is due to thinning of the film between the adjacent turns of
the wire caused by the surface tension induced pressure gradient in the
condensate. The pressure gradient results from the fact that the interface
curvature is higher nearer the wire and gives rise to axial flow of
condensate towards the wire.
The presence of the curvature term in the momentum balance for the
condensate film leads to significant complication in the theory and no
complete solution of the problem has been published to date. An
approximate approach involved some empiricism backed by experiments
for R11 and ethanol, and naturally the final result was in broad agreement
with the data for these fluids. Later measurements for steam do not agree
with the approximate theory. The approximate theory has recently been
amended to include condensate retention. The theory then involves no
empiricism and is in general agreement with the tem data. However, while
giving results of the correct order of magnitude, the modified theory
predicts a dependence on wire diameter that is opposite to that reported by
the approximate approach. There is a report on the first stage of a research
programme aimed at resolving these discrepancies. Further theoretical
investigations and experiments using a refrigerant are in progress.
The report is given on new measurements for condensation of steam on
a horizontal, water-cooled, wire-wrapped tube. The wire diameter and pitch
of winding were systematically varied and heat-transfer measurements

13
made for a range of coolant flow rates for each wire diameter and pitch.
Data, in the form of heat flux and vapour-to-surface temperature difference
were used to determine enhancement ratios (ratio of heat flux for wire-
wrapped tube to that for a plain tube at the same vapour-to-surface
temperature difference).
The problem of condensation on wire-wrapped tubes is not yet fully
understood. Further light should be shed on the problem by the new data
using a refrigerant as condensing fluid.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What method of enhancing film condensation heat transfer have
several earlier workers investigated?
2. What is enhancement due to?
3. Where is the interface curvature higher?
4. What did an approximate approach involve?
5. Does the modified theory involve any empiricism?
6. What is the research programme aimed at?
7. Is the problem of condensation on wire-wrapped tubes fully
understood?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The approximate approach and the modified theory.

Unit 9
Grammar: The Infinitive. The Passive Voice. The ing-forms
Word List:
1. allotropics /allotropy аллотропия (модификации химического
элемента)
2. austenit аустенит, структура стали
3. dilution разжижение, растворение
4. transition joint переходное соединение
5. filler metals легированные металлы (с присадкой)
6. precipitation осаждение
7. weld сварной шов
8. welding сварка, сваривание
9. fusion сплав, расплавленная масса;
10. stainless steel нержавеющая сталь
11. martensite мартенсит, структура стали

14
 Effects of Welding Parameters on Hard Zone Formation
at Dissimilar Metal Welds
An experimental study was conducted to determine effects of welding
parameters and to optimize those parameters that have the most influence
on eliminating or reducing the extent of hard zone formation at dissimilar
metal welds (DMWs). Preheat, base metal thickness and welding electrode
composition were found to have the most influence. Maintaining an
optimum preheat for a given base metal thickness and controlling the
maximum interpass temperature throughout welding resulted in drastic
reduction and often complete elimination of hard zones at DMWs fabricated
with ENiCrFe-3 electrodes, but not those welds fabricated with E309
stainless steel electrodes. This finding indicates that depending on the
cooling rate and composition of the welding electrode, hard zones in
DMWs can be eliminated. The cooling rate must be slow enough to avert
formation of hard allotropic structures (i.e., martensite) and fast enough to
avoid precipitation of hard intermetallic phases. The optimum welding
electrode composition is one that will retard formation and precipitation of
intermetallic phases during welding while the preheat needed to prevent
the formation of allotropics is being maintained. Unfortunately, this unique
characteristic is not available in most, if not all, austenitic stainless steel
electrodes; nickel-based welding electrodes have been demonstrated to be
more receptive.
For many years and primarily for economical reasons, DMWs have
been used as transition joints in a variety of equipment and applications.
The joints are often made between ferritic/carbon steel and austenitic
stainless steel materials in parts of the equipment where corrosion
resistance is required. A high percentage of those joints are fabricated with
austenitic stainless steel electrodes or filler metals. These electrodes / filler
metals, which are known for their high alloy content, are selected to give a
weld metal deposit that can accommodate dilution from the carbon steel
side of the joint without resulting in a crack-sensitive microstructure.
Unfortunately, DMWs have several fabrication and metallurgical
drawbacks that can often lead to in-service failures. The most pronounced
fabrication faults are hot cracks and the inadvertent use of incorrect
welding electrodes, primarily carbon steel electrodes. Use of carbon steel
welding electrodes results in the formation of a very hard, crack-
susceptible bulk structure on the stainless steel side of the DMW joint.
Examples of these faults can be found in the open literature. However, the
most troublesome drawback of DMWs is the inherent formation of

15
discontinuous brittle and hard zones primarily along the fusion line of the
ferritic side of the joint.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What was an experimental study conducted for?
2. What resulted in drastic reduction of hard zones at DMWs fabricated

with EniCrFe-3 electrodes?

3. Can hard zones in DMWs be eliminated?

4. What is the optimum welding electrode composition?
5. Why have DMWs been used as transition joints for many years?
6. Where are the joints often made?
7. What can fabrication and metallurgical drawbacks of DMWs lead to?
8. What is the most troublesome drawback of DMWs?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Fabrication and metallurgical drawback of DMWs.

Grammar: The modal verb. The Passive Voice
1. propagation of
longitudinal waves
2. hear wavers
3. mode conversion
4. damping factor
5. pulser receiver response
6. transducer
7. backing
8. curing temperature
9. couplant
10. material velocity
variations
11. interference
12. diffraction
13. spread
14. surface roughness
Unit 10
Word List:
распространение продольных волн
звуковые волны
изменение типа волны
коэффициент затухания
чувствительность приёмника к импульсам
от генератора
преобразователь, датчик
подложка
температура затвердевания
спаренный, сопрягаемый, граничный
изменение скорости прохождения импульса
в твердом теле
наложение волн друг на друга
огибание волной препятствия
разброс
чистота обработки поверхности

16
15. discontinuity сосредоточенная неоднородность
16. search unit frequency частотные спектры исследуемых устройств
spectra

Measurement and Analysis of Ultrasonic Beam Profiles in a Solid

To accurately measure the size and shape of discontinuities in a
structural material by contact ultrasonic testing (UT), the beam profile used
for the interrogation must be known. To ensure a correct signal in use, the
beam profile must be determined under a condition similar to the actual
inspection conditions.
The measurements of beam profiles in contact tests, in general, are very
complex, because we often encounter problems such as the mixture of
signals due to the propagation of longitudinal waves, hear waves, mode
conversions at odd boundaries, interference, and diffraction. In addition,
many variations of the beam profiles occur due to the wide spread of
search unit frequency spectra, damping factor and phase, the pulser
receiver response, and the configuration and dimensions of the test blocks.
The variance in performance of different ultrasonic search units cannot be
neglected. There are many types of transducer elements and construction
methods. For example, the element can be made of quartz, lead-meta
niobate, lead-titanate-zirconate, barium titanate, lithium niobate, or other
new ceramic materials. The backing materials can be different proportions
of tungsten powder with epoxy at different curing temperature and length
of time. Different probe shape, size, and search unit types (straight beam,
focused, delay line, dual element, angle beam, angle beam focused, angle
beam dual element, etc.) all generate different beam profiles.
Other problems complicating the beam profiles in contact tests include
surface roughness, couplant variations, material velocity variations (caused
by coarse grain structures or specific material properties), and variability in
operators performing hand-held methods. Those problems are relatively
minor when compared to the previously mentioned, since these problems
can usually be controlled by selecting a homogeneous material for the test
blocks, controlling the surface smoothness, providing plenty of compatible,
couplant conditions and having the test performed by experienced
operators. It is commonly observed that the results given by immersion
tests are repeatable, whereas the ultrasonic signal amplitudes in contact
tests are scattered. The reasons for the data scattering have been largely

17
thought to be due to surface roughness, variations of couplant conditions,
different construction of the search units, etc.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Why are the measurements of beam profiles in contact tests very
complex?
2. Why do many variations of the beam profiles occur?
3. What can transducer elements be made of?
4. What can the backing materials be?
5. What are the problems complicating the beam profiles in contact
tests?
6. What are the reasons for the data scattering due to?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The measurements of beam profiles in contact tests.

Unit 11
Grammar: The Infinitive. The Passive Voice
Word List:
1. magnetic flux магнитный поток
2. leakage field поле рассеяния
3. field strength напряженность поля
4. specimen образец
5. prod игольчатый электрод
6. heavy duty cable кабель, несущий большой ток
7. to exploit разрабатывать
8. iron filings мелкие частицы, образующиеся при
обработке железа
9. technique технический прием
10. magnetic particle inspection магнитно-порошковая дефектоскопия
(MPI)
11. saturation magnetization степень намагниченности
Review of Magnetic Methods for Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)
The subject of flaw detection in materials using magnetic methods has a
long history, going back as far as Saxby in the last century. Systematic
development of testing techniques based on perturbations of the magnetic
flux in iron and steel due to the presence of defects did not begin, however,
until after the chance discovery of Hoke that iron filings accumulated close
to defects in hard steels while in the process of being ground.

18
 Later, as the subject of flaw detection became more quantitative,
additional methods were developed in which the leakage field in the
vicinity of the flaw was measured with a magnetometer. Once the field
strengths of the leakage fields were being measured on a routine basis, it
became desirable to relate these to flaw size and shape, and therefore there
arose the need for modelling the leakage fields from different crack
geometries.
The technique of magnetic particle inspection was the first magnetic
NDE method in widespread use. It was discovered accidentally by Hoke in
1918, but it was left to DeForest to develop the method further for practical
use. DeForest’s work involved devising methods of generating a magnetic
field of sufficient strength in any direction in a specimen. This he solved by
proposing that electrical contact electrodes (known as ’prods’) with heavy-
duty cables be used to pass large currents through test specimens in desired
directions. Furthermore, he realized the need to use magnetic powders with
uniform properties such as particle shape, size and saturation
magnetization in order to obtain more reliable and reproducible results.
DeForest and Doane formed the Magnaflux Corporation to exploit the MPI
method in 1934. This company remains one of the principal suppliers of
equipment for MPI.
The next stage of the evolution of MPI should be the development of
expert systems, since even with automated measurement there are some
disadvantages compared with a human operator. For example, an
experienced inspector will know where flaws are most likely to occur and
therefore can concentrate his efforts on that area. The transfer of this
expertise to computer systems would be advantageous.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What are perturbations of the magnetic flux in iron and steel due to?
2. What was the chance discovery of Hoke?
3. Who discovered the technique of magnetic particle inspection?
4. When was it discovered?
5. What did DeForest’s work involve?
6. What is the need to use magnetic powders with uniform properties?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The subject of flaw detection.

19
 Unit 12
Grammar: Simple, Progressive and Perfect Tenses. The
Infinitive
Word List:
1. magnetoresistive магниторезистивные материалы
materials
2. magnetic recording heads записывающие магнитные головки
3. disk drive дисковый накопитель
4. storage requirements for требования к объему сохранения
applications данных для различных применений
5. giant magnetoresistive материалы с очень большим магнитным
materials сопротивлением
6. tunneling device прибор, работающий на основе
туннельного эффекта
7. fringing fields краевые поля
8. write pole записывающий полюс
9. write coils записывающие катушки
10. read width ширина считывания

Impact of New Magnetoresistive Materials

on Magnetic Recording Heads
Magnetoresistive recording heads have only recently been introduced
into the magnetic recording industry but they have heralded a new interest
in the basic properties of magnetic materials. What is driving this interest
is the direct link between the magnitude of the magnetoresistance of the
sensor material and the final storage capacity of the disk drive. With the
storage requirements for applications increasing rapidly it is not surprising
that there has been a keen interest in pushing materials to larger
magnetoresistance. New multilayer films, for example the giant
magnetoresistive materials, are being developed with a variety of
properties that can be tailored to meet the needs of the new technology.
Other novel sensors have been proposed, for instance tunneling devices
which depend on the tunneling of electrons from one magnetic layer to
another, and colossal magnetoresistive materials which have a structure
similar to high Ts superconductors. With the phenomenon of electron
transport at small length scales becoming better understood it is well
within possibility that a “magnetic switch” is only just around the corner.
In an example of a typical magnetoresistive (MR) head geometry that
could be used to achieve 16 Mb/mm2 sandwiched between shields is a
20
magnetoresistive element with two conductors that make contact with the
MR element. A sense current is used to measure the change in resistance of
the element as a recorded bit in the media passes underneath the head. The
bits are written by fringing fields that jump the gap between the write pole
and the shield when current is applied to the write coils.
The read width in this particular head geometry is defined by the region
of the element that is sensed by the two contacts. The distance between the
shields controls the resolution of the sensor along the track. The distance
from the bottom of the sensor to the top of the magnetic layer in the media
is defined as the magnetic spacing.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Why have magnetoresistive recording heads heralded a new interest
in the basic properties of magnetic materials?
2. Why has there been a keen interest in pushing materials to larger
magnetoresistance?
3. How are new multilayer films being developed?
4. What other novel sensors have been proposed?
5. What is a sense current used for?
6. What controls the resolution of the sensor along the track?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Magnetoresistive recording heads.

Grammar: The Gerund
1. membrane
2. desalination
3. reverse osmosis
4. quantum leap
5. trend
6. osmotic pressure
7. rather than
8. porous sublayer
9. in situ
10. as compared to
11. tolerance
Unit 13
Word List:
мембрана, пленка
опреснение
обратный осмос (обратная диффузия)
количественный скачок
направление, тенденция
осмотическое давление
а не; скорее...чем
пористый подслой
на месте
по сравнению с
стойкость, выносливость

21
 Progress in Membrane Science and Technology for Seawater
Desalination
Membrane technologies have been incessantly progressing during the
past forty years. No limit in the future progress is currently in sight.
Contributions to membrane science and technology, upon reaching a
critical mass, will result in another quantum leap that is equivalent to the
historic announcement of the Loeb-Sourirajan membrane in nineteen sixty.
There are some new trends observable in the following four areas:
membrane development, membrane characterization, membrane transport
and membrane system design. Membrane development deals with recent
progresses in the development of reverse osmosis membranes used for
desalination.
To increase the pure water recovery by a membrane module from the
conventional 40 % to 60 % is a trend observable in seawater desalination
technology. Since the osmotic pressure of the retentate will increase
from 4.5 to 7.0 MPa when the water recovery increases from 40 to 60 %,
the development of a high pressure vessel as well as the development of a
membrane that will show little compaction under a high pressure is
necessary. Kawada reported recently on the development of a reverse
osmosis membrane that was suitable for operation at 9 MPa. He found that
membrane compaction took place at the porous sublayer rather than at the
skin layer. An attempt was therefore made to reduce the compaction by
making a large number of uniform pores of small sizes at the surface of the
porous sublayer on which an aromatic polyamide skin layer was coated by
in-situ polycondensation.
The stability of the membrane module productivity increased
significantly as compared to the conventional seawater desalination
membrane.
One of the drawbacks of composite membranes based on aromatic
polyamide is poor chlorine tolerance. Many attempts have been made to
improve the chlorine resistance of composite membranes by changing the
molecular structure of the monomers used for the polymerization. A patent
was recently issued on a composite membrane that is chlorine resistant.

Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What new trends are there in membrane technologies?
2. What does membrane development deal with?

3. Where does membrane compaction take place?

22
4. What was made to reduce the compaction?
5. What is one of the drawbacks of composite membranes?
6. What attempts have been made to improve the chlorine resistance of
composite membranes?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: One of the drawbacks of composite membranes.

23

Grammar: The Passive Voice
1. turbulent combustion
2. chemical reaction rate
3. thin reaction sheets
4. length scale
5. disparity
6. by and large
7. flame
8. with respect to
9. velocity
10. to exploit
Unit 14
Word List:
турбулентное сгорание
скорость химической реакции
емкость из тонкостенных листов
линейный масштаб
несоразмерность, несоответствие, различие
вообще говоря
пламя; факел пламени
в отношении, что касается
вектор скорости
использовать

Asymptotic Methods in Turbulent Combustion

There are a number of different regimes of turbulent combustion,
dependent upon the intensity and scales of the turbulence, measured with
respect to suitable combustion parameters derived from the chemical
reaction rates. In one set of these regimes, combustion occurs in thin
reaction sheets, transported and distorted by the turbulence. In these
reaction sheet regimes, more than one characteristic length scale is
involved in the turbulent combustion; there are short scales associated with
the chemical processes and long scales associated with the turbulence. The
disparity of scales causes asymptotic methods to be advantageous for
studying turbulent combustion in reaction sheet regimes. A significant
amount of progress has been made recently by use of asymptotic methods
for describing these regimes in both premixed and nonpremixed turbulent
combustion. By and large, the objectives have been not to calculate the
turbulent reacting flows completely, but rather to relate the properties of
interest in these flows to properties of nonreacting turbulent flows. It then
becomes possible to use the existing methods of analysis of nonreacting
flows to calculate the results of interest for turbulent combustion. The
intent of the present paper is to review the recent advances achieved by use
of the methods described above and to identify not only what is known but
also areas of unknowns for future research. Other reviews covering
material of this type have been published.
The techniques employed in analyzing turbulent combustion differ for
premixed and nonpremixed systems. This is especially true in various finer
24
details of analyses of reaction sheet regimes. Therefore, it will be
convenient here to treat turbulent premixed flames and turbulent diffusion
flames separately. Presentations more unified in character may become
appropriate in the future since there are a number of similarities, e.g., the
reaction sheet aspect itself. However, it seems likely that certain essential
differences will remain; burning velocities exist for premixed but not for
nonpremixed combustion (at least not in the same sense).
In recent years asymptotic methods have contributed greatly to an
improved understanding of turbulent combustion in both premixed and
nonpremixed systems. These methods must be incorporated into flowfield
calculations before they can be fully exploited.

Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What do different regimes of turbulent combustion depend upon?
2. What are asymptotic methods used for?
3. Why is it convenient to treat turbulent premixed flames and turbulent
diffusion flames separately?
4. What presentations may become appropriate in the future?
5. What combustion do burning velocities exist for?
6. When can asymptotic methods be fully exploited?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The reaction sheet regimes.

Grammar: The verbs “to be”, “to have”. Modal Verbs
1. membrane surface
2. adhesion
3. biofouling
4. hydrophobic material
5. to exceed
6. at the expense of
7. ubiquitons
8. nutrient concentration
9. tolerance level
10. regardless of
Unit 15
Word List:
поверхность мембраны
слипание, прилипание, сцепление
биозагрязнение
гидрофобный материал
превышать
за счёт
вездесущий, повсеместный
концентрация питательных веществ
допустимый уровень
независимо от, несмотря на

25
26
 Membranes and Microorganisms
The treatment of water by membrane technology intrinsically implies
the contact of very large quantities of water with the membrane surfaces.
This water is not sterile. In drinking water, the numbers of cells actually
present as demonstrated by microscopic quantification usually range
between 104 and 106 cells/ml. These cells have a tendency to adhere to
surfaces; in oligotrophic systems, this is considered a survival strategy.
There is virtually no surface material which cannot be colonized, even
under extreme conditions; regardless of hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity,
smoothness or chemical composition - surface conditions and materials
will simply select for colonizing species among the spectrum of organisms
in a given water volume. In a membrane system, adhesion to the membrane
surface is facilitated by the vertical transport vector which is given by the
water flow through the membrane - this can be described metaphorically as
“love at first sight”, because there will always be some organisms which
prefer to settle on the given membrane material, be it hydrophobic or
hydrophilic. Once the organisms colonize the surface, they will inevitably
multiply and form biofilms. All membrane systems which are not operated
under absolutely sterile conditions will carry biofilms.
Not all of the systems carrying biofilms suffer from bio-fouling –
“biofouling” is an operational term, applied when the effects of biofilms
exceed a certain threshold, or tolerance level, which is individually set for
different systems.
In membrane systems, however, biofouling is the “Achilles heel” of the
process, because all other fouling components, such as organic and
inorganic dissolved substances and particles can mostly be removed by
efficient pretreatment; however, microorganisms are particles which can
multiply. Thus, if they are removed to 99.99 %, there are still enough cells
left which will grow at the expense of biodegradable substances in the
water. Microorganisms are ubiquitous in any technical system unless it is
kept sterile by enormous and continuous effort. The biofouling potential is
represented by the types of microorganisms and the nutrient concentration.

Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What does the treatment of water by membrane technology imply?
2. What is a survival strategy in oligotrophic systems?
3. What will the organisms do when they colonize the surface?
4. When is the term “biofouling” applied?
27
 5. Why if biofouling the “Achilles heel” of the process in membrane
systems?
6. How is the biofouling potential represented?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The vertical transport vector.

Grammar: Modal Verbs
1. compatibility
2. host
3. a solid-state battery
4. a voltage window
(a voltage range)
5. overcharge
6. availability
7. unstrained bonds
8. both....and
9. primarily
10. until recently
Unit 16
Word List:
совместимость
первичный материал, минерал-«хозяин»
твердотельная батарея
диапазон напряжений
избыточный заряд
наличие
недеформированные связи (соединения)
как...так и; и...и
в первую очередь
до недавнего времени

What Materials Are Suitable as Polymer Electrolytes?

As the electrolyte must function as both a separator and an electrolyte in
a solid-state battery (still seen as the major application for these materials),
then a number of properties are critical for its success. The electrolyte must
satisfy a minimum of requirements from an electrochemical point of view:
 Conductivity: the electrolyte must have sufficient ionic conductivity
to allow a reasonable current density; 10 S/cm would be ideal at
room temperature although a lower value may be acceptable
(Armand originally quoted 10 S/cm minimum practical value).
 Electrochemical stability: the electrolyte should be electrochemically
stable in a voltage window that is at least as wide as the voltage
window defined by the electrode reactions (it should preferably be
wider, to accommodate overcharge and discharge reactions).
 Compatibility: they must be chemically and electrochemically
compatible with electrode materials.
 Thermal stability: electrolytes must have good thermal stability,
especially in contact with a lithium electrode.

28
  Mechanical stability: the mechanical stability becomes important as
battery technology moves from laboratory into process development,
pilot production and, finally, full, production.
 Availability: raw materials must be readily available and
inexpensive. Exotic materials have many uses as model compounds
but may be impractical at a production level.
While many electrochemists throughout the 1980s preferred to study
simple PEO-based polymer electrolyte systems using phase diagrams as a
guide to suitable salt concentrations and temperature ranges, polymer
chemists began to design more appropriate electrolyte constituents,
primarily polymer hosts. The lain advantage of PEO as a host is it is
chemically and electrochemically stable, since it contains only strong
unstrained C-О, C-C, and C-H bonds. It is not surprising therefore that
alternative host polymers have tended to incorporate ether units. It has
perhaps been unfortunate that, with the bulk conductivity as the prime
motivator of polymer electrolyte design, the other five factors listed above
have not, until relatively recently, had the attention they deserve. As a
result, the vast majority of alternative polymer hosts synthesized will have
little practical application.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What requirements must the electrolyte satisfy from an
electrochemical point of view?
2. What must the electrolyte have sufficient ionic conductivity for?
3. Where should the electrolyte be electrochemically stable?
4. Why did polymer chemists begin to design polymer hosts?

5. What tendency do alternative host polymers have?

6. What practical application will alternative polymer hosts synthesized
have?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Thermal and mechanical stability of electrolytes.

29
 SECTION II
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
AND ELECTROMECHANICS

Unit 17
Grammar: The Noun as an Attribute
Word List:
1. ductility пластичность
2. service life эксплуатационный ресурс, срок службы
3. fatigue cracks трещины, вызванные усталостью материала
4. crack path ход трещин
5. stress напряжение
6. creep-fatigue крип-усталость; ползучесть в сочетании с
усталостью
7. grain boundary граница между гранулами, волокнами
8. corroboration подтверждение теории
9. finite-element конечный элемент
10. integrity целостность
11. tensile stress напряжение при растяжении
12. fretting fatigue Фреттинг-усталость
to fret изнашивать, разъедать, вызывать коррозию
13.initiation site место зарождения трещины
14. a series of straight серия прямолинейных удлинений трещин в ходе
extensions эксперимента
15. infinitesimal бесконечно малая (величина)
16. curvilinear криволинейный
17. incremental changes увеличение роста трещины

Fatigue Cracks in Turbine Discs

The structural integrity of turbine disc components is dependent upon
the initiation and growth of fatigue cracks. Countermeasures such as
careful material selection aim to minimize crack growth but the probability
of fatigue failure remains whilst materials such as nickel-based superalloys
used to manufacture turbine discs have some ductility. To calculate the
service life of each component of the turbine disc requires knowledge of
the probable crack path(s) and the stress intensity factors associated with
them. The use of techniques that provide engineers with this information at

30
the design stage will encourage the development of components with
higher structural integrity.
One of the principal experimental methods of stress analysis available
to the design engineer is photoelasticity. This can be used to perform
independent stress analyses or for corroboration of finite-element results.
The determination of stress intensity factors using two-dimensional
photoelasticity has almost been fully optimized. Techniques that predict the
directions of crack growth have also been developed in line with the need
to assess the likely mode of failure, particularly in aircraft structures.
Fatigue crack growth at the high temperatures existing in turbines is a
complex interaction between the mechanisms of creep-fatigue, grain
boundary microstructure and the operating environment. To enable
predictions to be made of fatigue crack paths in any component requires
information regarding initiation sites and the mechanism by which the
crack propagates which are influenced by the state of stress at the crack tip
and the associated behaviour of the material.
Although crack initiation has been reported to involve a number of
complex processes, only the initiation site is required to determine the
crack path. Typically, initiation occurs at locations of highest tensile stress
at a boundary or within regions of contact where the crack is developed
through the process of fretting fatigue.
The photoelastic prediction of the fatigue crack path is constructed from
a series of straight extensions made to the experimental crack whereas the
real fatigue crack grows in infinitesimal extensions following a curvilinear
path. The error incurred here is minimized as the incremental changes in
direction of the predicted crack path are restricted to be less than 5-10°.
In modelling a turbine disc the degree of accuracy of test results
depends on how well the prototype material compares with the photoelastic
material.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What does the structural integrity of turbine disc components
depend on?
2. What knowledge is required to calculate the service life of each
component of the turbine disc?
3. What can photoelasticity be used for?
4. Why have techniques that predict the directions of crack growth been
developed?

31
 5. Where does crack initiation occur?
6. What is the photoelastic prediction of the fatigue crack path
constructed from?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Fatigue cracks in turbine discs.

Unit 18
Grammar: The Passive Voice
Word List:
1. tip seal arrangement герметичное устройство, кожух
2. forward and rear передний и задний блоки (агрегаты)
assemblies
3. blades лопатки, лопасти (fixed –
неподвижные, moving – движущиеся)
4. bearing housing установочный узел с подшипниками
bearing wall несущая стена
5. casing кожух, каркас, рама
6. clearance зазор
7. plenum chamber нагнетательная камера высокого
давления
8. cold setting холодная обмуровка (на холоде)
9. downstream нисходящий поток
10. gland сальник, уплотнитель
11. traverse /traversable probe зонды (приборы для определения
instruments поперечных потоков в лопатках
турбины)
12. carrier rings несущие кольца
13. rack and pinion зубчато-реечная передача
arrangement
14. trailing edge stiffness жесткость задней кромки
15. split shaft разъёмный вал
16. thrust осевое давление
17. fitting and removal сборка и разборка
18. friction and torque load нагрузка, обусловленная трением и
моментом вращения
19. spacing ring шайба
20. pitch and lean angle продольный и поперечный крен

32
 The Split Shaft Design
The turbine casing is divided into structurally independent forward and
rear assemblies to suit the split shaft design. Each of the two bladed discs
is mounted on its own separate cantilevered shaft system in a manner
which allows rapid fitting and removal. The first stage diaphragm and rotor
are housed in the forward assembly which is bolted onto the inlet plenum
chamber. This assembly also carries the second stage diaphragm since the
diaphragm glands of both stages seal against the first stage shaft. The rear
assembly, which is mounted on its own foundations, carries the bearing
housings and tip seal arrangement for the test stage. This avoids any
problem with setting and maintaining correct radial clearances which
might otherwise arise due to the split shaft arrangement. The abutment
between the two assemblies lies between the test stage fixed and moving
rows and the rear section can slide axially on its mountings to allow
variation of the interspace gap and to provide access for traversable probe
instruments. Spacing rings are inserted between the casing sections to form
the end wall profile.
The rear assembly can also be removed as a unit to improve access
during strip and rebuild operations.
Special moulding techniques have been developed to produce low cost
plastic fixed blades with steel reinforcements to provide adequate trailing
edge stiffness and overall diaphragm strength. Cold setting plastics are also
used in the construction of model diaphragms to retain the fixed blades at
the precise chosen settings of stagger, pitch and lean angle. After test the
diaphragms can be readily dismantled and the blades reused in later test
configurations.
Radially adjustable rollers support the test stage diaphragm in order to
allow the fixed blades to be indexed past the traverse probe instruments at
the moving blade inlet and outlet planes. Traverse probe instruments at the
stage inlet plane are held in the rotatable diaphragm and are thus traversed
circumferentially through the wakes from the first stage fixed blades. The
diaphragm rotational movement is effected through a rack and pinion
arrangement.
An air bearing on the downstream face of the diaphragm carrier ring is
pressurized during rotation to lift the diaphragm axially against the
aerodynamic thrust to reduce friction and torque load.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Why is the turbine casing divided into structurally independent
forward and rear assemblies?
33
 2. How is each of the two bladed discs mounted?
3. Where are the first stage diaphragm and rotor housed?
4. What does the rear assembly carry?
5. Where does the abutment between the two assemblies lie?
6. What have special moulding techniques been developed for?
7. Why are cold setting plastics used in the construction of model
diaphragms?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Forward and rear assemblies.

Unit 19
Grammar: Non-finite forms of the Verb. The Complex
Sentences
Word List:
1. motor losses потери в двигателе
2. stray losses потери на рассеяние
3. core losses потери в сердечнике
4. zero slip нулевое скольжение (пробуксовка)
5. slip losses потери при пробуксовке
6. tooth edges края зубца
7. flux density плотность потока
8. in-plant рабочий режим (на предприятии)
9. back iron станина
10. stator impedance полное входное сопротивление
статора
11. idle холостой ход
to run idle работать на холостом ходу
12. idle readings значения параметров на холостом ходу
13. core teeth зубцы сердечника
14. motor imput watts мощность мотора на входе
15. windage сопротивление воздуха

Evaluating Individual Losses

Three of the motor losses appear, at first glance to be easy to evaluate.
Stator I2R or “copper loss” is simply the product of winding resistance and
current squared, summed up for all three phases. Both those items can
thread quite accurately. With the motor running idle – that is, uncoupled
from any load - only three losses are present rather than all five. Stray loss
is nonexistent without load, and at essentially zero slip the rotor I 2R, or
34
“slip loss”, will not be present either. Total motor input watts will include
only core loss, friction and windage, and a small stator I 2R calculable from
the no-load amperes. Taking idle readings of current and power as the
voltage is varied permits separation of core loss and friction and windage
from the total input. Unfortunately, the in-plant situation rarely permits
adequate voltage variation, although in the repair shop it may be easy.
The core loss from such an idle test will not be quite the same at full
load. Although the difference is slight, it can become important when small
changes in loss are assigned high dollar value. Because core loss is
associated with the magnetizing branch of this circuit, the value will
depend upon the voltage across that branch. Under increasing load, the
current through the stator increases while terminal voltage remains
unchanged. Thus an increasing voltage drop occurs in the stator
impedance, lowering the voltage across the magnetizing branch and
decreasing the core loss.
Separate tests for core loss have become popular in recent years,
primarily to evaluate possible damage incurred during motor repair. Those
tests require the motor to be disassembled. It has been claimed that one
testing device will verify actual motor core loss within 10 percent. Be
skeptical of that. In the first place, what we call “core loss” in an
assembled running motor is not the same as the power loss within a stator
core alone, magnetized by a “core loss tester”. Even if the magnetic flux
density in the core iron below the slots were exactly the design value, a
motor’s total core loss includes major components other than that in the so-
called back iron.
One is the loss in the core teeth themselves, especially along the tooth
edges near the air gap. It is not present during the usual “'core loss test”
because the teeth are not magnetized. Another component is the “surface
pulsation loss” caused by magnetic flux crossing the air gap to link the
rotor. It, too, is obviously not present during a core loss test. Hence, using
the tester to estimate possible core damage prior to rewind is one thing;
trying to accurately predict overall motor efficiency is quite another.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. How many losses are present when the motor is running idle?
2. What are these losses?
3. What is “copper loss”?
4. What does taking idle readings of current and power as the voltage is
varied permit?
5. Why will the core loss from an idle test be quite the same at full load?
35
 6. (What)When can the slight difference become important?
7. Why have separate tests for core loss become popular in recent years?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Motor losses

Unit 20
Grammar: The Infinitive. The Infinitive Constructions.
The Passive Voice
Word List:
1. hydraulic system design проектирование гидравлической системы
2. computational вычислительные методы/приемы
techniques
3. pneumatic system пневматическая система
4. fluid power гидравлическая мощность
5. design procedures методы конструирования
6. feasible circuits выполнимые, возможные схемы
7. servohydraulic circuits сервогидравлические сети
8. selection database база отбора данных
9. load attributes характеристики нагрузки
10. hydraulic power unit гидравлический энергоблок
11. KEOHPS Knowledge Engineering on Hydraulic and
Pneumatic Systems
12. tool инструмент, средство
13. browser браузер, просмотр
14. fire and mining Пожаро- и взрывоопасность

Expert Systems for Fluid Power

The application of expert systems to hydraulic system design has been
thoroughly studied. Hydraulic systems are made up primarily of pre-
engineered components that each has a specific function. Thus, system
functionality can be broken down into its basic units. Considering that fluid
power is more than a billion-dollar industry, a computational system for
fluid power should carry strong market potential.
Design procedures for hydraulic systems have been well established,
primarily in technical books and manufacturers’ literature. These design
techniques are of paramount importance for developing expert systems,
and the component-oriented nature of fluid power systems is an ideal fit.
Many engineers and designers involved in fluid power technology have a
background in machine design, but lack a command of computational
36
techniques. This makes it difficult for them to realize the value of expert
systems without having witnessed the demonstration of a prototype. The
prototype has proven to be sufficiently useful to raise interest from a
number of fluid power designers to collaborate on its enhancement.
A technology-based enterprise has been established in Florianopolis, SC, Brazil, to
develop computational systems for fluid power. The enterprise is known as KEOHPS. The
goal of KEOHPS is to develop computational solutions using artificial intelligence to design
hydraulic and pneumatic systems. A key element of this program is that the systems are
intended for both national and international markets.
The prototype is a result of an international research project involving experts from Brazil,
western Europe, and the U.S. In its present form, it has the capability to:
 prompt the user to respond interactively to determine system requirements without
requiring extensive knowledge of hydraulics;
 automatically generate a set of feasible circuits - based on well-proven principles of
circuit design - for consideration by the designer;
 allow preliminary ranking of alternative solutions from general attributes;
 allow altering the hydraulic power unit (HPU) model and redefining component model
lists;
 calculate the HPU demand based on load attributes (force, speed, torque, etc.);
 handle servohydraulic circuits;
 generate topological dynamic simulation models tailored to a specific simulation
package;
 display circuit schematics and component specifications through
automatically generated pages that can be viewed through an Internet
browser, and
 offer a fluid selection database through which the user can search via
keyword combinations, such as fire and mining.
A comprehensive prototype model was developed to demonstrate the
system to as many experts as possible. The prototype was presented to
individuals in the fluid power industry through visits to component
manufacturers and participation at conferences and technical trade shows.
Based on observations during its validation by fourth-year engineering
students, the system also holds potential as an educational tool.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What are hydraulic systems made up primarily of?
2. Why is a computational system for fluid power of paramount
importance?
3. Where has a technology-based enterprise been established?
4. What is the name of the enterprise and its goal?
5. What is a key element of this program?
6. What makes this research project international?

37
 7. What does the prototype have the capability to do?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Hydraulic systems.

Unit 21
Grammar: The Infinitive. Split Infinitives
Word List:
1. features особенности, черты, свойства
2. actuator пускатель, исполнительный механизм
регулятора, силовой привод
3. web pages электронные страницы, сайты
4. power unit блок питания
5. output выходные данные, мощность,
производительность, отдача, продукция
6. Hydraulic Power Unit гидравлический энергоблок/ силовой
HPU агрегат
7. symbolic representation схемы, чертежи
8. dialog box монитор в компьютере
9. weighting sum сумма с учетом весовых коэффициентов,
т.е. с учетом значимости каждого
параметра
10. pressure settings установки (указания), обеспечивающие
давление
11. load interaction влияние нагрузки
12. supply and return lines вводящие и выводящие (исходящие)
линии
13. ballpark figures близкие к реальным значениям цифры
14. to size the prime mover оценить размеры первичного двигателя

Expert Systems. Other Useful Features

Output from the prototype pays special attention to the circuit
presentation, which includes a symbolic representation, description in text,
and an explanation of the choice for a specific configuration. For an
actuation circuit, this choice is determined based on corresponding load
attributes. For the HPU, the choice is made according to pressure and flow
demands of all actuators.
Another convenient feature that enhances the design process is the
ability to easily change the HPU specifications or configuration. This is
done by suggesting that a user verifies alternative HPUs. These alternatives
38
are described in web pages using graphics and notes on cost, safety, and
applicability.
After analyzing the design alternatives, a user can choose to accept or
reject design options. Once a selection is made, the prototype updates all
system diagrams and incorporates the user’s new choice of HPU. However,
this process is reversible; the user can replace the power unit or reselect the
previous one. This feature shortens the time to configure diagrams and
redefine component lists and gives users freedom of choice to play
“what if.”
The program provides multiple choices for actuation circuits, and the
user selects the most appropriate for the specific application. To do this, the
user defines and ranks a set of application parameters. This process is
carried out through a dialog box where the user prioritizes five criteria.
Once priorities are established, the prototype performs a weighting sum
and establishes all ranking systems as guidelines for the user. This
information is also accessible as web pages.
Another important feature is the ability to automatically size the
circuits. Once the user defines the numerical parameters for all loads, the
program guides the user through a series of steps to define pressure settings
and load interaction. Then, the user can rapidly obtain ballpark figures for:
 total flow capacity required
 resonant frequencies of actuation circuits
 power requirement to size the prime mover
 diameters of supply and return lines to optimize flow dynamics, and
 component dimensions (in some cases).
With this tool, users can address the design problem in a hierarchy.
First, they define generic mechanical characteristics, which does not
require expertise in hydraulics. Next, they evaluate functional alternatives
presented by the program, size circuits, and obtain the information
necessary to properly select actual components.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What does output from the prototype pay special attention to?

2. Where are alternative HPUs described?

3. What does the prototype do once a selection of design options is
made?
4. How many choices for actuation circuits does the program provide?
5. When does the prototype establish all ranking systems as guidelines
for the user?
39
 6. How can users address the design problem?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The ability to automatically size the circuits.

Unit 22
Grammar: Word-building. The Conjunctional
and Prepositional Phrases
Word List:
1. exhaust hood выхлопной патрубок, вытяжной шкаф
2. transonic flow поток, проходящий со скоростью звука
3. domain область;
multi-domain многоступенчатый
4. complexity запутанность, сложность
5. diffuser распылитель, рассеиватель
6. boundary conditions граничные условия
7. three-dimensional трехмерный
8. throughflow прямой, сквозной поток
9. planes решетки, подложки под граничным
слоем
10. architecture сеть, структура, строение
11. aerodynamics аэродинамика
12. finite volume ограниченный объём
13. mechanical stress механическое напряжение

The Calculation of a Last Stage Low

Pressure Steam Turbine and Exhaust Hood Flow
In large nuclear steam turbines, the last stage and exhaust hood are very
important. Indeed, their high contribution to the total turbine output as well
as the critical last stage operating conditions (transonic flow, wet steam,
high mechanical stresses, ...) have led to a large number of various studies.
Therefore, a greater attention is being devoted to the diffuser designed to
recover kinetic energy and to increase last stage efficiency. Moreover, a
reduction of diffuser length helps to reduce the shaft length which is
always very interesting from the economic point of view.
Obviously, the calculation of a last stage low pressure steam turbine and
exhaust hood flow is difficult due to the complexity of three dimensional
flow in addition to the multi-domain. Indeed, it is quite impossible to
determine appropriate boundary conditions for a local calculation without
coupling techniques. A way to solve this problem is to perform a
40
throughflow calculation of the whole cylinder. However, this method is not
very useful for the complex low pressure last stage flow and quite
impossible for the three-dimensional exhaust hood flow. Another way
consists of simultaneously solving the aerodynamic flow problem in the
stator, in the rotor and in the exhaust hood. Of course, this method seems
very complex and expensive. However, in relation to the modern
computers this method is nowadays realistic and very promising in relation
to the new parallel architecture computers. The last stage flow is always
unsteady because of the rotor. The principal assumption is that the flow is
steady relative to each domain individually and that each domain can
communicate via mixing planes These introduce circumferential averaging
of the flow properties, but preserve quite general radial variations.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What has led to a large number of various studies?
2. What is a greater attention being devoted to?
3. Why is a reduction of the shaft length very interesting?
4. Why is the calculation of a last stage low pressure steam turbine and
exhaust hood flow difficult?
5. What is a way to solve the problem?
6. What does another way consist of?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Specification of calculatingthe the above equipment.

Unit 23
Grammar: The Passive Voice. Word-building
Word List:
1. convergence сходимость, совпадение/конвергенция
2. explicit ясный, явный, открытый
3. implicit скрытый, неопределенный
4. turbulence турбулентность потока
5. package пакет, блок, узел, регулятор
6. shutdown конец, остановка, закрытие, граница
7. local time stepping пошаговая разбивка вычислений
по ходу протекания процесса
8. phantom points воображаемые условные точки
9. the Navier-Stakes уравнения Навье–Стокса (по имени
equations ученых в области механики жидкостей и
газов)
41
10. numerical integration численное интегрирование
11. conservative finite традиционный сеточный метод расчета
volume cell-vertex для ограниченного объема
scheme
12. shroud (v) завертывать, экранировать
shroud (n) кожух, каркас
13. the Runge-Kutta scheme метод Рунге–Кутта
(ученые)
14. multigrid многосеточный
15. data данные
16. traverse поперечина
17. medium среда
18. hybrid scheme гибридная схема
19. numerical methods численные методы

Three-Stage Steam Turbine Flow Analysis

Experimental data has been available for the flow in a 1/3 scaled model
of a three-stage low pressure steam turbine. The measurements have been
carried out at СКTI in St. Petersburg, Russia.
The rotor blades of the first stage are shrouded whereas the strongly
twisted rotor blades of the second and third stages are unshrouded but
linked by coupling elements. Design tip clearances at shutdown for the
second and third stages are 2.5 mm and 2.8 mm, respectively. Using five
hole cone probes, traverse measurements of the flow field were performed
in five planes 0, 1, 2s, 2, and 3, located at the inlet of the turbine, beyond
the first stage, beyond the stator and the rotor of the second stage and at the
exit of the turbine. The flow medium is hot steam at the inlet, condensing
in the turbine.
The numerical method is based on the solution of the Navier-Stokes
equations written in cylindrical coordinates using a conservative finite
volume cell-vertex scheme. Discretization in time is performed by an
explicit five-stage Runge-Kutta scheme. The artificial dissipation in the
hybrid scheme used is computed at the first, third, and fifth stages whereas
the diffusive terms are computed in the first stage only and frozen for the
remaining stages. Convergence is accelerated by use of local time stepping,
implicit residual smoothing with variable coefficients and a full-multigrid
method.
A multiblock method is used to facilitate computations on structured
grids for complex geometries. In this approach the tip regions of the
unshrouded second and third stages are discretized by an additional grid.
Numerical integration of the Navier-Stokes equations is performed in each
42
block subsequently. Each grid block has one layer of phantom points,
where the data of the neighbouring blocks is stored. In order to preserve
the convergence rate of a single block scheme, the grid points in all blocks
have to be on the same time level. Therefore the data transfer between the
different blocks is performed after every substep of the Runge-Kutta
scheme.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Where have the measurements been carried out?
2. What can you say about the rotor blades of the first stage and the
turisted rotor blades of the second and third stages?
3. What is the numerical method based on?
4. How is discretization in time performed?
5. What is a multiblock method used for?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The numerical methods and the Runge-Kutta scheme.

Unit 24
Grammar: The Passive Voice. Modal Verbs
Word List:
1. design конструкция, расчет, чертеж
2. thermal computer aided design тепловой расчет с помощью
компьютера
3. compact motor малогабаритный двигатель
4. magnet grade степень намагниченности
5. thermal performance тепловой режим, тепловые
характеристики
6. winding to ambient thermal обмотка, разработанная с
resistance учетом температуры среды
7. winding current density limit предельное значение плотности
тока в обмотке
8. winding specific electric loading предельное значение удельной
limit электрической нагрузки в
обмотке
9. insight проникновение в суть,
понимание сущности
10. gain экономия, повышение,
эффективность
11. to compromise подвергать риску, опасности
43
12. to gain приобретать
13. simple rules of thumb простые правила “большого
пальца”
14. BPM-brushless permanent бесщеточный постоянный
magnet магнит
15. housing heat transfer coefficient коэффициент теплопроводности
корпуса
16. CAD-Computer Aided Design проектирование с помощью
компьютера

Thermal Computer Aided Design – Advancing the Revolution

in Compact Motor
There is currently a revolution in the development of compact brushless
permanent magnet (BMP) motors which are up to 75% of the size of
conventional products. Such large size reductions are due to a combination
of factors including, improved magnet grades, new materials, modern
manufacturing techniques and improved design capabilities. Let us
concentrate on the improvements that can be gained by using advanced,
design capabilities. In particular we will concentrate on the thermal design
of motors, a discipline that has traditionally received much less attention
than the electromagnetic design.
Traditionally the thermal performance of a new motor design has been
estimated from prior knowledge of one or more of the following
parameters - winding to ambient thermal resistance, housing heat transfer
coefficient, winding current density limit or winding specific electric
loading limit. These numbers may be estimated from tests on existing
motors, from competitor catalogue data, or from simple rules of thumb.
The problem with such design methods is that no insight is gained of
where the thermal design may be compromised and therefore where design
effort should be concentrated.
One of the thermal modules of a new commercially available motor
design package (Motor-CAD) can be used to give the designer a rapid
method of analysing design changes on the thermal behaviour of BPM
motors. In doing so, not only can the optimum design solution be quickly
identified, but the user fully understands the consequences of changes. It
will be used to examine a selection of the thermal issues that may be
considered when designing a new motor. It will also be used to highlight
some of the improvements that can be achieved by adopting some of the
new manufacturing techniques and materials available. Data is presented to
illustrate improvements achieved in particular designs. These values cannot

44
however be generalised to all motors as each design is different and a
complete thermal evaluation should be performed on all new designs.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What word-combinations do the letters CAD and BPM stand for?
2. What are large size reductions due to?
3. How can the improvements be gained?
4. How has the thermal performance of a new motor design traditionally
been estimated?
5. What is the problem with traditional design methods?
6. What can one of the thermal modules of a new available motor design
package be used for?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The revolution in compact BMP motors.

Unit 25
Grammar: The Infinitive
Word List:
1. micro-electro-mechanical электромеханические микросистемы
systems (MEMS)
2. the microbearing device устройство, опирающееся на
микроподшипники
3. power MEMS устройства MEMS большой мощности
applications
4. rig оснастка
5. microbiaricated rotor микроротор
6. LIGA=lithography литография, нанесение металлического
слоя
7. induced stresses обусловленные воздействия
8. rpm=revolutions per об/мин
minute
9. two orders два порядка, т.е. в 100 раз
10. aircraft propulsion двигатель летательного аппарата
11. circumferential tip speed окружная скорость
12. pin bearing шарнирно-неподвижная опора
13. turbomachinery турбины
14. viscous drag вязкостное торможение

45
 Demonstration of a Microfabricated High-Speed Turbine Supported
on Gas Bearings
To achieve high power and efficiency from a rotating device, high
circumferential tip speed is a necessity. Conventional scale turbomachinery
typically run with tip speeds of order 500 m/s, enabling high-power density
applications such as gas turbines for aircraft propulsion and power
generation. In order to achieve high levels of power density,
microfabricated rotors will need to run at comparable tip speeds. Typical
rotating micromachines, such as gears and micromotors, are formed either
by surface micromachining or LIGA, supported by solid contact on a pin
bearing, and entrained by electrical or contact forces acting on the edges of
the rotor. These micro-rotors have reached of order 2 m/s tip speed, which
is two orders of magnitude lower than desired for Power MEMS
applications.
An effort has been undertaken to develop high-speed rotating devices to
enable high-power density MEMS. A single-crystal silicon air turbine
supported on gas lubricated bearings has been operated in a controlled and
sustained manner at rotational speeds greater than 1 million rpm and power
levels approaching 5 W. The device is a second-generation version of the
microbearing rig first reported in 1999, and is the first micromachine to
operate at circumferential tip speeds of hundreds of meters per second,
comparable to conventional scale turbomachinery. To achieve this level of
peripheral speed, microfabricated rotors must withstand large induced
stresses, need a sufficient power source to drive them, and require stable,
low friction bearings for support. The successful operation of the
microbearing device motivates the use of this technology for high-power
density MEMS.
The turbine was designed to provide sufficient power to overcome the
viscous drag in the bearings and on the back side of the rotor. While
viscous drag is relatively large in microsystems due to the small length
scale, it is still quite small compared to the capabilities of high-speed
turbomachinery. The turbine for the microbearing device had to be
intentionally designed to match the relatively low power requirements of
the viscous drag. Alternative turbine designs, compatible with the current
process and geometric constraints, that produce tens of watts of power
(beyond the drag requirements) have been designed for Power MEMS
applications.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:

46
 1. What is necessary to achieve high power and efficiency from a
rotating device?
2. How are typical rotating micromachines formed?
3. What effort was undertaken?
4. How has a single-crystal silicon air turbine supported on gas
lubricated bearings been operated?
5. Was the operation of the microbearing device successful?
6. What turbine designs have been designed for Power MEMS
applications?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Rotating devices.

Unit 26
Grammar: The Participle. The Absolute Participle
Construction
Word List:
1. drive мотор, привод, акселератор
2. variable speed drives моторы с переменной скоростью
3. rectifier выпрямитель
4. rectifier-inverter-fed индукционный мотор постоянного
induction motor drive тока, работающий от выпрямителя
5. vector-controlled drive векторно-управляемый мотор
6. torque вращающий момент, крутящий момент
7. speed-sensorless исполнение (моторов) без датчиков
implementations скорости
8. along with наряду (с чем-либо)
9. synchronous motor drive синхронный двигатель
10. reluctance motor drive синхронный мотор
11. intelligent control «умные» методы управления
techniques
12. fuzzy гибкий
13. neuro на уровне искусственного интеллекта,
на уровне разума
14. breakthrough шаг вперед, достижение, прорыв
15. DC motor drive двигатель постоянного тока
16. albeit хотя
17. to enhance увеличить, усилить, повышать
18. thyristor полупроводниковый прибор (типа
транзистора)
47
19. the six-pulse fully
controlled bridge
20. harmonic content
21. supply current
22. induction motor
23. rugged
24. low-speed performance
выпрямительная мостовая схема,
полностью управляемая шестью
импульсами
содержание гармоник в
выпрямляемом токе
подаваемый ток
асинхронный двигатель (мотор)
прочный, крепкий сильный
работа на низкой скорости

Variable Speed Drives

The rapid growth of electrical variable speed drives and the demands for
greater precision and economic solutions, has led to a highly competitive
market place. Dominated by the rectifier-inverter-fed induction motor drive
the market has seen an increase in high performance drives - both vector
controlled and direct-torque controlled drives. Speed-sensorless
implementations are becoming more widespread along with permanent
magnet synchronous motor drives and variations of reluctance motor
drives. Intelligent control techniques like fuzzy-, neuro– and fuzzy-neuro
will find widespread applications with drive manufacturers concentrating
on software development. The possibility of an ‘electronic’ integrated
motor and controller could be the next major breakthrough.
The conventional DC motor drive continues to take a considerable share
of the variable-speed market. It is predicted to decline, albeit slowly but
efforts are being made to reduce costs and enhance reliability. That is not to
say that the DC drive market is dead - more that its growth will be slow
and its market share will fall.
The power circuit of the general industrial DC drive has changed little
since thyristors first came to dominate this application, with the six-pulse
fully controlled bridge still being the preferred technology. This might
change if legislation to limit the harmonic content of the supply current
begins to have an impact on the market.
The induction motor remains the industry workhorse, being both rugged
and reliable, it continues to be the preferred choice for the variable-speed
drive business. Low cost, coupled with its ease of manufacture, makes it
readily available in most parts of the world and it is with the AC drive that
most significant innovations will occur. Although better efficiency and
low-speed performance could be obtained with permanent magnet
synchronous motors there would need to be a dramatic fail in the cost of
rare-earth permanent magnet material. So, the position of the induction

48
motor is secure - it has become a global product and is manufactured in
nearly every country in the world.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What kind of drives has the market seen an increase in?
2. What is becoming more widespread along with permanent magnet
synchronous motor drives and variations of reluctance motor drives?
3. Who will intelligent control techniques find widespread applications

with?

4. What could be the next major breakthrough?

5. What continues to take a considerable share of the variable-speed
market?
6. How much has the power circuit of the general industrial DC drive
changed?
7. Why does the induction motor remain the industry workhorse?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: DC drives.

Unit 27
Grammar: The Participle. The Gerund. The Infinitive
Word List:
1. superheated steam перегретый пар
2. purity чистота
3. impurety примесь, загрязнение
4. precipitation осаждение
5. steam path components составные части по пути прохождения
пара
6. HP/IP/LP turbine ступени высокого/среднего/низкого
(High/Intermediate/Low давления турбины
pressure turbine)
7. LP steam chemistry химический состав пара низкого
давления
8. boiler water котловая вода
9. feed water питательная вода котла
10. fossil power plant электростация на ископаемом
(органическом) топливе
11. molecular species включения на уровне молекул
49
12. solubty растворимость
13. volatility летучесть, испаряемость
14. the condensate part выпадающая в осадок часть
15. blade лопасть турбины
16. deposit, deposition отложение, осадок, осаждение;
to deposit выпадать в осадок
17. ingress вход, попадание
18. condenser конденсатор
19. make-up demineralizer очиститель добавочной воды от
минеральных солей
20. evaporator испаритель
21. condensate polisher очиститель от осаждений
22. condensate polisher effluent загрязнение за счёт вытекающего
contamination потока
из очистителя осаждений
23. underway в процессе разработки
24. to date на сегодняшний день
25. cycle chemistry водно-химический цикл
26. ionic contaminant ионная примесь
27. consistent (with) совместимый (с)
28. tolerable приемлемый

Steam Chemistry and the Turbine

Superheated steam entering a turbine typically contains low levels of
impurities. As the steam expands through a turbine, the subsequent
precipitation of impurities onto the surfaces of steam path components
leads to a variety of problems in the HP, IP or LP turbine. Thus, the purity
of boiler water, feedwater and steam are some of the most important
criteria for ensuring the availability and reliability of components in fossil
and nuclear power plants.
Of the highest importance for power plant operators is determining the
allowable concentrations of molecular species often present in turbine
steam, moisture, and deposits.
Further, current operating limits for steam and boiler water are derived
from the equilibrium solubilities and volatilities of single compounds while
multicomponent mixtures and rapid boiling and steam expansion exits in
the steam cycle.
Contaminants such as chlorides, sulfates, organics, and carbon dioxide,
enter the condensate part of the cycle, but do their damage in the boiler
(tube failures) or in the turbine (blade and disc failures, and deposition).
50
Sources for such impurity ingress into the steam and/or water process cycle
include: (i) condenser cooling water in-leakage, or (ii) make-up
demineralizer, evaporator or condensate polisher effluent contamination.
C3orrosion products are generated in feedwater heaters and condensers and
flow into the turbine where they deposit.
Work currently underway shows promise that a fully predictive model
will soon be available to calculate steam composition from boiler water
composition and to predict moisture composition from LP steam chemistry.
Chemical compounds are soluble in superheated steam, and their
solubility sharply decreases as the steam expands.
To date the basis for deriving cycle chemistry guidelines has been:
“Limiting the concentration of ionic contaminants throughout the plant
cycle to levels consistent with steam impurity levels tolerable in the turbine
will adequately protect the boiler and other cycle components”.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What does superheated steam entering a turbine typically contain?
2. When do impurities lead to a variety of problems and where?
3. What are some of the most important criteria for ensuring the
availability and reliability of components in fossil and nuclear power
plants?
4. What are current operating limits for steam and boiler water derived
from?
5. Where are corrosion products generated?

6. When does solubility of chemical compounds decrease?

7. What has been the basis for deriving cycle chemistry guidelines?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The contaminants and the corrosion products.

51
 SECTION III
COMPUTER SIENCE

Unit 28
Grammar: The Infinitive Constructions
Word List:
1. the effective computing power реальный объём
вычислений
2. global scale modeling масштабное моделирование
3. simulation имитация
4. a peak speed пиковая скорость
5. Eserver = Express Server тип сервера
6. Pseries = Powerful Series server тип сервера
7. AIX–Advanced Interactive Executive версия-UNIX
8. cluster кластер, группа
9. game console игровая приставка
10. high-performance высокопроизводительный
11. military вооруженные силы
12. POWER =Performance архитектура
Optimization With Enhanced RISC
(architecture)

Department of Defense Selects IBM Supercomputer for Navy

to Triple Computing Power
The Department of Defense (DoD) has selected new high-performance
computing (HPC) systems from IBM for deployment at the Naval
Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) Major Shared Resource Center
(MSRC) that, when deployed, are expected to include the fastest
supercomputer in the US military, and one of the fastest supercomputing
clusters in the world, according to the current TOP500 List of
supercomputers. The new systems are designed to triple the effective
computing power of the Center, providing dramatically improved
computational support for DoD research and development (R&D) and
enhancement of global scale modeling and simulation capabilities for the
US Navy in support of worldwide Navy and DoD operations.
The new supercomputers are designed to substantially enhance the

Navy’s ability to perform global scale modeling and simulation to carry out
52
its diverse mission, maximizing support to the Fleet worldwide and to the

nation. The largest of the new systems is expected to run at a peak speed of

20 trillion mathematical operations per second, and will do so in the

NAVOCEANO environment where operational resilience and high

availability are of paramount importance. Typical operational availability

of the systems is expected to be over 99%.

The NAVOCEANO supercomputing solution consists of IBM eServer

p655 systems connected together with IBM’s clustering technology. Each
of the new HPC systems is based on POWER4+ microprocessors and
utilizes the AIX operating system environment.
Having been termed the first ‘server on a chip’, IBM continues to invest
in the POWER architecture to offer customers open, innovative technology
solutions through AIX, OS/400 or Linux operating systems that
complement the growing demand for 64-bit applications. IBM’s family of
POWER microprocessors is among the most widely used in the industry. In
addition to being the force behind IBM’s pSeries, iSeries and JS20
BladeCenter servers, the microprocessor technology can be found in
Nintendo game consoles, Apple computers, and some of the world’s most
powerful supercomputers and storage systems.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What are new HPC systems expected to include?
2. Where will they be deployed?

3. What will the new systems provide dramatically improved

computational support for?
4. Are operational resilience and high availability of paramount
importance in the NAVOCEANO environment?
5. What does the NAVOCEANO supercomputing solution consist of?
6. Where can the microprocessor technology be found in addition to

being the force behind IBM’s pSeries, iSeries and Js20 BladeCenter

servers?
53
 II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: IBM’s family of POWER microprocessors.

Unit 29
Grammar: Word-Building
Word List:
1. wireless Internet беспроводной (радио) доступ в Интернет
access
2. handled devices программируемые устройства
3. application layer прикладной уровень
4. hand-off плавная передача управления от одной
ячейки
к другой при перемещении абонента
сотовой связи
5. laptop портативный, переносной компьютер
6. network layer сетевой уровень
7. node узел ( в сетях – точка присоединения к сети;
устройство, подключенное к сети)
8. ongoing происходящий в настоящее время
9. VoIP = VOIP (Voice передача голоса (голосового трафика) по IP-
overIP) сетям, телефония на базе стандартов
Интернета
10. wireless беспроводная связь, радиосвязь
communication

Mobility Management for VoIP Service: Mobile IP VS SIP

Recently, mobility support for Internet access has created significant
interest among researches as wireless/mobile communications and
networking proliferate, especially boosted by the widespread use of laptops
and handled devices. Considering the various wireless access technologies
and their complementary features, we expect that these pocket-sized
mobile handled nodes are going to be equipped with multiple wireless
communication interfaces. Under this configuration and environment, the
mobile node would be able to choose the most suitable interface for
specific applications. This phenomenon is often called wireless
technologies convergence. In such an environment, one of the crucial
issues is how to support seamless mobility to mobile nodes.
Another important trend over the past few years is the emergence of
voice over IP (VoIP) service and its rapid growth. There have been ongoing
54
research efforts to support mobility in the current VoIP protocols. In
providing the VoIP service in wireless technologies convergence, the most
viable concern is the amount of disruption time to process the hand-off of
an ongoing VoIP call (or session).
Currently, there are two basic approaches to support mobility in VoIP
services. The first one seeks to solve mobility in the network layer by using
Mobile IP and related proposals. Although Mobile IP is not directly related
to VoIP applications, mobility support for VoIP service can be realized via
Mobile IP. The other approach is to solve the mobility problem in the
application layer by augmenting existing VoIP protocols such as H.323 and
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP).
The mobility itself can be largely divided into three types: roaming,
macromobility, and micromobility. A well defined mobility management
frame-work or scheme should deal with all three types of mobility,
especially seeking to reduce disruption in handoff.
One of the aspects that accompany macromobility is authentication,
authorization, and accounting (AAA). As a number of diverse wireless
access technologies and networks will be deployed in the near future, it is
likely that a mobile node will frequently hand off between wireless
networks of different service providers. The problem is that the mobile
node should resolve the AAA issue whenever it hands off between different
administration domains.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Why has mobility support for Internet access created significant

interest among researchers?

2. What do we expect the pocket-sized mobile handled nodes are going

to be equipped with?
3. Have there been ongoing research efforts to support mobility in the
current VoIP protocols?
4. How many basic approaches to support mobility are there in VoIP

services?

5. Where and how does the first one seek to solve the mobility problem?
6. How many types of mobility should a well defined mobility
management frame-work or scheme deal with?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
55
 III. Speak on: VoIP service.

Unit 30
Grammar: The Infinitive. The Participle
Word List:
1. distributed network управление распределительными сетями
management
2. mobile agents автономные программы,
быстродействующие факторы
3. network monitoring наблюдение за сетями
4. ramework рамки работы, структура
5. scalability расширяемость, масштабность
6. a novel entity дополнительный объект
7. host= user пользователь, владелец
8. domain домен, область
9. traffic трафик
10. distributed computing поле распределительных вычислений
field

Mobile Software Agents for Decentralised Network

and Systems Management
Mobile Agent (MA) technology has been proposed for Network and
Systems Management (N&SM) as an answer to the scalability limitations
of centralized models and the flexibility problems of static hierarchical
frameworks. Nevertheless, much is still to be done to deploy MA-based
management frameworks that efficiently cope with the dynamically
changing traffic and topological characteristics of modern networks.
Mobile Agents (MAs) defined as autonomous programs with the ability
of moving from host to host and acting on behalf of users towards the
completion of a given task, attract increasing attention within the
distributed computing field.
The scalability problem is more adequately addressed by hierarchical
models that have recently started coming into the picture. But even
approaches where MAs are organized in hierarchical fashion, lack clearly
defined mechanisms for achieving automatic adaptation of the
management system to changing network configurations, i.e. mid-level
managers do not normally change the location where they execute. These
methods should exploit the unique capability of MAs to move from host to
host carrying with them their collected data.
56
 Hence, the deployment of a highly adaptive hierarchically structured
management model that relies on MAs both for acting as mid-level
managers and collecting results seems a rational approach to address these
issues and overcome the limitations of statically configured network
management (NM) frameworks.
In order to achieve the transition to a hierarchical model, we introduce a
novel entity termed the Mobile Distributed Manager (MDM), a
management component that operates at an intermediary level between the
manager and management agent end points. MDM entities are essentially
MAs that undertake the full responsibility of managing a network domain,
when certain criteria (determined by the administrator) are satisfied. Upon
being assigned to a domain, the MDM migrates to a host residing in that
domain and takes over the management of local network elements (NEs)
from the central manager.
As a result, the traffic related to the management of that domain is
localized, as the MDM is able to dispatch and receive MAs to collect NM
data from the local hosts, or even execute centralized management
operations on them.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Why has MA technology been proposed for N&SM?
2. Where do MAs attract increasing attention?
3. How is the scalability problem more adequately addressed?
4. What do even approaches where MAs are organized in hierarchical
fashion lack?
5. What should these methods exploit?
6. Why does the deployment of a highly adaptive hierarchically
structured management model seem a rational approach to address
these issues?
7. What is the MDM?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: MDM entities.

Unit 31
Grammar: The Impersonal Constructions.
The Emphatic Constructions
Word List:
1. the grid concept сетевая концепция, подход

57
2. grid technologies
3. virtual organizations
4. to conflate
5. to complement
6. to coin
7. distributed computing
8. grid computing
9. peer-to-peer computing
10. resource sharing
11. software development kit
(SDK)
12. application programming
interfaces
организация энергосетей
фактические организации
объединять
дополнять
изобретать, создавать (о слове)
распределенные вычисления
сетевые вычисления, «решетки»
вычислительных ресурсов
вычисления между равноправными
узлами (в сети)
разделение (совместное использование)
ресурсов
набор инструментальных средств по
разработке программного обеспечения
интерфейсы прикладного
программирования

“Grid”, the Technology of Distributed Calculation

“Grid” computing has emerged as an important new field, distinguished
from conventional distributed computing by its focus on large-scale
resource sharing, innovative applications, and, in some cases, high-
performance orientation.
The “Grid problem” is defined as flexible, secure, coordinated resource
sharing among dynamic collections of individuals, institutions, and
resources – what we refer to as virtual organizations. In such settings, we
encounter unique authentication, authorization, resource access, resource
discovery, and other challenges. It is this class of problem that is addressed
by Grid technologies.
In the extensible and open Grid architecture protocols, services,
application programming interfaces, and software development kits are
categorized according to their roles in enabling resource sharing. It is
important to define a compact set of inter grid protocols to enable
interoperability among different Grid systems. Grid concepts and
technologies complement and have much to contribute to other
contemporary technologies, including enterprise integration, application
service provider, storage service provider, and peer-to-peer computing.
The term “the Grid” was coined in the mid1990s to denote a proposed
distributed computing infrastructure for advanced science and engineering.
Considerable progress has since been made on the construction of such an
infrastructure, but the term “Grid” has also been conflated, at least in
popular perception, to embrace everything from advanced networking to
58
artificial intelligence. One might wonder whether the term has any real
substance and meaning. Is there really a distinct “Grid problem” and hence
a need for new “Grid technologies”? If so, what is the nature of these
technologies, and what is their domain of applicability?
The real and specific problem that underlies the grid concept is
coordinated resource sharing and problem solving in dynamic, multi-
institutional virtual organizations. This sharing is not primarily file
exchange but rather direct access to computers, software, data, and other
resources, as is required by a range of collaborative problem-solving and
resource-brokering strategies emerging in industry, science, and
engineering.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. How is “Grid” computing distinguished from conventional

distributed computing?

2. What is the “Grid problem”?

3. What are virtual organizations?
4. When was the term “the Grid” coined?
5. Is the Grid concept indeed motivated by a real and specific problem?
6. What is the sharing that underlies the Grid concept?

II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.

III. Speak on: The term “the Grid”.

Unit 32
Grammar: The Subjunctive Mood. Conditional Sentences
Word List:
1. ANSI-American National Национальный Институт
Standards Institute стандартизации США
2. CPU=central processing unit центральный процессор
3. computing power вычислительная мощность
4. intelligent disk drive «умный», логический дисковод
5. disk capacity емкость диска
6. firmware встроенное программное
обеспечение
7. host масса, совокупность
8. onboard встроенный
59
 9. burden объём, ноша
10. corruption искажение, порча
11. RAM-random access memory оперативное запоминающее
устройство (ОЗУ)

Wise Drives
If disk drives were enabled to perform a host of tasks that have
traditionally been the work of CPUs, dramatic low-cost improvements
could be made in computing environments ranging from laptops to storage
networks and drive makers would gain new profit centers. But this will
only happen if computer and drive manufacturers seize the opportunity and
create new interfaces for these so-called intelligent disk drives.
Disk drives currently come equipped with 32-bit internal

microprocessors, several megabytes of internal RAM, and tens of

megabytes of disk capacity reserved for internal drive purposes. This

onboard computing power has increased alongside improvements in the

speed and capacity of disk drives, and has already allowed them to take on

several intelligent tasks beyond basic data storage and retrieval, such as

detecting imminent drive failures. This power could be exploited for even

more tasks, and the addition of some relatively inexpensive extra

processing power would open the door to a huge array of functions, such as

searching and encryption, and so shift some of the processing burden from

CPUs and networks to disk drives.

Modern drives are nearly all standardized; they have common physical
dimensions, electrical and data connections, and operational commands –
all defined by ANSI standards. Interfaces between computers on one side
and drives on the other constitute an agreed contract on the rules for
storing and retrieving data. Adding intelligent drive features may require
changing these entrenched standards, and may also require changes in
operating system and application software. High-level control of intelligent
60
features may best reside in user applications, allowing them to tune a
drive’s performance to their specific needs.
Customizable intelligent features would allow drive makers to
distinguish their products and provide a competitive edge and an impetus
for innovation.
But if more intelligence is to be added to disk drives in the form of new
firmware and/or extra onboard processing power, computer manufacturers
must be convinced of the benefits of the new features to them and to
application developers and end users. An example would be in-drive tools
for handling data delays, integrity, and corruption control. These would
allow so-called disk-drive quality-of-service (QoS) features.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is needed for the so-called intelligent disk drives?
2. What do disk drives currently come equipped with?
3. Are modern drives all standardized?
4. Where may high-level control of intelligent features best reside?
5. What intelligent features would allow drive makers to distinguish
their products?
6. Who must computer manufacturers be convinced of the benefits of
the new features to?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Disk Drives.

61
 SECTION IV
ENERGETICS AND POWER ENGINEERING

Unit 33
Grammar: The Infinitive. The Elliptic Sentences
Word List:
1. power system dynamics динамика энергосистем
2. quasi-stationary assumption квазистационарное допущение
3. phaser метод фазовых выборок
4. steady state behaviour поведение (режим) в устойчивом
состоянии
5. transient analysis анализ переходных процессов
6. on-line synchronous синхронное измерение в режиме
measurement «on line»
( в оперативном режиме)
7.classical impulse response классический подход к реакции
approach системы на скачки напряжения
(тока)
8. power balance equations уравнения сохранения (баланса)
энергии
9. RLC network цепь, содержащая резисторы,
индуктивности и емкости
10. carrier frequency несущая частота
11. band-pass system полосно-пропускающая система
12. per se сам по себе, по существу

Tools for Dynamic Analysis of the General Large Power System

Using Time - Varying Phasers
Phaser representation of sinusoidal modulated signals is a powerful tool
for analysing the steady state behaviour of voltages and currents in a linear
RLC network. Phasers have been used for decades in the transient analysis
of the power system under the quasi-stationary assumption, that is, the
transients are assumed to be sufficiently slow so that they can be
approximated to be stationary. This has been an excellent approximation
for analysing most of the slow dynamic phenomena (much slower than the
60 Hz carrier frequency) studied in the past, but the error introduced by
this approximation must be kept in mind while analysing some of the faster

62
transients: ignoring this fact has led to some recent results of questionable
validity in the literature.
In the power industry, using advanced communication facilities, on-line
synchronous measurement of real time phasers is now becoming feasible.
With the evolving digital signal processing technology, it is quite realistic
to assume that time-varying phasers can be measured accurately in real
time using cost-effective modules. Real time control designs based on the
time variations of these phasers are also being explored in the power
system industry. However the analysis using these phasers is still based on
the classical quasi-stationary assumption that the variations of the phasers
are very small. It becomes important to understand the theory base for the
time varying phasers and the implications of their time variations on the
error introduced in the quasi-stationary phaser analysis. In this paper, the
time varying phaser concept will be developed from the basics.
In Communication theory, a notion of time varying phasers has existed
for a long time in the context of modulation; for analysing narrow-band
signals whose signal bandwidths (in the frequency domain) are much
smaller than the carrier frequency. There, mostly the phasers are used for
the frequency domain analysis of band-pass systems using the classical
impulse response approach. Such a formulation, per se, is not applicable to
the power system because the power system dynamics is nonlinear in the
form of power balance equations and an impulse response analysis of the
system may not be suitable for our purpose. Moreover, the narrow band
assumption on the phasers is essentially equivalent to the traditional quasi-
stationary assumption that their speeds are small so does not contribute
much new information.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is a powerful tool for analyzing the steady state behaviour of
voltages and currents in a linear RLC network?
2. What is becoming feasible in the power industry now?
3. What is quite realistic to assume?
4. What is the analysis using time-varying phasers still based on?
5. What are time varying phasers used for in Communication theory?
6. Is the power system dynamics nonlinear in the form of power balance

equations?

II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.

III. Speak on: Phaser representation of sinusoidal modulated signals.
63
 Unit 34
Grammar: The Infinitive Constructions
Word List:
1. capacity мощность
2. GW=109 Watts (giga) гигаватты
3. MW= 106 Watts (mega) мегаватты
4. under construction в процессе строительства, строящийся
5. upgrading модернизация
6. maturity завершенность; стабилизация
7. in view of ввиду, с точки зрения
8. safety; безопасность, надежность
9. facilities оборудование, установки, средства
10. to incorporate объединять, включать
11. to commission подготавливать

Energy Problems and Nuclear Power Development in Japan

Japan has virtually no natural energy resources and, at present, is unable
to import energy in the form of electric power. There are currently 49
commercial nuclear power stations in Japan, with a total capacity of
41.191GW. If the plants now under construction are included, these figures
are expected to rise to 54 and 46.7GW, respectively,
Estimates of future electric power demand indicate that at the end of
2010, nuclear power plants with a total capacity of 72.5GW, representing
about 27% of the total generating capacity, will be necessary, which means
constructing 20 additional 1300MW-class plants. At the same time, some
plants currently in operation are expected to be decommissioned and
replaced with new plants.
At present, about 425 nuclear power plants with a capacity of 356GW
are operating in the world. Through 40 years of operating experience,
nuclear power has proven to be safe and reliable, and has become an
indispensable source of electric power. In some areas of the world, such as
the United States and the EU, development of nuclear power plants has
been halted due to problems relating to electric power demand and anti-
nuclear movements. Asian countries, which are expected to undergo rapid
economic development in the years ahead, have an urgent need to develop
more nuclear power plants. Another crucial problem before us is upgrading
the safety of nuclear power facilities in Eastern Europe.
Those plants to be constructed in the next few decades are likely to be
predominantly light-water reactors (PWRs and BWRs), which are
64
approaching technological maturity in Western nations with advanced
nuclear power industries. In Japan, larger reactors, ABWRs and APWRs,
which incorporate evolutionary improvements over current reactors, will
probably be the main types of reactors in the next generation in view of the
site selection and reasonable capacity of one unit. The design concepts of
these reactors are expected to incorporate as many passive safety features
as possible. The design concepts of what is called the passive featured
reactors being proposed in advanced countries are fundamentally suitable
for small- and medium-capacity plants, so the countries where reliability of
the power supply system is not adequate and which have a desire to
develop small- and medium-capacity plants would be suitable for facilities
of this type.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Why is Japan unable to import energy in the form of electric power?
2. What do estimates of future electric power demand indicate?
3. How many nuclear power plants with a capacity of 356 GW are

operating in the world at present?

4. What need do Asian countries have?

5. What reactors will probably be the main types of reactors in the next
generation in Japan?
6. What will the design concepts of these reactors incorporate?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Nuclear power plants.

Unit 35
Grammar: The Passive Voice
Word List:
1. renewable energy sources возобновляемые источники энергии
2. incorporation присоединение
3. harvest урожай
4. erosion эрозия
5. to take into account принимать во внимание
6. arable land пахотная земля, пашня
7. fallow land земля под паром, залежь, новь
8. enerdy crops энергетическая масса (для сжигания)
65
9. traditional crops традиционные сельскохозяйственные
культуры
10. cereals зерновые культуры
11. sunflower подсолнечник

Large–Scale Economic Integration of Electricity from Short-Rotation

Woody Crops
Biomass is a renewable energy source formed by incorporation of CO 2
through the photosynthesis process. Biomass combustion releases the
photo-synthetic energy which can be used as electricity and/or heat. In this
analysis the economic aspects of the production and use of biomass are
examined for large-scale electricity generation. The study is set in Spain, as
an example of a potential site suitable for large-scale production and use of
biomass.
The study considers the chain of production and harvest of biomass; the
generation of electricity; the environmental impacts, and the economic
costs. A Geographical Information System (GIS) has been used for site
selection for plantations and power plants. The GIS criteria have been
optimized to generate an environmentally friendly scheme at lowest cost,
while maintaining a fully sustainable energy resource. These include land
availability, rainfall, accessibility to cooling water for the power plants,
proximity to suitable electrical substations, access and availability of staff.
Each power plant is at the center of a circle with a maximum radius of 40
km, within which all the biomass for the plant is produced.
In Spain, the most relevant environmental issues that should be taken
into account in a large-scale biomass scheme are land erosion and the
rational use of the water. In order to reduce these factors as much as
possible, an important decision has been taken in the global process: to
consider only non-irrigated arable lands. Nowadays, part of these non-
irrigated lands is set-aside or fallow lands. In the current use, the erosion
could be 50 times larger than it might be with energy crops. In other cases,
energy crops might be planted with traditional crops such as cereals and
sunflowers, which require intensive agricultural techniques and frequent
intervention, thus producing higher erosion (three times larger than energy
crops).
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is biomass formed by?
2. What kind of energy does biomass combustion release?
3. What has a Geographical Information System (GIS) been used for?
66
 4. What do the GIS criteria include?
5. What environmental issues should be taken into account in a large-

scale biomass scheme?

6. What traditional crops might energy crops be planted with?

II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Geographical Information System.

Unit 36
Grammar: The Present Perfect Tense
Word List:
1. pulse breakdown импульсный пробой
2. ionizing potential wave ионизирующая потенциальная волна
3. wave front волновой фронт
4. space- charge field пространственно-заряженное поле (поле
объемного заряда)
5. electron-impact ионизация за счет столкновения
ionization электронов (ударная ионизация)
6. streamer dynamics динамика стримеров (ручьёв разряда)
7. propagation распространение (волн, колебаний)
8. numerical simulation численное моделирование
9. density плотность
10. because of из-за, вследствие
11. via через
12. as to относительно, что касается

Streamer Dynamics
In a number of situations, such as lightning and pulse breakdown of
gases, the propagation of the ionized channel proceeds via an ionizing
potential wave (IPW). These are nonlinear waves that convert field energy
in the region immediately ahead of the wave front into ionization and
excitation energy of the gas and kinetic energy of all particles in the region
behind the front. In general, the IPWs arise from the interplay between the
space-charge field, electron-impact ionization, gas photoionization, neutral
gas heating, and the background conductivity of the region ahead of the
front. There are various types of IPW (such as streamers and leaders)
differentiated by the relative importance of the above effects in shaping
their characteristics.
67
 Let us discuss the structure and dynamics of streamers. They are a class
of IPW in which the conductivity of the background gas ahead of the front
is zero and neutral gas heating is not significant (the terminology of
streamers is sometimes used to refer to all IPWs, leading to confusion as to
the importance of these effects). A considerable amount of experimental,
theoretical, and numerical efforts have been devoted to the understanding
of the structure and propagation of streamers. Recent developments in
diagnostic techniques have allowed a more quantitative probing of
streamer structure and propagation. The focus of most of these
investigations has been on the speed of propagation and radius of the
streamer channel. Because of the complexity of the equations describing
streamer dynamics (either kinetic or fluid descriptions), analytical
investigations have been restricted to one (longitudinal) spatial dimension
(1D). This simplification results in space-charge field distributions and
consequently particle flows that may give an inaccurate picture of streamer
dynamics. Numerical simulations and experiments show that the radial
flow of charge is important in determining the radial density profiles and,
consequently, the field structure. Thus, at least, a 2D analysis is necessary.
Although kinetic models have been used, the vast majority of the
numerical simulations of streamers have used fluid equations to describe
the evolution of the electron and ion densities.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is an ionizing potential wave (IPW)?
2. What do the ionizing potential waves arise from?
3. What class of IPW is discussed in this paper?
4. What have recent developments in diagnostic techniques allowed?
5. Why have analytical investigations been restricted to one spatial
dimension?
6. What do numerical simulations and experiments show?

II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.

III. Speak on: The structure and dynamics of streamers.

Unit 37
Grammar: The Present Progressive Tense
Word List:
1. series reactor сглаживающий дроссель
2. power transformer трансформатор питания
68
3. fault current limiter
4. device impedance
5. the superconducting to
resistive state transition
6. the low inductance air core
reactor
7. the composite reaction
textured material
8. air core
9. HTSC high-temperature
superconductivity
10. system efficiency
11. system performance
12. triggering
ограничитель аварийного тока
полное входное сопротивление
устройства
переход из сверхпроводящего
состояния в резистивное состояние
воздушный (без железного
сердечника) дроссель, имеющий
низкую индуктивность
материал, полученный в результате
сложной реакции
воздушный сердечник
высокотемпературная
сверхпроводимость
эффективность использования
системы
показатели работы системы
пуск, запуск, инициирование

High Temperature Superconducting Current Limiting Series Reactor

Modern Power Generators and Electric Utilities are facing a changing
environment characterized with continual demand for increasing loads and
emphasis on better utilization of existing assets. Increasing environmental
concerns present powerful opposition to building large centralized
generation plants and new transmission lines.
In order to utilize existing assets better, we are witnessing very intensive
development efforts in the area of the plant or system performance
monitoring, life management and new FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission
System) technology. Both technologies are already offering very effective
algorithms, techniques and concepts to work the existing equipment harder.
These technologies have limitations in terms of being based on
conventional conducting, magnetic and insulation materials.
Further radical improvement of the already optimized equipment and
system efficiency can only be based on new materials.
A new design concept of Superconducting Current Limiting Series

Reactor has been developed utilizing the characteristics of the composite

reaction textured Bi-2212 HTSC material. The current limiting effect has

been achieved by the almost instantaneous increase in the device

69
impedance due to the superconducting to resistive state transition of the

HTSC material, triggered by combined effect of magnetic field and fault

current in excess of the critical levels for selected material. The concept is

hybrid (inductive/resistive) with the SC elements placed inside the low

inductance air cored reactor which is used to generate an external

triggering magnetic field. The device was designed to provide a magnetic

field in a way to assist uniform quenching of SC material and minimize

electromagnetic forces on SC elements.

Experience gained during this development work is generally applicable

for other power engineering equipment, in particular SC POWER
transformers which may inherently incorporate the fault current limiting
function.
The present practice for limiting fault currents, based on conventional
technology, is costly and reduces the reliability and flexibility of power
system operation.
At this point, superconductors offer an attractive potential as the basis
for a SCCL SR, due to their intrinsic characteristics of transition from
superconducting to resistive states.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What are Modern Power Generation and Electric Utilities facing?
2. What do increasing environmental concerns present powerful

opposition to?

3. Where are we witnessing very intensive development efforts?

4. Does new FACTS technology have any limitations?
5. How has the current limiting effect been achieved?
6. What is experience gained during this development work applicable

for?

70
 II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Modern Power Generators and Electric Utilities.

Unit 38
Grammar: The Participle
Word List:
1. electric power systems расширение/развитие энергосистем
(EPS) expansion
2. to simulate моделировать
3. complex,n совокупность, группа
4. criterion (pl. criteria) критерий
5. decision analysis анализ решений
6. grid энергетическая система, энергосеть
7. multicriteria многокритериальный
8. utility theory теория полезности, использования
Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis Techniques in Electric Power Systems
Expansion Planning

The general approach to multi-criteria decision analysis on electric

power system (EPS) expansion is a combination of several multi-criteria
analysis techniques in terms of different preference relations in the analysis
of decision. The approach is based on the fundamental concepts of the
utility theory and development of concrete multi-criteria analysis
techniques.
Expansion of large electric power systems (EPSs) embracing vast
territories is very difficult to simulate due to a great number of significant
factors. Internal structure of large power systems is complicated because of
different types of generation units with different technical and economic
characteristics, constraints on transmission capacities of the main grid in
some directions, importance of requirements to reliability of EPS operation
and security of power supply to consumers, etc. The problem of expansion
of large EPSs is rather sophisticated due to uncertainty of future
development conditions and other important factors.
The current technology for large EPS expansion planning includes
several groups of problems, which specify the structure and operating
conditions of EPS stage by stage. For example, the first stage is
determination of the necessary number and types of generation units, the
second is selection of new transmission lines of the main grid, the third
71
stage is the study of reliability and operating conditions of EPS options, the
last is determination of the principles and structure of the EPS control.
There is a complex of criteria, models, and simulation techniques at each
stage (level). A lot of concrete results in this area have been achieved in
recent years.
The EPS expansion options can be estimated by several, as a rule,
conflicting criteria (economic, technical, ecological, social, etc.). Decision-
making is reduced to choice of such a possible option, which will have a
maximum value taking into account the applied estimation criteria.
The problem of decision-making in the energy sector under conditions
of availability of many criteria is far from being investigated. To make a
final choice different informal (in terms of mathematics) procedures should
be applied. For this purpose expert estimates, interactive procedures,
experience and intuition of researches, and particularly of a decision
maker, are widely used.

72
 Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the general approach to multi-criteria decision analysis on
EPS expansion?
2. What is it based on?
3. Why is expansion of large EPSs very difficult to simulate?
4. How many stages specify the structure and operating conditions
of EPS?
5. Is there a complex of criteria, models, and simulation techniques at
each stage?
6. Have there been any concrete results achieved in this area in recent
years? (Have any concrete results in this area been achieved in recent
years?)
7. What informal procedures should be applied in more complicated
cases?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Expansion of large EPSs.

Unit 39
Grammar: The ing- and ed- forms as Parts of Speech.
Their Functions in a Sentence
Word List:
1. cogeneration совместное вырабатывание тепла и
электроэнергии (на одной станции)
2. on-site на месте, на единой территории
3. on-site engineering совместные инженерные работы
4. CHP (combined heat and единая теплоэнергетическая система
power) system
5. «plug and play» «подсоедини к сети и играй»,
т.е. полностью готовое устройство,
не требующее никаких усилий
6. gains in energy efficiency повышение КПД использования энергии
7. grid энергетическая система
8. dehumidification уменьшение влажности
9. power suppy энергоснабжение
10. carbon dioxide двуокись углерода СО2
11. to meet a load удовлетворять требованиям по нагрузке
12. greenhouse gas emission выброс парникового газа
13. to meet goal достичь цели
73
14. US Department департамент по делам энергетики США
of Energy (министерство)
15. IEQ качество среды (климата) в помещении
16. desiccant высушивающий
17. mould плесень

Cogeneration and On-Site Production

The potential benefits of CHP in commercial building applications
could be more fully realized if manufacturers learn to make ‘plug-and-
play’ systems that make on-site engineering less costly and time-
consuming. To understand what it takes for CHP systems to become fully
integrated into a building’s existing energy systems, US researches are
testing ‘integrated energy systems’ at a major university and are ready to
pass on some early lessons learned.
Many energy experts and building owners understand the potential

benefits of CHP for buildings – including the tremendous gains in energy

efficiency. In the US, roughly 67 % of the energy contained in the fuel for

electricity generation is rejected as waste heat into the environment.

Further losses occur in electrical power transmission. When this waste heat

is made available at higher temperatures, then it can be utilized for

dehumidification, air conditioning, or heating with advanced Combined

Heat and Power (CHP) systems. By doing so, energy efficiency can

increase from 33% to as high as 80% for a CHP system, although the

efficiency of electricity generation is reduced.

CHP can also increase the reliability of a building’s power supply – a

substantial advantage in today’s changing electricity market. A highly
reliable power supply is vital to some companies’ computing,
manufacturing and research functions.
Emission of carbon dioxide and air pollutants can be substantially
reduced with CHP. CHP can meet some or all of a building’s cooling,
heating, or dehumidification load, reducing the need for electricity from
74
the grid by an equivalent amount, thus leading to lower emissions. CHP
systems are also more efficient and require less fuel than traditional
systems. According to the US Department of Energy, CHP systems could
reduce annual greenhouse gas emissions by at least 25 million tones of
carbon if the Government’s goal to double US installed capacity by 2010
were met.
CHP can also improve indoor environmental quality (IEQ). In
combination with a desiccant dehumidifier, CHP systems can provide
better humidity control than conventional systems, and reduce the potential
for mould and bacteria growth.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. How could the potential benefits of CHP in commercial building
applications be more fully realized?
2. What are US researchers testing?
3. How much energy contained in the fuel for electricity generation is
rejected as waste heat into the environment?
4. Where do further losses occur?
5. What can this waste heat be utilized for?
6. What efficiency can increase and what efficiency is reduced?
7. Can CHP also increase the reliability of a building’s power supply?
II. Analyse the grammar strutures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: CHP systems.

Unit 40
Grammar: The Attribute
Word List:
1. combined cycle power ТЭЦ – теплоэлектроцентраль,
plant одновременно вырабатывающая
электроэнергию и тепло в виде
горячей воды и пара
2. 150 MW=150 MegaWatts 150 мегаватт
3. trunk gas line магистральный газопровод
4. cooling tower градирня
5. ancillary вспомогательный
6. to house вмещать, содержать
7. water treatment plant установка для подготовки воды
8. backup резервный
9. joint venture совместное предприятие

75
 Petersburg Combined Cycle
Western companies saw an opportunity to cooperate with Russian
industry through gas turbine technology transfer. Siemens led the way with
the creation of Interturbo, a joint venture with LMZ in which the German
company held 45 %. While the prime purpose was to establish a production
line for their 150 MW Model in the Russian market, it would also be
possible to take advantage of lower production costs to supply gas turbines
in other markets. In fact, with the slow down in the Russian market, the
production line has been sustained with contracts for projects in India and
Southeast Asia.
The ultimate customer for the combined cycle power plant is
Lenenergo, which supplies power and district heating to the city of
St Petersburg. They have 10,000 MW of capacity, including nine large
stations coupled to the district heating networks. St Petersburg is the
largest load centre in the northwestern regional grid of RAO EES, the State
Power Board for whom Lenenergo operate the regional control centre
controlling 30,000 MW of plant.
The main fuel for power generation in Russia today is natural gas,
covering 70 % of the installed capacity, but the efficiency of condensing
plant is no more than 40 %. The combined cycles will improve the energy
efficiency.
The plant is built on a green field site at Primorskii on the coast and
close to existing 330 kV transmission lines. The trunk gas line to Finland
passes near to the site, and a spur line is being built from it to supply the
new power station. The site was a coastal wetland which had first to be
drained and then filled. Over 30,000 piles were driven to a depth of
12 metres to provide a stable foundation for the power plant and ancillary
buildings.
All this had to be done for the consortium to gain access to the site.
In fact the consortium representing the non-Russian contribution, is
responsible for slightly less than half of the total contract value. The
building housing the two combined cycle blocks is a small part of the total
site area, which includes a hyperbolic natural draft cooling tower for each
block (of which only one has so far been built), a water treatment plant,
and storage tanks for the backup liquid fuel.
Another important building, in view of the climate is a site boiler house.
It will be used to heat the power plant building, the offices and apartments.
Northwest St Petersburg is the first of a series of combined cycles.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
76
 1. What opportunity did western countries see?
2. What did Siemens do?
3. Who is the ultimate customer for the combined cycle power plant?
4. Where is the combined cycle plant built?
5. What is the main fuel for power generation in Russia today?
6. What will the combined cycles improve?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on:
1. The Combined Cycle Plant.
2. The ways of international cooperation in power engineering.

Unit 41
Grammar: The Infinitive, the Gerund, the Participle
Word List:
1. enriched uranium обогащенный уран
2. pellet топливная таблетка (ядерного реактора),
гранула
3. dime американская монета в десять фунтов
4. rod стержень
control rod управляющий стержень
5. bundle узел, связка, пучок
6. to submerge погружать в воду
7. supercritical сверхкритический
8. core ядро
reactor core активная зона ядерного реактора
9. to shut down остановить, выключить
10. to spin вращать, закручивать
11. loop контур
12. pressure vessel корпус ядерного реактора
13. concrete бетон
14. liner оболочка, облицовка
15. radiation shield радиационная защита ядерного реактора
16. steel containment оболочка (саркофаг) из стали
vessel
17. to refuel перезагружать топливом
18. coolant fluid охлаждающая жидкость
19. leakage утечка

How Nuclear Power Works

To build a nuclear reactor, what you need is some mildly enriched
uranium. Typically, the uranium is formed into pellets with approximately
77
the same diameter as a dime and a length of an inch or so. The pellets are
arranged into long rods, and the rods are collected together into bundles.
The bundles are then typically submerged in water inside a pressure vessel.
The water acts as a coolant. In order for the reactor to work, the bundle,
submerged in water, must be slightly supercritical. That means that, left to
its own devices, the uranium would eventually overheat and melt.
To prevent this, control rods made of a material that absorbs neutrons
are inserted into the bundle using a mechanism that can raise or lower the
control rods. Raising and lowering the control rods allow operators to
control the rate of the nuclear reaction. When an operator wants the
uranium core to produce more heat, the rods are raised out of the uranium
bundle. To create less heat, the rods are lowered into the uranium bundle.
The rods can also be lowered completely into the uranium bundle to shut
the reactor down in the case of an accident or to change the fuel.
The uranium bundle acts as an extremely high-energy source of heat. It

heats the water and turns it to steam. The steam drives a steam turbine,

which spins a generator to produce power. In some reactors, the steam

from the reactor goes through a secondary, intermediate heat exchanger to

convert another loop of water to steam, which drives the turbine. The

advantage to this design is that the radioactive water/steam never contacts

the turbine. Also, in some reactors, the coolant fluid in contact with the

reactor core is gas or liquid metal; these types of reactors allow the core to

be operated at higher temperatures. Once you get past the reactor itself,

there is very little difference between a nuclear power plant and a coal-

fired or oil-fired power plant except for the source of the heat used to

create steam.

The reactor’s pressure vessel is typically housed inside a concrete liner

that acts as a radiation shield. That liner is housed within a much larger
78
steel containment vessel. This vessel contains the reactor core as well the

hardware (cranes, etc.) that allows workers at the plant to refuel and

maintain the reactor. The steel containment vessel is intended to prevent

leakage of any radioactive gases or fluids from the plant.

Finally, the containment vessel is protected by an outer concrete

building that is strong enough to survive such things as crashing jet
airliners. These secondary containment structures are necessary to prevent
the escape of radiation/radioactive steam in the event of an accident like
the one at Three Mile Island. The absence of secondary containment
structures in Russian nuclear power plants allowed radioactive material to
escape in an accident at Chernobyl.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What do you need to build a nuclear reactor?
2. How are the pellets arranged?
3. What is water inside a pressure vessel used for?
4. Why are control rods inserted into the bundle?
5. How does the uranium bundle act?

6. What acts as a radiation shield?

7. What are the secondary containment structures necessary for?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Building a nuclear reactor.

Unit 42
Grammar: Non-finite Forms of the Verb. The Infinitive
Constructions. The Passive Voice
Word List:
1. ocean energy sources источники энергии океана
2. tidal приливно-отливный
3. ocean thermal energy преобразование тепловой
conversion энергии океана в электричество

79
 4. water column водяной столб, водомерная
колонка
5. chamber камера
6. funnel загрузочная воронка
7. counter-rotating вращение в противоположном
направлении
8. to suck всасывать
9. regardless of независимо от
10. to exploit разрабатывать
11. temperature gradient перепад температур
12. temperature differential разность температур
13. the working fluid рабочая среда, рабочее тело
14. open-cycle разомкнутый цикл
15. closed- cycle замкнутый цикл
16. desalinated опресненный
17. flash мгновенно
18. loop контур
19. vaporizer испаритель

Big Plans for Ocean Power Hinge on Funding and Additional R&D
There are three ocean energy sources:
1) Wave. 2) Tidal. 3) Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC).
Where the shoreline has suitable topography, a cliff-mounted oscillating
water column can be used. With oscillating water columns the incoming
waves cause the water level in the main chamber to rise. As the water level
rises, it forces air up a funnel that drives a “Wells” counter-rotating turbine.
When the wave falls the air is sucked back down into the turbine. The
Wells turbine is designed to turn in the same direction regardless of the
air’s flow.
OTEC exploits the temperature gradient at various depths of the ocean.
In essence, OTEC converts solar radiation into electricity. For OTEC to
produce significant amounts of electricity, a temperature differential of at
least 36 F is required. There are three types of OTEC systems: open–cycle,
closed–cycle and hybrid–cycle.
In the open–cycle system, the warmer seawater closer to the surface,
which is the working fluid, is evaporated in a vacuum chamber to produce
steam. This steam is then expanded through a low–pressure turbine
generator to produce electricity. After leaving the turbine the steam is
condensed in a condenser to produce desalinated water. Cold seawater
80
from lower ocean depths is used in the condenser. A new supply of warmer
seawater is used in the next cycle.
With a closed–cycle system, a low boiling liquid is used as the working
fluid. The warm seawater vaporizes the working fluid, which is used to
drive an electric turbine generator. Using cold seawater, the vapor is
condensed back into a liquid to start the cycle all over again.
The hybrid system is a combination of the open and closed–systems. In
a hybrid system, warm seawater enters a vacuum chamber where it is flash
evaporated into steam. This is similar to the open–cycle evaporation
process. The steam is used to vaporize the working fluid of the closed–
cycle loop on the other side of an ammonia vaporizer. From here the
vaporized working fluid drives a turbine to produce electricity.

Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. How many ocean energy sources are there?
2. Where can a cliff-mounted oscillating water column be used?
3. When is air forced up a funnel that drives a “Wells” counter-rotating
turbine?
4. When is the air sucked back down into the turbine?
5. How is the Wells turbine designed?

6. When can tidal energy be harnessed?

7. What does OTEC exploit?
8. How many types of OTEC systems are there?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Three types of OTEC systems

Grammar: Non-finite Forms of the Verb
1. pressure reducing station
2. high-pressure steam
3. low-pressure steam
4. cogeneration
5. feedwater pump
6. turbine chiller
Unit 43
Word List:
станция, уменьшающая давление пара
пар высокого давления
пар низкого давления
совместное производство тепловой и
электрической энергии
питательный насос
охладитель турбины

81
 7. low-pressure header камера низкого давления
8. to throttle дросселировать, уменьшать
9. irreversibility необратимость
10. by-product промежуточный или побочный продукт
11. by-product power выработка сопутствующей
generation электрической энергии
12. to encounter встречаться, сталкиваться
13. steam plant парогенератор
14. peak пиковая нагрузка
15. an increased reducing увеличенная пропускная способность
station throughput понижающих станций
16. demand потребность
17. absorber поглотитель

At pressure reducing stations

An industrial or central plant is often designed to utilize both high- and
low-pressure steam. Maintaining a balance between high- and low-pressure
steam requirements is critical to obtaining optimal performance from the
plant as a whole. Feedwater pumps, turbine chillers and other equipment
with high-pressure requirements must be carefully matched to low-pressure
demands of absorption chillers, hot water heaters, etc. (This assumes that
the steam flows through the high-pressure machinery to a low-pressure
header for further use.)
If high-pressure needs are less than low-pressure requirements, then
there must be a pressure reducing station (PRS) to throttle the steam from
high to low pressure. The result of the throttling is so-called “lost work.”
The lost work is the consequence of thermodynamic second law limitations
and introduction of irreversibilities into the system. This throttling process
in a PRS is a candidate for the use of cogeneration techniques.
Cogeneration is defined by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) as
the simultaneous production of electricity and useful thermal energy in
significant quantities from a common energy source.
The idea of cogeneration can be extended further. Rather than using heat
energy which is a by-product of electrical generation, electricity can be
generated as a by-product of steam generated for process purposes. This is
called “by-product power generation.” This is the particular situation
encountered with a PRS in a steam plant.
Lost work which results from utilizing the PRS can be recovered if a
work-producing device, such as a turbine, is installed in parallel with the
PRS. The turbine could be utilized to pump fluids, generate electricity, or
perform other work functions.
82
 The University of South Florida Central Plant was analyzed for PRS
cogeneration. The reducing stations operate at their peak during the winter
when there is a relatively high demand for heating and a minimal need for
cooling. Consequently, the need for low-pressure steam for the hot water
heat exchangers produces an increased reducing station throughput. During
the summer, the large, non-condensing turbine chiller creates a high
demand for high-pressure steam which translates directly into a large
amount of available low-pressure steam for the hot water exchangers and
absorbers and small need for the reducing station.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is a central plant designed to do?
2. What must there be to throttle the steam from high to low pressure?
3. How is cogeneration defined?
4. How can the idea of cogeneration be extended?

5. What is lost work?

6. How can lost work be recovered?
7. When do the reducing stations operate at their peak?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Cogeneration techniques.

83
 SECTION V
MANAGEMENT, ECONOMICS AND LABOUR
PROTECTION
Unit 44
Grammar: The Adverbial Modifier
Word List:
1. currency валюта
2. a spot exchange rate курс обмена валюты в данный момент
3. a forward exchange rate будущий курс обмена
4. gold bullion золото в слитках
5. transaction сделка
6. balance of payments платежный баланс
7. gold stock of a country золотой запас страны
8. surplus активное сальдо, профицит
9. IMS международная валютная система
10. floating exchange rate плавающий курс обмена валют
11. supply and demand Предложение - спрос
12. forward discount- форвардная премия
premium
13. dificit дефицит
14. interest rate процентная ставка
15. parity паритет

Foreign Exchange
Each country uses a different currency. This means that an exchange
rate (i.e., a spot exchange rate) must be set in order for trade in goods and
assets to occur between countries. The traditional method has been to use a
common standard for assessing the value of each currency. During the era
of the gold standard, gold was the international means of payment, and
each currency was assessed according to its gold value. The domestic
purchasing power of a currency, i.e., its gold content, was set by the
domestic monetary authorities, who thereby controlled the exchange rate.
Adjustments in exchange rates occurred only rarely, when a government
was forced to reduce the gold content of its currency. To maintain
equilibrium in the system, gold bullion was used to settle international
transactions. The balance of all monetary flows in and out of a country was
usually referred to as the balance of payments and accounted for all
monetary flows over a given time period. These flows were linked to either
trade (payments of imports and exports) or capital flows (borrowing and
84
lending abroad). A deficit in the balance of payments resulted in a gold
outflow and a reduction in the domestic reserves; this was equivalent to a
reduction in the domestic money supply, since the gold stock of a country
was its real money supply. Gold made up all the international reserves of a
country.
In order to soften the impact of balance of payments deficits or
surpluses on the domestic economy, hard currencies were introduced to
increase international reserves. These currencies - the U.S. dollar, followed
by the British pound and Deutsche mark - were freely convertible into
gold. The gold exchange rates lasted for about 20 years after World War II.
But in the early 1970s international trade and financial transactions
grew to the point where this direct link of currencies to a gold standard
with fixed parities exploded. The international monetary system (IMS)
progressively evolved toward a system of floating exchange rates. Under
the current system, the price of each currency is freely determined by
market forces. Exchange rate parities are not fixed by governments but
fluctuate according to supply and demand.
The current IMS may be characterized as a system of floating exchange
rates with constraints. The forces of supply and demand continually move
the prices of major currencies, but the exchange rates are also constrained
by certain institutional agreements, such as the IMS, which are adjusted
only infrequently.
Spot exchange rates, forward exchange rates, and interest rates are
technically linked for all currencies that are part of the free international
market. The relation known as interest rate parity states that the forward
discount, or premium, is equal to the interest rate differential between two
currencies. In other words, the forward exchange rate is equal to the spot
exchange rate adjusted by the interest rate differential. The interest rate
parity relation derives from the fact that arbitrage exists. If it did not,
riskless arbitrage would occur.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What has been the traditional method to assess the value of each
currency?
2. How was each currency assessed during the era of the gold standard?

3. What is the balance of payments?

4. Why were hard currencies introduced?
5. What did the IMS progressively evolve toward?
6. How may the current IMS be characterized?
85
 7. What forces continually move the prices of major currencies?3
8. What does the relation known as interest rate parity state?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: 1. Exchange rates. 2. The IMS.

Unit 45
Grammar: The Inversion. The Present Perfect Tense.
The Present Simple Tense (usage)
Word List:
1. runs (здесь) периоды времени
2. runner-up участник соревнования, занявший второе
место
3. fluctuations колебания
4. mean temperature отклонения от средней температуры
departures
5. jet streams реактивные потоки
6. individual factors отдельные факторы

Temperature Changes in Canada

Measuring climatic changes across tin area as large as Canada depends
on the availability of long and complete runs of instrumental observations
for every major region of the country. Although continuous observations
for some more northerly locations date back only to the mid- 1940s or
later, this information has been available for most of the country since
about 1895. Consequently, that year was chosen as the starting date for this
study.
The twenty-five warmest years of the twentieth century, based on
annual mean temperature departures, are ranked from warmest to coolest as
are the century’s nine completed decades. Canada’s warmest year (up to
the end of 1991) was 1981, a year which was abnormally warm in almost
every part of the country. The runner-up was 1987, which was unusually
warm, in most of southern Canada but not in the far north or along the
extreme east coast. The third warmest year was 1931.
If temperature change is a global phenomenon – and the evidence
clearly indicates that it is – why is there so much variation from one region
to another? Recent research has confirmed a very strong connection
between local climatic fluctuations and large-scale changes in the
circulation of the atmosphere. These are related to changes in the intensity

86
and position of major features like the jet streams that direct the flow of air
around the world and exert a considerable influence on regional weather.
As for the underlying causes of the general rise in temperature over the
past century we cannot at the present time draw any definitive conclusions.
The changes that have occurred are still within the limits of the natural
temperature variability of the last 1000 years, and we still do not know
enough about the process of climatic change to isolate individual causal
factors. However, these changes are consistent with predictions of warming
resulting from a human-induced buildup of greenhouse gases - and, indeed,
most of the world’s leading atmospheric scientists see this as the most
important single factor. Nevertheless, further monitoring and analysis of
climatic conditions around the world will be necessary before we can
finally determine the exact causes of the present rise in global
temperatures.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What does measuring climatic changes across Canada depend?
2. What are the Canada’s warmest years?
3. What was the runner-up?
4. What connection has recent research confirmed?
5. What does global warming result from?

6. Why will further monitoring and analysis of climatic conditions

around the world be necessary?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Warming resulting from human-induced buildup of
greenhouse gases.

Grammar: The Passive Voice
1. sidestream
2. exposure of nonsmoker
(passive smoking)
3. exhaled mainstream
smoke
Unit 46
Word List:
дым, образующийся от тления
табака и выдыхаемый курильщиком
в процессе «затяжек»
нахождение в дыму, обкуривание
тех, кто сам непосредственно не
курит
выдыхаемый курильщиком дым
87
 4. human carcinogen
5. irritant
6. ammonia
7. nitrogen oxides
8. sulfur dioxide
9. aldehydes
10. carbon monoxide
11. lung cancer mortality
12 .bronchiolitis
13. the offspring
канцерогенное вещество,
вызывающее рак у человека
раздражитель
аммиак
оксиды азота
SO2 – двуокись серы
альдегиды
CO – угарный газ
смертность от рака легких
воспаление бронхов
отпрыск, потомство

Environmental Tobacco Smoke

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is generated by the combustion of
tobacco products. It is composed of sidestream smoke (SS), e2mitted from
the smouldering tobacco between puffs, and exhaled mainstream smoke
(MS) from the smoker. When a cigarette is smoked, roughly half of the
smoke generated is SS and the other half MS.
ETS, SS and MS are complex mixtures of over 4000 compounds. These
include more than 40 known or suspected human carcinogens. A number of
irritants, such as ammonia, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide and various
aldehydes, and cardiovascular toxicants, such as carbon monoxide,
nicotine and some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are also
present.
While ETS, SS and MS are qualitatively similar with respect to
chemical composition, the absolute and relative quantities of the
constituents can differ substantially. A major quantitative difference is that
ETS is a diluted mixture of SS and exhaled MS. In addition, because SS is
produced at lower temperatures and under more reducing conditions than
MS, many carcinogens and other toxicants are generated in greater
amounts in SS than in MS.
Concerns about the health effects of ETS generally focus on the
unsolicited exposures of nonsmokers. Although active smokers are likely
to be the most heavily exposed to ETS, and a portion of their smoking-
attributable excess health risks may actually result from heavy ETS
exposures, the added risk to smokers from passive smoking is expected to
be relatively insignificant compared to their voluntary risk from active
smoking.
ETS has been shown to increase the risks for a variety of health effects
in nonsmokers exposed at typical environmental levels. The pattern of
health effects from ETS exposure produced in adult nonsmokers is
88
consistent with the effects known to be associated with active cigarette
smoking. Chronic exposures to ETS increase lung cancer mortality. In
addition, the combined evidence from epidemiology and studies of
mechanisms leads to the conclusion that ETS increases the risk of
morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease in nonsmokers,
especially those with chronic exposure. ETS also irritates the eyes and
respiratory tract. In infants and young children, ETS increases the risk of
pneumonia, bronchitis, bronchiolitis and fluid in the middle ear. In
asthmatic children, ETS increases the severity and frequency of asthma
attacks. Furthermore, as with active smoking, ETS reduces birth weight in
the offspring of nonsmoking mothers.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. How is ETS generated?
2. What is it composed of?
3. How many carcinogens do ETS, SS and MS include?
4. What are active smokers likely to be the most heavily exposed to?
5. What do chronic exposures to ETS increase?
6. Who does ETS increase the risk of pneumonia in?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: 1. ETS; SS; MS. 2. Health effects from ETS exposure.

Unit 47
Grammar: The Adjective. The Suffixes:
-tive; -al; -ic; - able; -ant; -ent
Word List:
1. spatial ecology пространственная экология (окружающей
среды)
2. species вид; разновидность животных, насекомых,
растений и других биологических видов
природы
3. hyacinth гиацинт
4. computer компьютерное моделирование
simulation
5. nutrient питательное вещество
6. normative нормативный

Mathematical Challenges in Spatial Ecology

89
 We are altering the environment at an unprecedented rate: foremost are
land-use changes and invasions of normative species. These human-caused
alterations of the environment disrupt the functioning of ecosystems, often
with devastating consequences. For instance, land-use changes, such as the
conversion of forests into agricultural land, are often accompanied by soil
erosion that affects water flow and nutrient recycling. There are numerous
examples where species invasions drastically alter ecosystems: for
instance, the water hyacinth, a plant native to the Amazon and considered
one of the world’s worst invaders, now covers many lakes and rivers in the
tropics.
Both empirical work and theoretical work contribute to our
understanding of how ecosystems function and to our ability to
successfully manage and preserve them. Mathematicians can contribute to
this understanding by collaborating with biologists on developing models,
analyzing models, and relating theory to empirical work.
Models in ecology serve a variety of purposes, which range from
illustrating an idea to parameterizing a complex real-world situation. They
are used to make general predictions, to guide management practices, and
to provide a basis for the development of statistical tools and testable
hypotheses.
Examples are models that investigate which areas need to be preserved
to ensure persistence of an endangered species and models that predict how
spatial planting patterns of a genetically modified crop affect the evolution
of pathogen resistance. Realistic models are essential when experiments
are not feasible or when either the temporal or the spatial scale over which
predictions are sought is very large.
During the 1990s the availability of computers greatly expanded the use
of spatial models in ecology. Although spatial ecology today is still
dominated by theoretical investigations, empirical studies that explore the
role of space are becoming more common due to technological advances
that allow the recording of exact spatial locations.
Computer simulations play an important role in spatial ecology. It is
often easy to write the code for the spatial model, but the parameter space
is frequently too large to do an exhaustive search to identify regions of
qualitatively different behavior. In this case analytical approximations can
prove very valuable.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
90
 1. How are we altering the environment?
2. What are the consequences of the human-caused alterations?
3. What can contribute to our understand8ing of how ecosystems
function?
4. How can mathematicians contribute to this understanding?
5. What purposes do models in ecology serve?
6. When was the use of spatial models in ecology expanded?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on:
1. Human-caused alterations of the environment.

2. Models in ecology.
3. Computer simulations in spatial ecology.

Unit 48
Grammar: The ing– and ed–forms (usage)
Word List:
1. workstation цех
2. automated energy система автоматизированного подсчета
accounting system расходуемой энергии
3. supply grids система подачи электроэнергии, сети
4. computer interface (здесь) использование компьютеров
5. workstation (здесь) производитель энергии
6. billing (здесь) плата за использование
электроэнергии, подсчет
электроэнергии
7. beyond the control of вне контроля, бесконтрольность
8. economic feasibility экономическая выполнимость,
реализуемость
9. reduced tariff уменьшенный, сниженный тариф
10. electric meter электрический счетчик
11. to pay back окупаться
12. due to из-за, благодаря

Energy Saving Technologies in Hospitals

Inevitable growth of energy tariffs due to political, economic and
environmental reasons makes it impossible for any enterprise or institution
(including health care establishments) to operate efficiently without a
detailed account of consumed energy resources in billing purposes.
91
 In Russia most industrial enterprises were equipped with electric
meters. However, for reasons of supplier’s convenience, such meters were
often installed in the supplier’s territory and thus measured losses of
energy in supply grids, which were beyond control of the consumer. As a
result, the consumer could not analyze his consumption in real time. Today,
most industrial consumers have their own electric meters used for billing,
while losses in supply grids are taken into account by electricity tariffs.
Such measures as installation of electric meters in separate buildings
and facilities, production in other areas or at major power consumers inside
hospitals, do not only allow detailed analysis of their energy consumption
patterns, but also facilitate involvement of hospital management and
operators of equipment.
Introduction of reduced night tariffs in the Sverdlovsk region (50% of
normal tariffs) necessitates installation of two-tariff meters and further,
after an appropriate analysis, will make it necessary to shift some loads to
night hours. These loads will include major consumers of electricity, which
are not immediately linked to the treatment of patients (sterilisation
equipment, laundry, etc.).
Considerable opportunities are associated with automated account of
energy consumption and introduction of meters with computer interface.
By linking meters to a workstation, it becomes possible to check optimal
energy consumption patterns in real time and correct them in order to bring
the amount of consumed energy to a pre-determined level. Although in
general automated energy accounting systems are paid back in larger
companies within a year, their installation can only be recommended after
analysing its economic feasibility.

Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is necessary for any enterprise to operate efficiently?
2. Where were electric meters often installed in Russia?

3. What did they measure?

4. What does introduction of reduced night tariffs in the Sverdlovsk
region necessitate?
5. What are considerable opportunities associated with?
6. How does it become possible to check optimal energy consumption
patterns?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Energy consumption metering in hospitals.
92
 Unit 49
Grammar: The Noun as an Attribute. The Participle
Word List:
1. irradiation облучение, радиоактивное заражение
2. disposal захоронение (например, радиоактивных
отходов)
3. to be underway проводиться, вестись
4. a high-integrity, целостный, не разрушающийся контейнер
corrosion-resistant
container
5. unreprocessed не поддающийся переработке
6. vault разлом, карьер, хранилище для
радиоактивных отходов
7. fission распад, деление, расщепление
8. to be under investigation рассматриваться
9. “stressed-shell” design плотно закрытая конструкция
10. to withstand выдерживать, противостоять
11. to flood затоплять
12. cast-in-place metal отлитая по месту металлическая сетка
matrix
13. packed-particulate материал, упрочненный макрочастицами
material
14. stuctural bracing конструкционный каркас
15. in terms of с точки зрения, с позиций
16. MPa мегапаскаль (единица давления)
17. postulated при условии
18. remote fabrication and требования по обеспечению
handling requirements дистанционного захоронения и
управления
19. dilute разжиженный
20. austenit аустенит – структура стали
21. stainless steel нержавеющая сталь

Design of Containment for the Long-Term Isolation of Irradiated Fuel

During Underground Disposal
As part of the Nuclear Fuel Waste Management Program, work is
underway to design high-integrity, corrosion-resistant containers for the
direct disposal of unreprocessed, irradiated fuel in a geologic vault. The role
of such containers is to provide isolation of the fuel for at least 300 years,
93
thus ensuring that most fission products are contained for their hazardous
lives.
Several container concepts are under investigation. The simplest
container, called the “stressed-shell” design, has sufficient strength and
shell thickness to withstand the hydrostatic pressures which could be
experienced in a flooded disposal vault. Other designs provide internal
support for a thinner shell, using a cast-in-place metal matrix, packed-
particulate material on structural bracing.
They coordinate the overall effort in development the stressed-shell, the
metal-matrix concepts, the packed-particulate design and the structurally
supported design. The principal objectives of the program are to assess the
feasibility of each concept in terms of ease of fabrication, cost and
performance in the vault environment. On the basis of this assessment, one
or more concepts will be recommended for more detailed evaluation.
Container design considerations include: external hydrostatic loading of
the shell to 9 MPa equivalent to that in a 1000-m, deep vault postulated to
have flooded with groundwater, container temperatures to 150°C, remote
fabrication and handling requirements.
Some concepts have assessed a wide range of metals, and alloys for
their potential use as container shell materials. The assessment was based
primarily on physical metallurgy, weldability and corrosion performance.
The following materials were recommended for further study: dilute
titanium-based alloys, high-nickel-based alloys, austenitic stainless steel,
and copper.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What work is underway?
2. How long must the containers provide isolation of the fuel?
3. How many container concepts are under investigation? What are
they?
4. What are the principal objectives of the program of container
concepts?
5. Do container design considerations include remote fabrication and

handling requirements?

6. What was the assessment of metals and alloys based on?

II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The development of different container concepts.

94
 Unit 50
Grammar: The Infinitive. The Subjective Infinitive
Construction. The Participle as an Attribute
Word List:
1. LNG (Liquified Natural Gas) сжиженный природный газ
2. to prevent предотвратить, избежать
3. contamination заражение, загрязнение
4. crude oil сырая нефть
5. on the contrary наоборот
6. to be meaningless не иметь значения
7. conventional традиционный
8. heat engine тепловой двигатель
9. heating / cold media теплые/холодные среды
10. working fluid рабочая среда
11. ambient temperature температура окружающей среды
12. coolant охладитель
13. exergy эксергия, термодинамическая
функция, вырабатывание
электроэнергии на основе
использования разности температур
14. to reject удалять
15. a thermocouple термопара
16. to apply применять

Exergy Analysis on Power Plants Using Cold Energy of LNG

Recently, liquified natural gases (LNGes) are paid attention to as fuel
oils. LNG will be used increasingly as the town gas and heat sources in
urban regions, because LNG is useful to prevent contamination of
atmospheric air. However, LNG needs seven times more energy to be
transported than crude oil, because of necessity to be liquified and kept in
cold state. A large quantity of cold energy in LNG is not used so efficiently
except a small part of it. On the contrary, some plants consume energy to
heat for gasification of LNG. This is meaningless and wasteful for
conservation of energy.
At present, the cold energy is used for liquification of oxygen and
nitrogen, freezing of foods, cold destruction and low temperature
transmission of electricity.
In conventional heat engines, the heating media (working fluids) are
heated to high temperature and sent to the engines to generate power, and
95
then cooled until ambient temperature. There are effective plants to operate
in the higher temperature.
However, the plants generating power with cold energy have to be
operated in such mechanisms as follows:
1) At first, the cold media (coolants) are cooled and raised of their exergy
and then supplied to the plants to generate power and at last, warmed up to
near ambient temperature. Such plants have not yet been invented to our
regret.
2) Another practical plants generating power with cold energy are heat
engines which are operated in cold environment kept cold media. The
working fluids are supplied to the engines at high pressure and near
ambient temperature, and drive the turbines to generate power, and then
rejected at low pressure and cold temperature. These types of power
generation are called heat engines in cold atmosphere.
3) The thermocouples working between cold and ambient (or higher)
temperatures can generate power. But, the materials used are not yet
developed enough, so the exergy efficiency of power generation is very
low, at present.
Heat engines in cold atmosphere are thought to have many types.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is paid attention to in the text? Why?
2. Why does LNG need seven times more energy to be transported than
crude oil?
3. What is the cold energy used for at present?
4. What can you tell about the heating media in conventional heat
engines?
5. How do the plants generating power with cold energy have to be

operated?

6. Where and why will LNG be used increasingly?

II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Liquified natural gases as fuel oils.

Unit 51
Grammar: The Participle. The Gerund
Word List:
1. kiln печь для обжига
96
 2. single layer fast firing принцип быстрого сгорания
concept однослойного материала
3. setting установка
4. single layer firing setting установка для сгорания
однослойного материала
5. firing process процесс сгорания
6. ceramic plant engineering производство керамики
7. burner камера сгорания
8. combustion product outlet скорость сгорания продуктов
speed горения на выходе
9. clay mineral минерал, содержащий глину
10. fluorinated фторированный
11. fluorinated-polluting фторированные загрязняющие
agents продукты горения
12. fumes stack вытяжная труба
13. sampling выборка, образец
14. valid способный, пригодный
15. SOV (Volatile Organic летучие органические вещества
Substances)
16. R&D (research and НИР
development)
17. silk-screen printing media средства печатания c шёлковой
изоляцией
18. fixing agent фиксатор
19. fluidizer образовыватель суспензии
20. inlet вход
21. outlet выход
New Firing Technology
The new generation of the kilns called “Windfire”, protected by three
European patents, has enabled to change dramatically the single-layer fast
firing concept, thus paving the way for a new kiln concept and for its
introduction in the industrial and environmental segment. It is not only a
matter of pure development and structure optimization of a machine
originating from a single-layer firing setting, but it implies a new integration
method for the firing process according to a modern concept of the ceramic
plant engineering.
The principle of this new firing technology was the development of special

burners featured by a variable flame speed enabling to check the kiln

97
temperature distribution through controlling the combustion product outlet

speed.

After the coming into force of the act dated July 12 th 1990 in Italy, the
limit for SO2 content in the emissions from kilns and furnaces is
1500 mg/m3, as this pollutant is considered as extremely harmful. Thus, its
presence is considered as undesirable. Different suitable systems for its
removal have been developed, though involving managing problems and
production cost are increasing. As natural gas used in these systems contains
very low sulphur levels, the SO2 content comes from the sulphur bonded on
the clay minerals used.
The detected presence of fluorinated compounds developing during the

final firing steps and in the first cooling step does not create problems;

rather it removes from the emissions in the cooling area those fluorinated-

polluting agents that can be cleaned only in the fumes stack. Through the

combustion products the above pollutants reach the installed filters.

The possibility of carrying out samplings at temperatures below 500 oC

in the pre-heating sections allowed IPEG to achieve a project valid also to
reduce the SOVs that currently were not treated, as their cleaning would
have required an extremely difficult and expensive procedure, with an
after-combustion of all the fumes produced inside the firing channel. A
preliminary study carried out in the R&D lab of IPEG proved that the
degradation of SOV more and more used in the ceramic industry such as
silk-screen printing media, fixing agents, fluidizers, organic glues, occurs
during the thermal treatment in a temperature range between the kiln inlet
and 500 oC.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What has the new generation of the kilns enabled to do?
2. What was the principle of this new firing technology?
3. When did the act come into force in Italy?
4. How harmful is SO2 considered to be?
5. What systems have been developed?

98
 6. When does the degradation of SOV occur?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The recent innovation in firing technology.

Unit 52
Grammar: Non-finite Forms of the Verb.
The Infinitive Constructions
Word List:
1. to emit излучать
2. handset мобильный телефон, мобильник
3. tissue ткань
4. tumour опухоль
5. rate of radiation качество излучения
6. DNA хромосомы
7. benign tumour доброкачественная опухоль

Mobile phones: a health risk?

Are mobile phones harmful to your health? There’s been an ongoing
debate over this question since the first analogue mobiles appeared in
the 1980s.
It’s an important question given that worldwide, about 1.5 billion people
use one. This year 650 million are expected to be sold. If they are harmful,
the health of very large populations could be at risk.
We do know that mobile phones emit radiofrequency radiation from the
handset and that these low-energy electromagnetic waves travel into the
head. But do they cause injury to living tissue, possibly triggering a brain
tumour or other disease?
Unfortunately, no-one knows for sure – hence the fierce debate. There
hasn’t been much research into the effects of the radiation, especially over
the long term. Mobile phones haven’t been around long enough. Also, the
technology keeps changing. Third generation (3G) phones – which emit
higher rates of radiation than earlier models – are just coming onto the
market in big numbers. The technology is evolving faster than scientists
can do trials to monitor safety. And many brain conditions, such as brain
tumours, take years to develop.
Still, there is enough evidence to make some scientists concerned.
Studies have shown mobile phone radiation does produce biological
changes in humans- such as changes in brain temperature and activity as

99
well as blood pressure changes. Others have shown they cause an increased
incidence of illness in laboratory animals- for example cancer in mice.
Last December, a consortium of 12 research groups in seven European
countries announced it had found evidence mobile phone radiation can
damage DNA in human cells in the laboratory – changes that weren’t
repaired by the cells and remained when they divided.
Many scientist dismiss these findings as inconsistent and unreliable.
Millions of people who use mobile phones don’t seem to be harmed by
them, they point out. The energy emitted by a mobile phone is so low as to
be almost biologically insignificant – and it is fear of new technology
rather than radiation that is the real problem.
Mobile phone companies are anxious to push this line too. They point
out that there hasn’t to date been any evidence that mobile phones cause
disease in humans. It’s a view supported by an influential report from a UK
panel, the Independent Expert Group on Mobile Phones. It concluded in
2002 that while mobile phones do cause biological effects there’s no
evidence that they cause illness.
But a study published in October last year challenged this notion. The
Swedish study, published in the journal Epidemiology, showed a four-fold
increase of a benign (non-cancerous) brain tumour in people who had been
using a mobile phone for more than ten years. The increase in the tumour –
called an acoustic neuroma – occurred in the side of the head where the
person used the phone. But there was no increased risk of any other type of
brain tumour.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. How long has there been an ongoing debate over the question if
mobile phones are harmful to our health ?
2. How many people use mobile phones worldwide and how many
mobile phones are expectedto be sold this year?
3. What do we know about mobile phones for sure?
4. What aren’t we certain about?
5. What have studies shown concerning a health risk?
6. What did a consortium of 12 research groups in seven European
countries announce?
7. Why do many scientists dismiss these findings as inconsistent and
unreliable?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The possibility of mobile phones to be harmful to our
health.
100
 Unit 53
Grammar: Non-finite Forms of the Verb.
The Infinitive constructions
Word List:
1. base-station antenna антенна базовой станции
2. directional beam направленный луч
3. side-lobes излучение антенны по боковым
лепесткам
4. mast мачта с антенной, радиовышка
5. main beam центральный луч
6. μW/cm микроватт на см – плотность
энергии
7. microwaves СВЧ диапазон волн
8. surge большая волна
9. time division multiple многоканальный доступ с
access (TDMA) разделением во времени
10. energy-saving энергосберегающий режим
discontinuous transmission передачи с прерыванием
mode(DTX)
11. absorption поглощение
12. guideline волновод
13. to irradiate облучать
14. size resonance резонанс, обусловленный
размерами
15. disorder отклонение
16. to exert вызвать
17. to facilitate содействовать
18. to underpin подпирать
19. oscillatory electrical процесс в виде электрического
process колебания
20. metabolism обмен веществ
21. microwave carrier несущая частота СВЧ диапазона
22. compatibility совместимость
23. endogenous эндогенный, внутренний
24. response последствия, реакция
25. light flashing вспышки света
26. coherent когерентный, согласованный
27. microwave radiation излучение в СВЧ диапазоне
(MWR)
101
 Mobile Telephony Biological Impacts
Part I
1. Physics of Mobile Telephony
A base-station antenna typically radiates 60 W and a handset between 1
and 2 W (peak). The antenna of a handset radiates equally in all directions
but a base-station produces a beam that is much more directional. In
addition, the stations have subsidiary beams called side-lobes, into which a
small fraction of the emitted power is channeled. Unlike the mean beam,
these side-lobes are localized in the immediate vicinity of the mast, and,
the power despite their low power, density can be comparable with that of
the main beam much further away from the mast. At 150–200 m, for
example, the power density in the main beam near ground level is typically
tenths of a μW/cm.
A handset that is in operation also has a low-frequency magnetic field
(EMF) associated, not with the emitted microwaves, but with surges of
electric current from the battery that are necessary to implement «time
division multiple access» (TDMA), the system currently used to increase
the number of people who can simultaneously communicate with a base-
station. With handsets that have an energy-saving discontinuous
transmission mode (DTX), there is an even lower frequency pulsing at
2 Hz, which occurs when the user is listening but not speaking.
2. Biological Impacts: Thermal
Heating of biological tissue is a consequence of microwave energy
absorption by the tissue’s water content. The amount of heating produced
in a living organism depends primarily on the intensity (or power density)
of the radiation once it has penetrated the system, on certain electrical
properties of the biomatter, and on the efficiency of the body's
thermoregulation mechanism.
Above a certain intensity of the microwaves, temperature homoeostasis
is not maintained, and effects on health ensue once the temperature rise
exceeds 1 oC. Safety guidelines impose upper limits on the radiation
intensity to ensure that this does not happen.
Heating occurs whether the organism is alive or dead. The frequency of
the radiation, as opposed to the intensity, is taken into account only in so
far as affects (via size resonance) the ability of the organism to absorb
energy from the irradiating field.
Animal studies indicate that a variety of behavioral and physiological
disorders can be provoked by temperature rises below 1 oC — i.e, under
much less acute exposure conditions; there are reports of adverse health
effects of subthermal intensities, the possible origin of which will now be
considered.
102
 Part II
3. Biological Effects: Non-Thermal
The possibility that the pulsed, low-intensity MWR currently used in
GSM mobile telephony can exert subtle, non-thermal influences on a living
organism arises because microwaves are waves; they have properties other
than the intensity that is regulated by safety guidelines. This microwave
radiation has certain well-defined frequencies, which facilitate its
discernment by a living organism (despite its ultralow intensity), and via
which the organism can, in turn, be affected.
The human body is an electrochemical instrument of exquisite
sensitivity whose orderly functioning and control are underpinned by
oscillatory electrical processes of various kinds, each characterised by a
specific frequency, some of which happen to be close to those used in
GSM. Thus some endogenous biological electrical activities can be
interfered with via oscillatory aspects of the incoming radiation, in much
the same way as can the reception on a radio.
The biological electrical activities that are vulnerable to interference
from GSM radiation include highly organised electrical activities at a
cellular level whose frequency happens to lie in the microwave region, and
which are a consequence of metabolism. Although not universally
accepted, there is experimental evidence consistent with these endogenous
activities, in terms of which effects of ultralow-intensity microwave
radiation of a specific frequency on processes as fundamental as cell
division, for example, can be understood in a rather natural way.
Furthermore, the DTX pulse frequency at 2 Hz and the TDMA
frequency of 8–34 Hz correspond to frequencies of electrical oscillations
found in the human brain, specifically the delta and alpha brain-waves,
respectively. It is thus quite possible that living organisms have a two-fold
sensitivity to the pulsed GSM signal i.e., to both the microwave carrier and
the lower frequency pulsings of the TDMA and DTX signals.
To deny this possibility yet admit the importance of ensuring
electromagnetic compatibility with electronic instruments by banning the
use of mobile phones on aircraft and hospitals (a prohibition driven by
concerns about non-thermal interference) seems inconsistent.
The intensity of radiation needed for this recognition is many orders of
magnitude below even that currently associated with non-thermal effects.
This influence is possible only when the organism is alive, with excited
endogenous frequencies; the dead have flat electroencephalograms.
Non-thermal effects thus depend on the state of the person when
exposed to the radiation i.e. non thermal effects are non-linear. A low-
intensity field can entail a seemingly disproportionately large response (or
103
none at all), and vice versa, quite unlike the predictable thermal responses.
Thus not everyone can be expected to be affected in the way by identical
exposure to the same radiation. A good example of human vulnerability to
a non-thermal, electromagnetic influence is the ability of a light flashing at
about 15 Hz to induce seizures in people with photosensitive epilepsy. It is
not so much the amount of energy absorbed from the light that provokes
the seizure, but rather the information transmitted to the brain buy the
(coherent) regularity of its flashing, at a frequency that the brain
“recognises” because it matches or is close to a frequency utilised by the
brain itself.

104
 Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. How do the antenna of a handset and a base-station antenna differ?
2. Why does a handset that is in operation have a low frequency
magnetic field?
3. What does the amount of heating produced in a living organism
depend on?
4. In what cases is the frequency o the radiation taken into account?
5. Why does the possibility that MWR currently used in GSM mobile
telephony can exert subtle non-thermal influences on a living
organism arise?
6. What do the biological electrical activities that are vulnerable to
interference from GSM radiation include?
II. Analyse the grammar structures under lined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Biological effects of mobile telephony.
 SECTION VI
MEASURING TECHNIQUE AND EQUIPMENT

Unit 54
Grammar: The Participle. The Attribute
Word List:
1. analog analyzer аналоговый анализатор
2. network analyzer анализатор сети
3. signal analyzer анализатор сигналов
4. LCR-meter измеритель индуктивности, ёмкости
и сопротивления
5. spectrum analyzer анализатор спектра
6. DSP technology – Digital цифровая обработка сигналов
Signal Processing technology
7. intermediate frequency промежуточная частота
8. down conversion понижение частоты, преобразование
«вниз»
9. duplexer антенный переключатель
10. copler направленный ответвитель
11. attenuator аттенюатор, ослабитель
12. port порт (выход/вход)
13. impedance импеданс, полное входное
сопротивление
14. transfer function передаточная характеристика
15. RF-radio frequency радиочастота
16. microwaves СВЧ волны
17. optical frequencies частоты оптического диапазона
18. directly digitizing signals прямая оцифровка сигналов
19. linear range линейная область

Signal and Network Analyzers Span the Spectrum

from Audio to Light
Analog analyzers fit into two broad categories – network analyzers,
which characterize impedances and transfer functions, and signal
analyzers, which characterize signal properties. Network analyzers
comprise vector and scalar units, as well as impedance, resistance, and
LCR meters. Signal analyzers are even more diverse, including at least a
dozen instrument types. Spectrum analyzers are among the instruments in
the signal-analyzer category. Based on the dollar volume of sales they
generate, spectrum analyzers are by far the most important analog signal
analyzers.
Despite their importance at RF, microwave, and optical frequencies,
analog signal and network analyzers include several instrument types that
operate at much lower – even subsonic – frequencies. Today, most of these
low-frequency instruments are based on DSP technology.
DSP can also extend the capabilities of higher frequency analyzers.
Directly digitizing signals above approximately 1 GHz is still beyond the
state of the art, however. So, most high-frequency analyzers that use DSP
digitize signals only after translating them to a lower intermediate
frequency. The translation, called “down-conversion”, involves mixing the
unknown signal with a locally generated signal at a slightly different
frequency.
Network analyzers characterize the (frequency-dependent) impedance
or scattering parameters of active and passive networks, such as amplifiers,
mixers, duplexers, filters, couplers, attenuators, and many other system
components. The networks can have one port (input or output) or many
ports.
In general, if you know the input characteristics of each of a
component’s ports and the transfer characteristics from any port to each of
the others, you have the information you need to use the component in a
high-frequency system, such as a radar or communications system. In most
cases, you make measurements on active components, such as amplifiers,
in their linear range. Nonlinear components usually require signal
analyzers to determine distortion performance.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What categories do analog analyzers fit into?
2. What do network analyzers characterize?
3. What do signal analyzers characterize?
4. How many instrument types do signal analyzers include?
5. Are spectrum analyzers among the instruments in the signal-analyzer
category?
6. How many ports can the networks have?
7. What do nonlinear components usually require?

II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.

III. Speak on: Network analyzers.
 Unit 55
Grammar: The Passive Voice.The Gerund
Word List:
1. aperture апертура, эффективная площадь отверстия,
через которое проходит световой поток
2. pinhole отверстие, размером с иголку
3. optical train ряд оптических преобразователей в
микроскопе
4. vibrating tuning fork сканирующий настроечный разветвитель
5. wide field microscope широкоформатный микроскоп
6. point detector точечный детектор
7. PMT-photomultiplier фотоумножитель
tube
8. avalanche photodiode лавинный фотодиод
(APD)
9. noise-free amplifier малошумящий усилитель
10. signal-to-noise ratio отношение сигнал-шум
11. image plane фокальная плоскость
12. resolution разрешающая способность (различимость)
13. sample stage обозреваемый участок образца

Confocal Microscopes
In 1957, Marvin Minsky, first proposed using an aperture that was
optically conjugate to both the source and the focus spot on the sample,
making all three planes mutually in focus. A second optically conjugate
pinhole was also used in the optical detection train. To obtain an image, the
sample stage was scanned in the X and Y directions by vibrating tuning
forks.
Such a microscope has two advantages. The detection aperture blocks
the light that originates from outside the image plane. This enhances the
contrast, enables three-dimensional image acquisition, and improves
resolution. With small enough pinholes, the resolution can be improved by
40% compared to the Abbe limit for a conventional wide field microscope.
About a decade after Minsky, Mojmir Petran and his coworkers at
Charles University developed a confocal microscope based on the Nipkow
disk. In a Nipkow disk, a series of holes arranged in a spiral are used as the
aperture for the source. A complementary spiral of holes on the other side
of the disk is used for detection. The image is scanned by rotating the disk
at high speed.
In a scanning confocal microscope a point detector such as a PMT,
avalanche photodiode (APD), or photodiode are required.
Photomultiplier tube (PMT) is not only an efficient detector, but a
noise-free amplifier as well.
In low light levels in all of the confocal designs, the detectors play a
very important role in determining the quality of the image. Image quality
is directly related to the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of the detected optical
signal. The S/N is determined by the amount of light that reaches the
detector, the noise generated in the detector, and the detection electronics.
The optical signal that reaches the detector will be determined by the
light source, the optical train of the microscope, and the sample. For
biological samples, the total optical energy that can be imaged onto the
sample is limited by damage to the sample or to the fluorescent probe.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What did M. Minsky propose?
2. How was the sample stage scanned?
3. When was a confocal microscope developed by Mojmir Petran?
4. What was it based on?
5. What is image quality directly related to?
6. How will the optical signal that reaches the detector be determined?

II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.

III. Speak on: Detectors in confocal microscopes.

Unit 56
Grammar: The Perfect Tenses. The Subjunctive Mood
Word List:
1. sidereal clock звездные часы
2. Quartz Crystal Oscillator кварцевый генератор
3. celestial navigation астронавтика
4. radio beacon радиомаяк
5. line- of-sight radio радионавигационный сигнал по линии
navigation signal прямой видимости
6. timing accuracy точность отсчета
7. Doppler shift эффект Допплера
 A Historical Review of Atomic Frequency Standards Used
in Space Systems
Since the dawn of civilization man has used a wide range of periodic
phenomenon for time keeping from the apparent periodic motion of
heavenly bodies (sidereal clocks) to the periodic internal motion of
electrons in atoms (atomic clocks). In this long development, the advent of
the Quartz Crystal Oscillators is a very important milestone. The
“Information Revolution” would simply not have occurred without the
ubiquitous Crystal Oscillators. Historically, man’s need for accurate time
was driven by the demands of navigation in vast open seas which are
devoid of any landmarks. Celestial navigation required accurate portable
clocks. With the development of radios, another class of navigation aids
-radio beacons e.g. Loran, was born. Yet another technology-artificial
satellites - made possible the more precise, line-of-sight radio navigation
signals. The accuracy of radionavigation is critically dependent on the
synchronization and timing accuracy of the transmitter and the receiver of
the radio signals. The first satellite navigation was realized in the 1960’s,
with the US Navy’s Navigation Satellite System known as TRANSIT. The
TRANSIT satellites carried on-board Quartz Crystal Oscillators (XOs) for
stable and precise frequency generation. This system was based on the
Doppler Shift of the received signal. TRANSIT is still operational though
no new satellites will be added to the system.
The remarkable navigational accuracy currently enjoyed by the users of
satellite navigation systems is in major part due to the excellent
performance of the onboard atomic frequency standards (AFSs).
Space-borne AFSs must maintain a high level of performance and
stability throughout the mission duration in the harsh environment of
space. The mechanical design must be such that the AFSs withstand the
enormous shocks and vibrations of the launch. The extremes of
temperature that may be encountered in space require that the thermal and
mechanical designs be such that the AFSs maintain excellent frequency
stability over a broad range of temperatures.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What periodic phenomena has man used for time keeping?
2. What does the radionavigation accuracy depend on?
3. When was the first satellite navigation realized?
4. What was TRANSIT based on?
5. What is the remarkable navigational accuracy of satellite navigation
systems due to?
 6. When and where must space-borne AFSs maintain a high level of
performance and stability?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: The remarkable navigational accuracy of satellite
navigation systems.

Unit 57
Grammar: The Adjective. Degrees of Comparison. The
Infinitive
Word List:
1. acronym аббревиатура
2. unidirectional array однонаправленная антенна
3. CRT-cathode-ray-lube электроннолучевая трубка
4. horizontal line развёртка
5. microwave frequency сверхвысокая частота
6. to tilt наклонять, поворачивать
7. returns полезные сигналы, отраженные от цели
8. plan-position indicator контрольно-измерительный прибор
(PPI) (индикатор) кругового обзора
9. deflection coil отклоняющая катушка
10. tracking algorithm алгоритм слежения
11. phased array фазированная антенная решетка
12. radio detection and ranging нахождение цели и определение
расстояния до неё с помощью радиоволн
13. reflection помеховые сигналы, отраженные
от местных предметов
14. pip отметка, выброс на экране
15. PPI программируемый периферийный
интерфейс
16. Digital PPI Displays цифровые PPI дисплеи

A Display System for Phased Array Radars

The principles of radar (an acronym formed from ‘radio detection and
ranging’) were first elaborated at the beginning of the 20th century. Early
radar antennas were fixed, unidirectional arrays that gave only range
information. The antenna transmitted radio frequency (RF) pulses at
regular intervals, amplified the reflections and displayed them on a CRT-
based instrument similar to an oscilloscope. This was called an A-scan
display, and produced a horizontal line with ‘pips’ corresponding to the
positions of targets. This system had several problems, all due to the low
frequency of the radio signals used at the time: it required a very large
antenna, which could not be transported or redirected; it could detect only
large targets; and the accuracy of range information was poor.
The Second World War provoked a concentrated effort on radar research
in Britain, the USA and elsewhere. Improvements in RF electronics led to
the use of microwave frequencies. These could be transmitted and received
by a parabolic antenna, which was smaller and more transportable. The
new antenna could be rotated about a vertical axis and used to scan the
entire horizon, and the axis could be tilted to scan at different heights.
The beam always emerges along the normal axis of the antenna and
reflections return along the same axis. The radar receiver converts the
reflections, or returns, and displays them on a CRT to give a plan view of
the area around the antenna. This type of display is known as a PPI, or
plan-position indicator.
In the first PPI displays, which were purely analogue, a bright axial line
drawn by an electron beam appeared to rotate around the face of a cathode
ray tube. The rotation of the line was controlled by electromagnetic coils,
similar to the deflection coils in a television or monitor CRT, but fed by
analogue waveforms supplied by sensors on the antenna mounting.
Digital computers were introduced into radar for various reasons. They
could be used to process the returns in a more complicated way to reduce
noise and clutter (reflections from insignificant objects). They could be
programmed with tracking algorithms that could display identification
symbols over objects in the PPI display. They could draw maps over the
PPI display, showing geographical information modified to suit the
operator’s task.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the origin of the word “radar”?
2. When were the principles of radar first elaborated?
3. What drawbacks did early radar antennas have?
4. What advantages did a parabolic antenna have?

5. What is a PPI?
6. Why were digital computers introduced into radar?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Early radar antennas.
 Unit 58
Grammar: The Participle. The Gerund
Word List:
1. coverage зона охвата
2. impairment ослабление, ухудшение
3. base-station coverage зона охвата территории базовой станцией
4. digital signal processing цифровая обработка сигналов
5. hardware аппаратное обеспечение
6. base-station antennas антенны базовых станций
7. handset antennas антенны для мобильных устройств
8. dual frequency wide-band приемо-передающая широкополосная
antenna антенна
9. voltage standing wave коэффициент стоячей волны по
ratio напряжению
10. microstrip микрополосковая антенна
11. patch накладка, крепление

Special Issue on Wireless Communications

One of the current key challenges in wireless communications is the
application of reduced size antennas with improved performance and lower
cost. Small antennas are required because of the demand for shirt pocket
personal radios as well as unobtrusive base stations. In addition, the
consumer’s desire for personal communications within buildings increases
the challenges in the fields of antennas and propagation. The upcoming
direct user-to-satellite communications systems have further necessitated
the development of novel antenna designs for acceptable circular
polarization performance in the presence of the user’s head.
The frequency spectrum is a finite resource that can be extended
through frequency reuse, which is strongly influenced by antenna and
propagation issues. In fact, overall system performance, as measured by
coverage and capacity, is determined by antennas and propagation.
Diversity technique sat both the base station and terminal can be exploited
for performance improvement. Diversity involves antennas and is intended
to overcome propagation impairments. All of the forgoing have
tremendous cost implications. For example, frequency reuse by increasing
the number of base stations and reducing individual base-station coverage
is extremely expensive and should be minimized.
Antennas and propagation play the central role in the deployment of
wireless communication systems.
 Base-Station Antennas: The wide availability and low cost of digital
signal processing and computing hardware in recent years is causing a
dramatic change in base-station antenna systems. Intelligence is being
added to base-station antenna forming the new field of smart base-station
antennas.
Handset Antennas: The introduction of personal communication
technology has resulted in a widespread awareness of the critical role
wireless services play in today’s communications centered marketplace.
Antennas play a paramount role in an optimal design of these services.
There was a novel dual-frequency and wide-band voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR) handset antenna presented by combining normal-mode
helical and inverted RF antennas.
The development of a microstrip antenna with rotatable patch was
discussed. One of the key features of the design is that due to the rotation
feature of the antenna mount the antenna patch is always vertically
oriented. To improve the radiation efficiency of antennas positioned near
the user’s head, a dipole antenna configuration with enhanced performance
can be applied.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is one of the current key challenges in wireless
communications?
2. Why do we need reduced size antennas?
3. What plays the central role in the deployment of wireless
communication systems?
4. What is causing a dramatic change in base-station antenna systems?

5. Where do antennas play a paramount role?

6. How can the radiation efficiency of antennas positioned near the
user’s head be improved?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: One of the current key challenges in wireless
communications

Unit 59
Grammar: The Participle. The Attribute
Word List:
1. Bluetooth технология передачи данных
2. data communication передача, обмен данными
 3. short-range radio link
4. wireless connectivity
5. peripheral networking
6. line of sight
7. laptop
8. PDA (personal digital
assistant)
9. live digital video
10. ad hoc device connection
11. hands free headset
радиосвязь на коротких расстояниях
беспроводная связь
периферийные сетевые устройства
линия прямой видимости
переносной компьютер (ноутбук)
карманный компьютер
живое цифровое видео
специальное устройство для
соединения
гарнитура для громкоговорящей связи

Bluetooth in Wireless Communication

Bluetooth is a method for data communication that uses short-range
radio links to replace cables between computers and their connected units.
Bluetooth is an open standard for wireless connectivity with supporters
mostly from the PC and cell phone industries. Not surprisingly, its primary
market is for data and voice transfer between communication devices
and PCs.
Bluetooth is a radio frequency (RF) technology utilizing the unlicensed
2.5 GHz industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band. Target applications
include PC and peripheral networking, hidden computing, and data
synchronization such as for address books and calendars. Other
applications could include home networking and home appliances of the
future such as smart appliances, heating systems, and entertainment
devices.
Due to its RF nature, in addition to wireless device connections up to 10
m (up to 100 m if the transmitter’s power is increased), devices need not be
within line of sight and may even connect through walls or other nonmetal
objects. This allows for applications such as a cell phone in a pocket or a
briefcase acting as a modem for a laptop or PDA.
Bluetooth is designed to be low cost, eventually under $10/unit. On the
flip side, however, are the limited connection distance and, even more
damaging, the transmission speeds. Bluetooth supports only 780 kb/s,
which may be used for 721 kb/s unidirectional data transfer (57.6 kb/s
return direction) or up to 432.6 kb/s symmetric data transfer. These rates
are comparable to the 1–2 Mb/s supported by HomeRF and, although live
digital video is still beyond the capability of any RF technology, perfectly
adequate for file transfer and printing applications.
 Finally, Bluetooth’s main strength is its ability to simultaneously handle
both data and voice transmissions. It is capable of supporting one
asynchronous data channel and up to three synchronous voice channels, or
one channel supporting both voice and data. This capability combined with
ad hoc device connection and automatic service discovery makes it a
superior solution for mobile devices and Internet applications. This
combination allows such innovative solutions as a mobile hands-free
headset for voice calls, print to fax capability, and automatically
synchronizing PDA, laptop, and cell phone address book applications.

Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is Bluetooth used for?
2. What frequency does Bluetooth technology use?
3. What are Bluetooth target applications?
4. Why can Bluetooth devices connect through walls?

5. What is Bluetooth’s main strength?

6. What makes Bluetooth a superior solution for mobile devices and
Internet applications?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Bluetooth technology.

Unit 60
Grammar: The Adjectives (Degrees of Comparison)
Word List:
1. decade десятилетие
2. Ethernet cables коаксиальные кабели сети Ethernet
3. hardware аппаратное обеспечение, «железо»
4. intruder «злоумышленник»
5. router маршрутизатор (в сети)
6. Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) стандарт Wi-Fi на беспроводную
высококачественную связь
7. throughput пропускная способность
8. vendor продавец-производитель
9. implementation внедрение
10. Mbps = megabits per мегабит в секунду
second
11. shield защита
 Wrap – Speed Wireless
For two decades, users have linked PCs with Ethernet cables, but
sending data through the open spaces of offices and homes without wires is
still relatively new. 802.11b wireless standard allows transfers at a
maximum speed of 11 megabits per second under ideal conditions. That
pales next to wired speeds. However, 802.11g wireless standard promises
54 Mbps speed while running in the same 2.4 GHz range as 802.11b and
remaining compatible with the older hardware (unlike 802.11a, which
offers 54 Mbps but has a shorter range and no compatibility with 802.11b).
The anticipation for 11g products was so great that vendors began releasing
them months before the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ratified the 802.11g specification.
The 802.11g products we saw were certainly faster than the 802.11b
models. And the products using proprietary technologies were even swifter
¾ though you’ll get those speeds only if all your hardware is from the same
vendor.
The new speeds allow 11g networks to boldly go where no wireless has
gone before. 11g’s extra throughput lets you more easily transfer large files
across office and home networks and even stream video from computer to
computer.
The new products also provide better shields against intruders, by
supplementing the weak Wired Equivalent Privacy security system with
Wi-Fi Protected Access ¾ the first chunk of a developing wireless security
standard called 802.11i. WPA capability became a requirement for any new
product seeking certification from the Wi-Fi Alliance industry group.
(already-certified 802.11b products don’t have to support WPA.) Wireless
products that carry the Wi-Fi logo ¾ even ones manufactured by different
companies, such as a router from one vendor and a PC Card from another
¾ are supposed to work together.
Like 802.11g certification, WPA capability is currently at varying stages
of implementation. All the vendors are planning WPA firmware upgrades
for their entire lines of 11g routers, and for some 11b products.
Windows XP is the only version of Windows that has built-in wireless
support. Installing a wireless product on other versions requires a driver
from the manufacturer, which will also have to provide WPA upgrades. All
of the wireless vendors say that they are developing WPA software for
Windows 98 SE, Me, and 2000 on their 11g products.
 Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. How great was the anticipation for 11g products?
2. When did vendors begin releasing 11g products?
3. Where do the new speeds allow 11g networks to go?
4. What do the new products also provide?
5. How do they do it?
6. What became a requirement for any new product seeking certification
from the Wi-Fi Alliance industry group?
7. What are all the vendors planning?

8. Is Windows XP the only version of Windows that has built-in

wireless support?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: WPA capability.
 SECTION VII
SPECIAL TECHNICAL DECISIONS IN TV,
TELEPHONY, ENCRYPTON,
NANOTECHNOLOGY

Unit 61
Grammar: The Participle. The Complex Sentence
Word List:
1. adaptive hybrid адаптивный переходник
2. intermittent чередующийся, прерывистый
3. adaptive echo адаптивное уменьшение отраженного
cancellation сигнала
4. echo signal отраженный сигнал
5. speaker абонент
6. burst короткий сигнал, треск (помеха)
7. bump бросок тока, всплеск
8. a 20-tap adaptive hybrid адаптивное 20-контактное устройство
для подключения абонентов
9. to restabilize выходить из равновесия, возбуждаться
10. chirp треск, чириканье (помеха)

Dynamics of an Adaptive Hybrid

A device called a “4:2 hybrid” is used in telephone systems to transform
the four-wire long distance receive and transmit lines to and from a two-
wire local line. An ideal hybrid would move all the incoming signals from
the four-wire receive line to the two-wire local line, and simultaneously
move the outgoing signals from the two-wire local line to the four-wire
transmit line. In a real device, however, some of the energy in the incoming
line will inevitably leak into the outgoing line. One solution, called
adaptive echo cancellation, uses an adaptive filter to match, or identify, the
dynamics of the leakage path. When the near end speaker is silent, and
when the adaptive filter has matched the transfer function of the hybrid the
echo of the far end speech is canceled. The adaptive solution to the hybrid
problem is well established, and has been used successfully in a wide
variety of situations.
In certain situations, however, an intermittent “bursting” or “chirping’ or
“bumping” misbehavior arises. This was first brought to our attention by a
series of laboratory tests at Tellabs Inc. which were designed to investigate
the adaptive hybrid system when the received signal is significantly
correlated with the near end signal within the time window of the adaptive
filter. Such correlations become increasingly likely as the adaptive hybrid
is used on communications lines of shorter length. The real time tests
utilized a 20-tap adaptive hybrid at the near end of the line and a simple
(nonadaptive) hybrid at the far end, giving 6-dB attenuation around the
loop. Independent narrow-band modern signals were injected at each end.
Long periods of close match between the output of the adaptive hybrid and
the echo path were observed, and the hybrid appeared to be functioning
well. Suddenly and with no warning, the system would begin “singing”,
the signals degenerated into wild oscillation, and then the system would
quickly restabilize. These bursts were intermittent and had no apparent
cause.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Where is a device called “4:2 hybrid” used?
2. What would an ideal hybrid do?
3. Where will some of the energy in the incoming line leak in a real

device?

4. What is an adaptive filter used for?

5. When is the echo of the far end speech cancelled?

6. What misbehavior arises in certain situations?
7. What did the real time tests utilize?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: “4:2 hybrid”.

Unit 62
Grammar: The Future Simple Tense
Word List:
1. fuel cell топливный элемент, топливная
батарея
2. photovoltaics фотоэлектричество,
фотоэлектрическая энергетика
3. renewable energy sources возобновляемые источники энергии
4. static var compensation компенсация статической
реактивной мощности
5. a modular, scaleable power
electronics technology
6. real and reactive power flow
7. medium voltage adjustable
speed motor drives
8. multilevel converter
9. a high voltage dc back-to-
back intertie
10. harmonic filtering
11. fast response
12. dynamic voltage restoration
13. utility interface
технология создания модульных
блоков силовой электроники
активная и реактивная составляющие
мощности
запуск моторов с регулировкой
скорости при среднем напряжении
многоуровневый конвертор
(преобразователь)
непосредственное соединение двух
высоковольтных конверторов
постоянного тока друг за другом
фильтрация гармоник
быстродействие
восстановление (стабилизация)
действующего напряжения
промежуточное звено

Multilevel Converters as a Utility Interface for Renewable

Energy Systems
Electric power production in the 21 st Century will see dramatic changes
in both the physical infrastructure and the control and information
infrastructure. A shift will take place from a relatively few large,
concentrated generation centers and the transmission of electricity over
mostly a high voltage ac grid to a more diverse and dispersed generation
infrastructure that also has a higher percentage of dc transmission lines.
Some of the distributed generation power sources that are expected to
increase greatly their market share of the total power produced in the US
and abroad include renewable energy sources such as photovoltaics, wind,
etc. Fuel cell technology is also nearing the development point where it
could start to supply a significant share of the power needs. The advent of
high power electronic modules has also encouraged the use of more dc
transmission and made the prospects of interfacing dc power sources such
as fuel cells and photovoltaics more easily attainable. A modular, scalable
power electronics technology that is ideal for these types of utility
applications is the transformerless multilevel converter.
The use of a multilevel converter to control the frequency, voltage
output (including phase angle), and real and reactive power flow at a dc/ac
interface provides significant opportunities in the control of distributed
power system.
 Additional applications of multilevel converters include such uses as
medium voltage adjustable speed motor drives, static var compensation,
dynamic voltage restoration, harmonic filtering, or for a high voltage dc
back-to-back intertie.
Because distributed power sources are expected to become increasingly
prevalent in the near future, the use of a multilevel converter to control the
frequency and voltage output (including phase angle) from renewable
energy sources will provide significant advantages because of its fast
response and autonomous control. Additionally, multilevel converters can
also control the real and reactive power flow from a utility connected
renewable energy source. These power electronic topologies are attractive
for continuous control of system dynamic behavior and to reduce power
quality problems such as voltage harmonics, voltage imbalance, or sags.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What will electric power production in the 21st Century see?
2. Where will a shift take place?
3. What do some of the distributed generation power sources include?
4. Why will the use of a multilevel converter to control the frequency
and voltage output from renewable energy sources provide
significant advantages?
5. Are there any additional applications of multilevel converters?
6. What uses do they include?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Multilevel Converters.

Unit 63
Grammar: The Passive Voice
Word List:
1. power rating номинальная мощность
2. sampled дискретный
3. PWM-pulse width широтно-импульсная модуляция
modulation
4. a multiple сборка
5. a voltage-source inverter преобразователь как источник
напряжения
6. a current-source inverter преобразователь как источник тока
7. diode-clamped inverter диодно-связанный инвертор
8. flying capacitor inverter инвертор с дополнительными
конденсаторами
9. staggering разброс (параметров)
10. ripple пульсации
11. bridge converter мостовой преобразователь

Bandwidth Considerations for Multilevel Converters

A multilevel converter has a multiple of the usual six switches found in
a three-phase inverter. The main motivation for such converters is that
voltage [in a voltage-source inverter (VSI) and current in a current-source
inverter (CSI)] is shared among these multiple switches, allowing a higher
converter power rating than the individual switch volt-ampere (VA) rating
would otherwise allow. This sharing is achieved by summing the outputs of
several two-level converters with transformers or inductors, or direct series
connection, or by more complex topologies such as the diode-clamped
inverter and the flying capacitor inverter.
Another secondary, but very important advantage is the extra degrees of
switching freedom that the multiple switches permit. Each switch still has
the same limited switching frequency, but by staggering the switching
instants of the individual switches, the overall switching frequency of the
multilevel converter effectively becomes a multiple of that of the
individual switches. A further gain comes since we switch between
multiple voltage levels at this higher frequency rather than two, so the
switching harmonics appear at a higher frequency and a lower level.
Overall converter input and output ripple is much reduced, and less
filtering is required. This is an important advantage in a high-power
converter where the switching frequency is low and filtering is expensive.
Many different approaches to multilevel control have been published.
The diode-clamped topology imposes restrictions on allowed switch states
and requires further control to maintain the auxiliary capacitors at their
correct voltages. As a consequence, the control and modulation of these
converters are treated as one whole problem.
Naturally sampled synchronous pulsewidth modulation (SPWM) and
uniformly sampled SPWM are easily implemented, produce good results
for moderate switch frequencies, and are easily extended to multibridge
converters.
In naturally sampled PWM, the input waveform is naturally sampled by
the carrier wave. The natural PWM modulator is quite simply implemented
in analog hardware. In uniformly sampled PWM, the input signal is
regularly sampled at the beginning of each switch cycle before being
compared with the triangle waveform. This approach is easily implemented
with a microcontroller.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. How many switches does a multilevel converter have?
2. What is the main motivation for such converters?
3. How is the sharing achieved?
4. What does the overall switching frequency become?
5. How does it come that it becomes like that?
6. Where do the switching harmonics appear?
7. Have there been any approaches to multilevel control published?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Motivations for multilevel converters.

Unit 64
Grammar: The Functions of the Infinitive and Gerund
Word List:
1. realistic image synthesis синтез реалистичных изображений
для ТV
2. to render передавать, воспроизводить
3. physically-based rendering физически обоснованные методы
methods воспроизведения изображения
4. light propagation распространение света
5. perceptual response способность восприятия
6. over the range of на протяжении, в пределах
7. CRT (cathode ray tube) электроннолучевая трубка
8. simulated environments имитируемая окружающая среда
9. tone reproduction воспроизведение тонов в
изображении
10. glare ослепительный блеск, резкий свет,
блик
11. a glare filter фильтр, снимающий блики
(антибликовый фильтр)
12. illumination engineering work обеспечение подсветки,
освещенности
13. perseptually-based approach подход, основанный на физическом
восприятии
14. threshold visibility пороговая видимость
15. visual acuity четкость, различимость,
контрастность
16. visual sensitivity зрительная чувствительность
17. color appearance цветность
18. visual appearance зрительный облик
 A Model of Visual Adaptation for Realistic Image Synthesis
The goal of realistic image synthesis is to produce images that capture
the visual appearance of modeled scenes. Physically-based rendering
methods make it possible to accurately simulate the distribution of light
energy in scenes, but physical accuracy in rendering does not guarantee
that the displayed images will have a realistic visual appearance. There are
at least two reasons for this. First, the range of light energy in the scene
may be vastly different from the range that can be produced by the display
device. Second, the visual states of the scene observer and the display
observer may be very different.
To produce realistic images we need to model not only the physical
behavior of light propagation, but also the parameters of perceptual
response. This is particularly true of the visual system's adaptation to the
range of light we encounter in the natural environment since visual
function changes dramatically over the range of environmental
illumination.
Very little work has been done in computer graphics on adaptation.
Earlier work has focused primarily on overcoming the limits of
conventional CRT displays and determining how to best display simulated
environments within the limited dynamic range available. Tumblin and
Rushmeier introduced the concept of tone reproduction to the computer
graphics community and developed a tone reproduction operator that
preserves the apparent brightness of scene features. Ward has taken a
somewhat different approach and has developed a tone reproduction
operator that preserves apparent contrast and visibility. Spencer has
developed a psychophysical model of glare and has implemented a glare
filter that increases the apparent dynamic range of images.
One of the models of adaptation includes the effects of adaptation on
threshold visibility, color appearance, visual acuity, and changes in visual
sensitivity over time. The algorithm derived from the model is based on the
psychophysics of adaptation measured in experimental studies. Therefore,
it can be used predictively for illumination engineering work, and can be
used to develop perceptually-based approaches to rendering and display.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is the goal of realistic image synthesis?
2. What do physically-based rendering methods make it possible to do?
 3. Does physical accuracy in rendering guarantee that the displayed
images will have a realistic visual appearance?
4. What do we need to produce realistic images?
5. What has earlier work in computer graphics on adaptation focused
primarily on?
6. Who introduced the concept of tone reproduction?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Realistic image synthesis.

Unit 65
Grammar: The Infinitive. Modal Verbs
Word List:
1. to capture захватить, отобразить
2. digitized images оцифрованные изображения
3. gray-scale aerial черно-белая масштабная
photograph аэрофотосъемка
4. 8 significant bit per pixel 8 значащих битов на пиксель (элемент
изображения)
5. ratio коэффициент сжатия
6. fractal фрактальный, раздробленный
7. to coin создавать новые слова и выражения

A Better Way to Compress Images

The natural world is filled with intricate details. Consider the geometry
on the back of your hand: the pores, the fine lines, and the color variations.
A camera can capture that detail and, at your leisure, you can study the
photo to see things you never noticed before. Can personal computers be
made to carry out similar functions of image storage and analysis? If so,
then image compression will certainly play a central role.
The reason is that digitized images - images converted into bits for
processing by a computer - demand large amounts of computer memory.
For example, a high-detail gray-scale aerial photograph might be blow up
to 3.5 foot square and then resolved to 300 by 300 pixel per square inch
with 8 significant bits per pixel. Digitization at this level requires
130 megabytes of computer memory – too much for personal computers to
handle.
 For real-world images such as the aerial photo, current compression
techniques can achieve ratios of between 2 to 1 and 10 to 1. By these
methods, our photo would still require between 65 and 13 megabytes.
Traditional computer graphics encodes images in terms of simple
geometrical shapes: points, line segments, boxes, circles, and so on. More
advanced systems use three-dimensional elements such as spheres and
cubes, and add color and shading to the description.
Graphics systems founded on traditional geometry are great for creating
pictures of man-made objects, such as bricks, wheels, roads, buildings, and
cogs. However, they don’t work well at all when the problem is to encode a
sunset, a tree, a lump of mud.
Think about using a standard graphics system to encode a digitized
picture of a cloud: You’d have to tell the computer the address and color
attribute of each point in the cloud. But that’s exactly what an
uncompressed digitized image is - a long list of addresses and attributes.
To escape this difficulty, we need a richer library of geometrical shapes.
These shape need to be flexible and controllable so that they can be made
to conform to clouds, mosses, feathers, leaves, and faces, not to mention
waving sunflowers and glaring arctic wolves. Fractal geometry provides
just such a collection of shapes Benoit Mandelbrot, coined the term fractal
to describe objects that are very “fractured”.
Using fractals to simulate landscapes and other natural effects is not
new; it has been a primary practical application. For instance, through
experimentation, you find that a certain fractal generates a pattern similar
to tree bark. Later, when you want to render a tree, you put the tree-bark
fractal to work.
What is new is the ability to start with an actual image and find the
fractals that will imitate it to any desired degree of accuracy.

Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Why do digitized images demand large amounts of computer
memory?
2. How many megabytes of memory do computers have nowadays?
3. What ratios can current compression techniques achieve?
4. What terms does traditional computer graphics encode images in?

5. Does a standard graphics system work well when the problem is to

encode a sunset or a cloud?
 6. What do we need to escape this difficulty?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Image compression.

Unit 66
Grammar: The Past Simple Tense
Word List:
1. cryptography криптография, шифрование
2. information age век информации
3. cryptographic algorithm алгоритм шифрования
4. cryptosystem система шифрования
5. ad hoc временный
6. Data Encryption Standard стандарт шифрования данных, стандарт
(DES) DES
7. national гражданин
8. non-combatant нестроевой, гражданский
9. work factor показатель (фактор) трудозатрат, времени
на расшифровку

The Advanced Encryption Standard

Cryptography was once the domain of generals and small children, but
the advent of the Information Age changed that. In the early 1970s the
National Security Agency (NSA) and the National Bureau of Standards
(NBS) realized that noncombatant adults needed to protect their sensitive,
but unclassified, information.
NBS issued a public solicitation for a cryptographic algorithm. IBM
responded. The company submitted a cryptosystem with a 56-bit key. A
conventional cryptosystem is considered secure when its work factor – the
amount of time needed to decrypt – is about 2key length. The new algorithm
became the data Encryption Standard (DES). With narrow exceptions,
products incorporating DES could not be exported.
A 1996 National Research Council report on cryptography policy
recommended an immediate loosening of export controls. No changes
occurred until 1998, when a $250,000 special-purpose machine built by the
Electronic Frontier Foundation cracked a DES-encrypted message in 56
hours. At that point U.S. export controls were relaxed to permit DES in
exported products. In recent months export controls have been lifted even
further, with no limit on number of bits.
 A DES replacement was overdue. In 1997 the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST, formerly the National Bureau of
Standards) announced a competition for the algorithm’s replacement and
held public meetings to discuss the criteria for a proposed Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES). Key length was most important. A 1996 ad
hoc committee argued 90 bits was currently the minimum key length
needed to provide data security for twenty years. NIST sought that much
security and more – encrypted files should remain confidential well after
AES was retired. NIST settled on a minimum key length of 128 bits.
NIST allowed foreign submissions and foreign viewing of the

candidates. A foreign national who wanted software implementations of the

candidates could have them The person had to register with NIST and

promise not to pass on the algorithms (even if obtained from another

source). While within the U.S. export-control laws, in spirit, this system

formed a contrast to the export rules so recently enforced regarding DES.

Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. When did NBS realize that noncombatant adults needed
to protect their sensitive, but unclassified, information?
2. What did NBS issue a public solicitation for?

3. When is a conventional cryptosystem considered secure?

4. Could products incorporating DES be exported?
5. When did changes occur?
6. What did NIST announce in 1997?
7. Did NIST allow foreign submissions and foreign viewing
of the candidates?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: DES replacement.
 Unit 67
Grammar: Word Combination; that, this, the...the
Construction
Word List:
1. photo-etching фототравление
2. substrate материал, подложка, нижний слой
3. hybrid гибридная микрополосковая схема
microstrip
4. stripline circuit схема, выполненная на микрополосках (вместо
проводов)
5. low loss tangent низкое значение тангенса угла потерь
6. dielectric диэлектрическая постоянная (параметр)
constant
7. permittivity диэлектрическая проницаемость (параметр)
8. z-cut срез, перпендикулярный к оси Z
9. chip многофункциональная микросхема
10. single crystal монокристалл

Mm–Wave Hybrid Microstrip

This paper reviews the current hybrid microstrip integrated circuit
technology applicable to receiver operating in the 30 to 110 GHz frequency
range to meet the requirements of both the low and high volume
categories.
The form of mm-wave integrated circuit (mm-wave IC) discussed is that
based on hybrid thin-film stripline circuits, with chip devices mounted on a
metalized quartz substrate.
An important aspect of mm-wave ICs, as for microwave integrated
circuits (MICs), is the transmission line for connection between circuit
elements. Open microstrip has found wide practical acceptance for MICs;
this structure consists essentially of a strip conductor deposited onto a flat
dielectric substrate.
As at lower frequencies, the microstrip transmission line circuit is
normally realized by thin-film technology, with the conductor shape or
circuit pattern determined by photo-etching.
The quality of the substrate also is important. Microstrip circuit
applications require a well controlled dielectric constant, low loss tangent
and good surface finish. Conventionally, high purity alumina is used up to
about 20 GHz, but above this frequency there is an advantage in reducing
the relative permittivity of the substrate material, together with reducing
the substrate thickness. Also, the lower the permittivity, the larger the
circuit; this is of benefit for circuit design realization and application of
hybrid techniques.
Quartz meets all of these criteria. Single crystal Z-cut is preferred,
however, as it provides the advantage of a higher expansion coefficient.
Circuits may be arrayed during the thin-film fabrication process for
production purposes.
The preferred microstrip structure dimensions for acceptable
transmission propagation with Z-cut quartz are 500 μm wide lines on
250 μm thick substrate and 250 μm wide lines on 125 μm thick substrate at
26 to 40 GHz and 75 to 110 GHz, respectively, for 50 ohm characteristics.
The measured line losses are negligible.
Focused Practice
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What technology does the above paper review?
2. Where are chip devices mounted?
3. What is an important aspect of mm-wave Ics?
4. Why is the quality of the substrate also important?
5. What are the preferred microstrip structure dimensions?
6. What are the measured line losses?
II. Analyse the grammar structures underlined in the above text.
III. Speak on: Mm-wave ICs.
 CONTENTS

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ............................................................................. 3
SECTION 1. PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.... 4
Unit 1. “Guest-Host” Systems.................................................. 4
Unit 2. Particle Simulations of the SPT.................................... 6
Unit 3. Controlling Robots with the Mind................................ 8
Unit 4. Magnetron Sputtering................................................... 10
Unit 5. Particle-Induced Turbulence Attenuation...................... 11
Unit 6. Tritium Pellet Injector Results...................................... 13
Unit 7. Fundamental Characteristics of a Fluid......................... 14
Unit 8. Enhancing Film Condensation Heat Transfer............... 15
Unit 9. Effects of Welding Parameters on Hard Zone
Formation at Dissimilar Metal Welds............................ 17
Unit 10. Measurement and Analysis of Ultrasonic Beam
Profiles in a Solid.......................................................... 19
Unit 11. Review of Magnetic Methods for Nondestructive
Evaluation (NDE).......................................................... 21
Unit 12. Impact of New Magnetoresistive Materials
on Magnetic Recording Heads...................................... 22
Unit 13. Progress in Membrane Science and Technology
for Seawater Desalination.............................................. 24
Unit 14. Asymptotic Methods in Turbulent Combustion............ 26
Unit 15. Membranes and Microorganisms.................................. 27
Unit 16. What Materials Are Suitable as Polymer Electrolytes?. 29
SECTION II. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
AND ELECTROMECHANICS....................................................... 31
Unit 17. Fatigue Cracks in Turbine Discs................................... 31
Unit 18. The Split Shaft Design.................................................. 33
Unit 19. Evaluating Individual Losses........................................ 35
Unit 20. Expert Systems for Fluid Power................................... 37
Unit 21. Expert System. Other Useful Features.......................... 39
Unit 22. The Calculation of a Last Stage Low Pressure Steam
Turbine and Exhaust Hood Flow................................... 41
Unit 23. Three-Stage Steam Turbine Flow Analysis................... 42
Unit 24. Thermal Computer Aided Design – Advancing
the Revolution in Compact Motor................................. 44
 Unit 25. Demonstration of a Microfabricated High–Speed
Turbine Supported on Gas Bearings.............................. 46
Unit 26. Variable Speed Drives................................................... 48
Unit 27. Steam Chemistry and the Turbine................................. 50
SECTION III. COMPUTER SCIENCE.......................................... 53
Unit 28. Department of Defense Selects IBM Supercomputer
for Navy to Triple Computing Power............................ 53
Unit 29. Mobility Management for VoIP Service:
Mobile IP VS SIP.......................................................... 54
Unit 30. Mobile Software Agents for Decentralised Network
and Systems Management............................................. 56
Unit 31. “Grid”, the Technology of Distributed Calculation...... 58
Unit 32. Wise Drivers................................................................. 60
SECTION IV. ENERGETICS AND POWER ENGINEERING...... 62
Unit 33. Tools for Dynamic Analysis of the General Large
Power System Using Time-Varying Phasers................. 62
Unit 34. Energy Problems and Nuclear Power Development
in Japan......................................................................... 64
Unit 35. Large-Scale Economic Integration of Electricity
from Short-Rotation Woody Crops............................... 65
Unit 36. Streamer Dynamics...................................................... 67
Unit 37. High Temperature Superconducting Current Limiting
Series Reactor............................................................... 68
Unit 38. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis Techniques
in Electric Power Systems Expansion Planning............ 70
Unit 39. Cogeneration and On-Site Production.......................... 72
Unit 40. Petersburg Combined Cycle......................................... 74
Unit 41. How Nuclear Power Works.......................................... 76
Unit 42. Big Plans for Ocean Power Hinge on Funding
and Additional R&D..................................................... 78
Unit 43. Analysis of Pressure Reducing Stations for
Cogeneration................................................................. 80
SECTION V. MANAGEMENT, ECONOMICS AND LABOUR
PROTECTION................................................................................. 82
Unit 44. Foreign Exchange......................................................... 82
Unit 45. Temperature Changes in Canada.................................. 84
Unit 46. Environmental Tobacco Smoke.................................... 85
Unit 47. Mathematical Challenges in Spatial Ecology............... 87
Unit 48. Energy Saving Technologies in Hospitals.................... 89
 Unit 49. Design of Containment for the Long-Term Isolation
of Irradiated Fuel During Underground Disposal.......... 91
Unit 50. Energy Analysis on Power Plants Using Cold Energy
of LNG.......................................................................... 93
Unit 51. New Firing Technology................................................ 94
Unit 52. Mobile phones: a health risk?....................................... 96
Unit 53. Mobile telephony biological impacts............................ 98
SECTION VI. MEASURING TECHNIQUES AND
EQUIPMENT.................................................................................. 103
Unit 54. Signal and Network Analyzers Span the Spectrum
from Audio to Light....................................................... 103
Unit 55. Confocal Microscopes.................................................. 105
Unit 56. A Historical Review of Atomic Frequency Standards
Used in Space Systems.................................................. 106
Unit 57. A Display System for Phased Array Radars.................. 108
Unit 58. Special Issue on Wireless Communications................. 110
Unit 59. Bluetooth in Wireless Communication......................... 111
Unit 60. Wrap-Speed Wireless.................................................... 113
SECTION VII. SPECIAL TECHNICAL DECISIONS IN TV,
TELEPHONY, ENCRYPTION, NANOTECHNOLOGY.............. 116
Unit 61. Dynamics of an Adaptive Hybrid................................. 116
Unit 62. Multilevel Converters as a Utility Interface
for Renewable Energy Systems..................................... 117
Unit 63. Bandwidth Considerations for Multilevel Converters. . 119
Unit 64. A Model of Visual Adaptation for Realistic Image
Synthesis........................................................................ 121
Unit 65. A Better Way to Compress Images............................... 123
Unit 66. The Advanced Encryption Standard............................. 125
Unit 67. Mm-Wave Hybrid Microstrip....................................... 126