Piston Damage

Service
Tips & Information

MSI Motor Service
International GmbH
Untere Neckarstraße
Piston damages
D-74172 Neckarsulm
Phone +49 71 32-33 33 33
Fax +49 71 32-33 28 64
Recognising and rectifying
Hamburger Straße 15
D-41540 Dormagen
Phone +49 21 33-2 67-100
Fax +49 21 33-2 67-111
info@msi-motor-service.com
www.msi-motor-service.com
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50 003 973-02 08/04
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Piston damages
Imprint / Table of contents
1. Introduction........................................................................................4
1.1 Preface .........................................................................................4
1.2 Notes on using this brochure ........................................................5
2. Quick diagnosis ..................................................................................6

3. Detailed descriptions of the different types of damages 10
3.1 Seizure due to insufficient clearances ................................10
3.1.0 General information about seizures due to insufficient clearances ..10
3.1.1 Seizure on the piston skirt due to insufficient clearance .............11
3.1.2 Seizure due to insufficient clearances next to the
piston pin bores (45° seizure marks)............................................12
3.1.3 Seizure due to insufficient clearances at the lower end of the skirt ..14
3.2 Seizure due to lack of lubrication .......................................16
3.2.0 General information about seizure due to lack of lubrication ......16
3.2.1 Seizure due to lack of lubrication on the piston skirt...................17
3.2.2 Piston skirt seizure on one side only
without matching areas on the counterpressure side ..................18
3.2.3 Dry running damage due to lack of lubrication
caused by fuel flooding............................................................... 20
3.2.4 Piston top land seizure on a piston from a diesel engine.............21
3.2.5 Seizure due to lack of lubrication caused by scuffed piston rings ....22
3.3 Seizures due to overheating..................................................24
3.3.0 General information on seizures due to overheating ...................24
3.3.1 Seizure due to overheating centered around the piston top land.25
3.3.2 Seizure due to overheating centered around the piston skirt ......26
3.4 Damages due to abnormal combustion ................................27
Date 08.04 3.4.0 General information about piston damage
1. Edition
Part-No. 50 003 973-02 due to abnormal combustion ......................................................27
3.4.1 Removal of material by melting from the piston crown
Published by:
© MSI Motor Service International GmbH and ring zone (gasoline/petrol engine) .......................................31
Untere Neckarstraße
D-74172 Neckarsulm
3.4.2 Material removal/fusion
due to melting on the piston crown (diesel engine).....................32
Editors:
Uwe Schilling 3.4.3 Cracks in the piston crown
Alexander Schäfer
and piston combustion bowl (diesel engines).............................34
Authors: 3.4.4 Ring land fractures .....................................................................36
Bernd Waldhauer
Uwe Schilling 3.4.5 Impact marks on the piston crown (diesel engine) ......................38
Simon Schnaibel 3.4.6 Hole in the piston crown
Johann Szopa
(gasoline/petrol engine).............................................................40
Technical Contributors:
Andreas Bühl
3.4.7 Piston top land seizure due to the use of incorrect pistons
Jean-Pierre Brigaud (diesel engine)............................................................................42
Bernd Greiner
Mike Knowles 3.4.8 Erosion on the piston top land
Karl Leitgeb
Uwe Scherzer
and on the piston crown (gasoline/petrol engine).........................44
Graphical design and production: 3.5 Piston and piston ring fractures .........................................46
Margot Schneider
Uwe Schilling
3.5.0 General information about piston fractures ................................46
Hela Werbung GmbH, Heilbronn | Germany 3.5.1 Piston fracture in the piston pin boss .........................................47
This document must not be reprinted, duplicated or 3.5.2 Piston fracture due to the mechanical contact between piston
translated in full or in part without our prior crown and cylinder head.............................................................48
written consent and without reference to the source
of the material. 3.5.3 Material washout in the ring zone (ring fracture).........................50
All content including pictures and diagrams is subject
to alteration.
We accept no liability.
2 | Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying MSI Motor Service International

Piston damages
Table of contents
3.6 Piston pin fractures...............................................................52

3.6.0 General information about piston pin fractures ..........................52
3.6.1 Fractured piston pin....................................................................53
3.7 Damage to the piston pin Circlips .........................................54
3.7.0 General information about damage to the piston pin circlips ......54
3.7.1 Piston damage caused by broken piston pin circlips ...................55
3.8 Seizures in the piston pin bores............................................58
3.8.0 General information about seizures in the piston pin bore ..........58
3.8.1 Seizure in the piston pin bore [floating-fit piston pin]..................59
3.8.2 Seizure in the piston pin bore [shrink-fit connecting rod] ............60
3.8.3 Seizure in the piston pin bore [with piston skirt seizure(s)].........61
3.9 Piston noises ...........................................................................62
3.9.0 General information about piston noises ....................................62
3.9.1 Radial impact points on the piston top land................................63
3.10 Cylinders and cylinder liners .............................................. 64
3.10.1 Longitudinal cylinder liner cracks ...............................................65
3.10.2 Torn off flange on the cylinder liner.............................................66
3.10.3 Cavitation on cylinder liners .......................................................68
3.10.4 Uneven cylinder wear..................................................................70
3.10.5 Brightly polished areas in the upper part of the cylinder .............72
3.10.6 Cylinder liner fracture due to hydraulic lock ................................74
3.11 Increased oil consumption ....................................................76
3.11.0 General information on oil consumption .....................................76
3.11.1 Incorrectly installed oil scraper ring
(increased oil consumption after engine repairs) ........................77
3.11.2 Wear on pistons, piston rings and cylinder running surfaces
caused by the ingress of dirt (increased oil consumption) ..........78
3.11.3 Wear on pistons, piston rings and cylinder running surfaces
caused by fuel flooding (increased oil consumption) ..................80
3.11.4 Piston ring wear (soon after a major engine overhaul)
(increased oil consumption) .......................................................82
3.11.5 Asymmetric piston wear pattern (increased oil consumption).....84
4. Appendix ...............................................................................................86
4.1 Glossary .....................................................................................87
4.1.1 Technical terms and piston designations ....................................87
4.1.2 Explanation of the technical terms used in this document ..........88
4.2 Recommended Tools & Testing Instruments................................97
4.3 Technical Brochures..................................................................100
4.4 MSI Training Programme —
For engine reconditioners .........................................................102
4.5 MSI Training Programme —
For workshops ..........................................................................103
MSI Motor Service International Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying | 3

Piston damages
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 Preface
The requirements placed on the fuel-injection pumps, today’s diesel damages to those parts of the engine
internal combustion have continu- engines are equipped with direct which are subjected to the increased
ously changed throughout the history injection systems with electronically loads, in a particular the pistons.
of its development. Although modern controlled high-pressure fuel injection
car manufacturers try to attract buy- and turbocharging systems. The aim of this brochure is to pro-
ers with the latest improvements in vide the interested reader with an
terms of power output per litre, output Another important development also overview of the different types of
torque, low fuel consumption and dates back to the 1980s. With the in- damages that can be encountered
compliance with the newest exhaust crease in mobility and the associated in the innermost part of an internal
emission standards, the primary increase in annual mileage covered by combustion engine, as well as to
concern of engine manufacturers has vehicles, it was inevitable that there provide a useful tool for specialists
always been the durability and service would be a demand for longer service which will help to diagnose faults and
life of the engines. intervals. In order to ensure that the determine their causes. The process
engines continued to operate safely of assessing engine damage is similar
Since the fuel crisis in the 1970s, and reliably between service intervals to a medical assessment in that it re-
awareness has risen for the need to and to protect the sensitive catalytic quires an all-encompassing approach
improve fuel economy, driving de- converters against contamination with to identify the cause(s) of a problem,
velopments to reduce fuel consump- oil, it was necessary to reduce the en- which may not always be clear and
tion. As a result, the first fuel-in- gine’s consumption of oil and to adapt obvious. It is not at all a rare occur-
jected petrol vehicles were introduced the quality of the engine oil to meet rence for repairs to be carried out and
into series production, reducing fuel the increased requirements. then for the same damage to occur
consumption and improving engine again and the same components to
performance in the process. As part of these developments, the fail again because, although the dam-
internal workings of the engines have aged parts were replaced, nothing
Concerns for the environment be- also been further developed and mod- was done to eliminate the cause of
came paramount in the 1980s. It was ified on a continuous basis. Produc- the problem. For this reason a certain
during this time that the most fun- tion processes in engine construction amount of “detective work” is always
damental changes were made to the have been optimised, and production needed to track down the fault. In
mixture formation process and the tolerances and the weight of the com- many cases the engineer is presented
exhaust emission treatment. The use ponents have been lowered, whilst with just a faulty component, with
of catalytic converters for emission the quality of materials has been no information about how long the
control and exhaust emission treat- steadily improved. The shapes of the component was in service before it
ment on petrol engines meant that combustion chambers and the paths failed, or what the extent of the dam-
the mixture formation process needed through which the combustion gases age is. Naturally this makes it difficult
to be made much more accurate and flow have been optimised in order to to retrace how the fault happened,
controllable. Existing fuel-injection minimise fuel consumption and emis- and the resulting diagnosis invariably
systems were modified in order to sions. offers a general, non damage-specific
comply with the increasingly strict conclusion.
emissions regulations, and were then Despite such substantial changes to
expanded to include lambda control the design of the engine, the types All of the types of damages covered
systems. This finally meant the end of of damage which can be observed in this new, fully revised edition have
the road for carburettors, as there was on the pistons and cylinders have been put together with the utmost
no way that they could fulfil the more stayed remarkably similar. It is still the care and brought right up to date. It
stringent regulations. Although in the case that the main causes for engine should provide you with a compre-
past the mixture formation process on damage are malfunctions, irregulari- hensive source of information which
diesel engines mostly utilised indirect ties or excessive loads of a thermal will assist you in either your work or
injection techniques with mechanical or mechanical nature. The results are your studies.

Piston damages
Preface
1.2 Notes on using this brochure
Recognising dam- pages is help you to locate and assign A glossary has been included as an
age is not always the damage quickly. Here you will appendix with this brochure. This
a straightforward also find the above-mentioned dam- contains the key specialist terms used
task. In many cases age pictograms which can be used in the brochure, together with appro-
the damage can be as the basis for assigning faults to priate explanations.
Fig. 1 hard to make out in their causes, or for making at least a
the photographs, preliminary decision about what type A list of the tools recommended by
or it may not be immediately obvious of damage might be present. MSI Motor Service International GmbH
that any damage is present. This is and overviews of other available
why in addition to the photographs In some cases there are several differ- brochures and the MSI training pro-
showing the damage you will also see ent pictograms for the same damage. gramme completes this edition.
damage pictograms like the one op- If for example damage has occurred
posite (Fig. 1). These will help you to and left behind characteristic traces We hope that this brochure will pro-
recognise and identify the damage on on the piston and on the running vide you with valuable information
the photographs more easily. These surface of the liner, then there may be and not only help you to determine the
pictograms do not show the damage two pictograms for this damage with cause of existing damage, but also to
on a 1:1 scale. The pictograms are both of the relevant components and prevent future damage.
merely intended to serve as examples, their characteristic damage patterns.
in some cases with useful additional MSI Motor Service International GmbH
information.
The quick diagnosis pages are also

new in this brochure. The aim of these

Piston damages
Quick diagnosis
Piston skirt seizing
Seizure on the piston skirt due to Seizure due to insufficient clearances

insufficient clearance ......................... 11 next to the piston pin bores
(45° seizure marks) ............................ 12
Piston skirt seizure on one side Seizure due to overheating centered

only without matching areas on the around the piston skirt ....................... 26
counterpressure side.......................... 18
Seizure due to lack of lubrication Seizure due to insufficient clearances

on the piston skirt .............................. 17 at the lower end of the skirt................ 14
Dry running damage due to lack of Wear on pistons, piston rings

lubrication caused by fuel flooding.... 20 and cylinder running surfaces
caused by fuel flooding
(increased oil consumption) ............... 80
Piston head seizing
Piston top land seizure on a piston Piston top land seizure due to the use
from a diesel engine........................... 21 of incorrect pistons (diesel engine) .... 42
Seizure due to overheating centered Seizure due to lack of lubrication

around the piston top land ................. 25 caused by scuffed piston rings........... 22

Piston damages
Quick diagnosis
Piston ring damages
Seizure due to lack of lubrication Wear on pistons, piston rings and

caused by scuffed piston rings........... 22 cylinder running surfaces caused by
the ingress of dirt
Incorrectly installed oil scraper ring Wear on pistons, piston rings

(increased oil consumption after and cylinder running surfaces
engine repairs) ................................... 77 caused by fuel flooding
Piston ring wear (soon after a major

engine overhaul) (increased oil
consumption) ..................................... 82
Further damages in the ring and skirt Panel
Ring land fractures ............................. 36 Material washout in the ring zone

(ring fracture) ..................................... 50
Piston damage caused by broken Radial impact points on the piston

piston pin circlips ............................... 55 top land.............................................. 63
Asymmetric piston wear pattern


Piston damages
Quick diagnosis
Piston head damages
Removal of material by melting from Material removal/fusion due to melting

the piston crown and ring zone on the piston crown (diesel engine).... 32
(gasoline/petrol engine) .................... 31
Hole in the piston crown Erosion on the piston top land and
(gasoline/petrol engine) .................... 40 on the piston crown (gasoline/petrol
engine)............................................... 44
Piston fracture due to mechanical Impact marks on the piston crown

contact between the piston crown and (diesel engine) ................................... 38
the cylinder head................................ 48
Cracks in the piston crown and piston Piston fracture in the piston pin boss . 47
combustion bowl (diesel engines) ...... 34
Piston pin seizing & piston pin fractures
Seizure in the piston pin bore Seizure in the piston pin bore
(with piston skirt seizure)................... 61 (floating-fit piston pin)........................ 59
Seizure in the piston pin bore Fractured piston pin ........................... 53

(shrink-fit connecting rod) .................. 60

Piston damages
Quick diagnosis
Cylinder damages
Torn off flange on the cylinder liner .... 66 Torn off flange on the cylinder liner .... 66
Longitudinal cylinder liner cracks ....... 65 Cylinder liner fracture due to

hydraulic lock..................................... 74
Cavitation on cylinder liners ............... 68 Seizure due to insufficient clearances

at the lower end of the skirt................ 14
Uneven cylinder wear ......................... 70 Brightly polished areas in the upper part
of the cylinder .................................... 72
Detailed descriptions of the

different types of damages

Piston damages
Description – assessment – causes
3.1 Seizure due to insufficient clearances
3.1.0 General information about seizures due to insufficient clearances
In engine operation, the clearance bet- As the clearance between the piston In summary, seizure due to insuf-
ween the piston and the cylinder may and the cylinder starts to decrease, ficient clearances is typified by
become reduced beyond permissible mixed friction occurs as a result of the following main characteristics:
limits or even completely decimated the oil film on the cylinder wall being highly polished pressure points which
as a result of incorrect dimensioning forced away by the expanding pis- change gradually into darkly discol-
of the two sides, after cylinder distor- ton. The initial result of this is that oured areas of wear due to rubbing. In
tion or after excessive thermal loads. the load-bearing surfaces on the the case of seizures due to insufficient
In addition, the piston reaches much piston skirt are rubbed to a highly clearances, the seizure points can be
higher temperatures than the cylinder polished finish. The temperatures of seen on both the pressure side and on
during engine operation, resulting in the components increase further due the counterpressure side.
different thermal expansion beha- to the mixed friction and the result-
viour of the piston and the cylinder. ing frictional heat. In the process, the
The thermal expansion of the piston piston presses with increasing force
is far greater than the cylinder which against the cylinder wall and the oil
encloses it. In addition, the thermal film completely stops doing its job.
expansion of aluminium materials is The piston then starts to run dry in the
approximately twice that of grey cast cylinder, resulting in the first areas to
iron, which needs to be taken into ac- show signs of wear due to rubbing,
count accordingly at the design stage. with dark discoloration on the surface.

Piston damages
3.1.1 Seizure on the piston skirt due to insufficient clearance
Description of the damage

Around the skirt of the piston there
are several different areas of sei-
zure marks which are all identical in
nature.
The seizure marks can be found on
both the pressure side and on the
counterpressure side, i.e. there are
corresponding counter-seizure marks
on one side of the piston to match the
seizure marks on the other. The sur-
face of the seizures gradually changes
from highly polished pressure areas
to darkly discoloured areas of wear
caused by rubbing. The ring zone is
undamaged.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment Note:

The clearance between the piston acceptable limits by distortion which In contrast to seizure caused by lack
skirt and the running surface of the possibly did not occur until the engine of lubrication, seizure due to insuf-
cylinder was either too narrow by was taken into normal operation. ficient clearances always occurs after
design, or it was restricted beyond a brief running-in period after an
engine overhaul.
Possible causes for the damage

• Cylinder bore too small • Dirty or distorted threads in the • Cylinder head distortion caused by
• Cylinder head overtightened or threaded bores or on the uneven heating due to deposits,
tightened unevenly cylinder head bolts dirt or other problems in the cooling
(cylinder head distortion) • Seized or insufficiently lubricated bolt system.
• Uneven sealing surface on the cylin- head contact surfaces
der or on the cylinder head • Use of incorrect or unsuitable cylinder
head gaskets

Piston damages
3.1.2 Seizure due to insufficient clearances next to the piston pin bores (45° seizure marks)

Seizure marks at an offset of ap-
proximately 45° to the piston pin axis
which are found both on the pres-
sure side and on the counterpressure
side are characteristic of this type
of damage. The surface at the sei-
zures gradually changes from highly
polished pressure areas to relatively
smooth, darkly discoloured areas of
wear caused by rubbing. The piston
pin displays blue tempering colours;
which indicates in this case that the
piston pin bed must have become
hot due to insufficient clearances or a
lack of oil.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Piston damages
Damage assessment
This damage is caused when the tween the piston and the cylinder However, at the transition to the more
area around the piston pin heats up running surface. The piston skirt is rigid piston pin bore the material then
excessively. As this area of the piston relatively thin-walled and therefore comes to bear with greater force on
is quite stiff, this causes an increased has a certain amount of flexibility the cylinder wall, which ultimately
thermal expansion in the area and which enables it to compensate for causes the oil film to be forced out
a restriction of the clearances be- the increased thermal expansion. and the piston to rub.
• Excessive load on the engine before • Seizure in the connecting rod small two components is moved in this
it reaches operating temperature end due to insufficient lubrication state, then it can cause initial rub-
The piston can reach its full operat- when the engine was first taken bing marks or seizure marks which
ing temperature after 20 seconds, into operation. will cause subsequent stiffness of
whereas a cold cylinder can take a The piston pin was either given the bearing (and thus increased
great deal longer. As a result of the insufficient lubrication or no lubri- friction and heat generation) dur-
different thermal expansion of the cation at all when the engine was ing operation. For this reason the
two components’ material, the pis- assembled. Before the oil can reach assembled components should be
ton expands faster and further than the bearing when the engine is first allowed to cool off before checking
the cylinder. The piston clearance is taken into operation, there is not that the bearing moves freely.
then significantly restricted and the enough lubrication and the piston
damage described above occurs. pin bore surface seizes, causing ad-
ditional heat to be generated in the
• Excessively narrow fit of the piston process.
pin in the small end of the connect-
ing rod (shrink-fit connecting rod). • Incorrect assembly during the
An excessively tight fit of the piston process of shrinking the piston pin
pin in the connecting rod small end (shrink-fit connecting rod)
can cause the connecting rod small During the process of shrinking the
end and therefore also the piston piston pin into the connecting rod
pin to become out-of-round. The eye, it is also important that, in ad-
reason for this is the different wall dition to the above-mentioned lubri-
thicknesses on the connecting rod cation of the piston pin, piston pin
small end. Whereas there is a lot and piston pin bore are not checked
more material and much thicker wall for freedom of movement immedi-
thickness in the direction of the big ately after installation by tipping the
end rod, the wall thickness is much piston back and forth.
less at the top of the small end. The
clearance in the piston pin boss The temperatures are equalized im-
becomes restricted if the piston pin mediately between the two com-
is deformed. The resulting lack of ponents after the cool piston pin is
clearance between the piston pin inserted into the hot connecting rod.
and the piston pin bore causes in- The piston pin can still become very
creased frictional heat and therefore hot as a result. It will then expand,
greater thermal expansion in the and can become clamped in the
affected area. piston pin bore, which in this stage
is still cool. If the connection of the

Piston damages
3.1.3 Seizure due to insufficient clearances at the lower end of the skirt

The piston displays typical seizure
marks caused by insufficient clear-
ances at the bottom end of the skirt,
with pressure marks and counterpres-
sure marks. The marks change from
highly polished pressure points to
smooth, darkly discoloured areas of
wear caused by rubbing. (Fig. 1) There
is nothing unusual about any of the
remaining parts of the piston. The
matching wet cylinder liner (Fig. 2)
displays seizure marks of exactly the
same nature in the lower part where
the outer diameter is sealed with sev-
eral sealing rings against water and oil
in the crankcase.
Fig. 1
Fig.2

Piston damages
Damage assessment
As the seizure areas on both the ances in the lower area between the oil film was forced out due to a lack of
piston and the cylinder liner display piston and the cylinder must have clearance.
the characteristics of seizure caused been restricted to such an extent by
by insufficient clearances, the clear- the distortion of the cylinder that the

• Incorrectly dimensioned or unsui- • Use of additional sealant with • There were possibly leftovers from
table liner sealing ring can distort a liner sealing ring. the old oil seals in the grooves for
cylinder liner to the point of com- One of the characteristics of the oil the sealing rings in the housing
pletely eliminating piston clearan- seals used for this purpose is that (see above).
ces. In order to ensure that there is they swell up in operation following
enough space for the sealing rings exposure to oil. This is an intended • Sealing rings cannot offer a perfect
to swell into, they should only take feature which is designed to ensure seal if they twist the cylinder liner
up approx. 70 % of the liner groove durable leak-tightness over longer is inserted. Therefore they must
volume. periods of time. For this reason, no always be coated with a sliding
additional sealant must be used. lubricant prior to installation of the
This would cause the free space in cylinder liner.
the liner groove to become com-
pletely filled, and it would not be
possible for the liner sealing ring to
expand in operation.

Piston damages
3.2 Seizure due to lack of lubrication
3.2.0 General information about seizure due to lack of lubrication
Seizure due to lack of lubrication can or because of flooding with fuel. In the with a severely worn surface. A similar
occur generally, i.e. even if there is areas affected in this way the surfaces situation arises if there is a lack of oil,
sufficient clearance between the cylin- of the piston, piston rings and cylinder i.e. if there is no longer any lubricating
der and the piston. In the process the running surface then run against each film at all between the piston and the
oil film breaks down (often only local- other without any lubrication, which cylinder.
ly) because of the high temperatures in just a short time causes seizure
In summary, seizure due to lack of lubrication is typified by the following main characteristics:
a) If the oil film is destroyed altogether:

seamless areas of narrow seizure marks mainly on the piston skirt, showing a
severely worn and darkly discoloured surface. In the early stages there are often
no matching seizure marks on the opposite side of the piston.
b) If there is a lack of oil:

identical to the seizure marks due to lack of lubrication described above, apart
from the discoloration of the surface. The surface of the seizure areas almost
has a pure metallic finish, with no dark discoloration. As the lack of oil affects
the entire surface of the cylinder, there are often seizure marks on both the pres-
sure side and the counterpressure side, even in the early stages.

Piston damages
3.2.1 Seizure due to lack of lubrication on the piston skirt

Seizure marks which in some cases
extend into the ring zone are present
in the running surface area where
normally the wear pattern develops.
Slight counter-seizure areas have
occurred on the opposite side of the
skirt. The surface of the seizure areas
has no dark discoloration and almost
has a pure metallic finish.
Fig. 1

There has been an acute lack of the seizure. Due to the limited extent With this type of seizure due to lack
lubricant between the piston and the of the damage, this may be evidence of lubrication, the damage area on the
cylinder running surface. The fact that of a temporary lack of oil or the early piston is always located at the load-
the surface of the seizure areas almost stages of damage. The damage would bearing points between the piston
has a pure metallic finish indicates have undoubtedly been even more skirt and the cylinder, i.e. the points
that the oil film was still present but serious if operation of the engine had at which the normal wear pattern
significantly weakened at the time of continued with insufficient lubrication. would have formed on an undamaged
piston after running in.

da
• Lack of lubrication caused by lack of This means that not enough lubri-
engine oil cating oil is supplied to the running
• Oil pressure in the engine too low surfaces of the cylinder, which are
valv etc.).
(oil pump, pressure relief valve primarily lubricated with splash oil
a
As a result, not enough oil is avail- and centrifugal oil from the crank-
able for lubrication. Not enough oil shaft.
emerges at the crankshaft bearings.

Piston damages
3.2.2 Piston skirt seizure on one side only without matching areas on the counterpressure side

Darkly discoloured seizure areas with
a severely worn surface are present on
one side of the piston skirt. Due to the
high temperatures on the piston
(Fig. 1), large areas of piston material
have been torn out from the surface
of the piston skirt panel in the area of
the seizure. The broken edge at the
same height as the piston pin shows
this clearly. In this scenario, it is
completely typical for the side of the
piston skirt opposite the seizure area
to be completely free of damage, and
the same applies in the early stages at
least to the ring zone as well.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Piston damages
Damage assessment
This is a typical example of seizure curs on the pressure side and is less the cylinder. Lack of clearance can be
due to lack of lubrication. This type of common on the counterpressure side. excluded as the potential cause here
damage occurs when the lubricating It is caused either by a lack of lubrica- as, despite the severity of the seizure
film breaks down on just one half of tion within a locally confined area or marks, there are no marks on the op-
the cylinder. The damage usually oc- by overheating of the affected side of posing counterpressure side.

• Partial collapse of the cooling • Defective, missing or incorrectly • Dilution of the oil or use of an inap-
mechanism due to lack of coolant, installed air baffles on air-cooled propriate oil grade for the purpose,
air bubbles, dirt deposits or other engines. leading to a lack of lubrication on
malfunction of the cooling circuit. • On engines with a design in which the cylinder pressure side under
• On ribbed cylinders, dirt deposits oil is additionally splashed onto the greater load first.
on the outside of the cylinder can cylinder pressure side under greater
lead to local overheating of the cyl- load by means of spray jets in the
inder and therefore to a breakdown connecting rod, this type of damage
of the lubricating film. can also be caused by a blocked
spray jet or insufficient oil pressure.

Piston damages
3.2.3 Dry running damage due to lack of lubrication caused by fuel flooding

Instead of where you would normally
find the piston wear pattern, there are
narrow, sharply defined longitudinal
friction marks on the running surface
of the piston skirt.
Fig. 1

Unburned fuel which is wetting at the With this type of damage the ring zone In the case of damage caused by
cylinder running surface has diluted or remains undamaged, as here mostly unburned fuel, the damage always
washed off the load-bearing oil film. just the piston rings are in contact occurs at the areas on the skirt where
As a result, the piston and cylinder with the cylinder running surface. the skirt bears against the cylinder.
run dry against each other. This These are the points at which the
results in long, narrow friction marks. normal wear pattern would have
formed on an undamaged piston after
running in.

• Over-rich operation of the engine • Insufficient compression and, as a • Oil dilution caused by frequent
and combustion problems caused result, incomplete combustion. short-distance driving or an overly
by faults in the intake system, a • Defective cold-starting device or rich mixture
blocked air filter, faults in the mix- excessive use of the choke (carbu-
ture preparation or in the ignition rettor engines).
system.

Piston damages
3.2.4 Piston top land seizure on a piston from a diesel engine

The piston crown has localised
seizures which mainly focus on the
piston top land. The surface of the
seizure areas is rough and worn, in
some cases larger pieces of material
have already been torn out.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
Due to a fault on the injector, fuel piston was running dry without any piston material has been virtually
which had not been atomized was lubrication at all. In this area on the welded to the cylinder wall, causing
able to reach the cylinder wall, where piston top land, the piston material smaller and larger chunks to be torn
it diluted and reduced the strength has seized so much as a result of run- out of the piston top land.
of the oil film to the point where the ning with no lubrication that the

• Injectors which are leaking, dripping • Blocked nozzle needle due to bent • Incorrect injection timing (start of
after injection, clogged or of the injector body (incorrect tightening delivery).
wrong type. torque).

Piston damages
3.2.5 Seizure due to lack of lubrication caused by scuffed piston rings

Scratches caused by seizure and
burned spots are present on the
ring running surfaces. The cylinder
bores (not shown in the picture) have
longitudinal scratches. The first signs
of wear due to rubbing can be seen on
Fig. 1
the left-hand piston (Fig. 3) at the top
right on the piston top land. In a more
advanced state (Fig. 4) the damaged
areas have spread over the entire
piston.
Fig. 2
Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Piston damages
Damage assessment
This type of damage primarily occurs lubrication between the piston rings is responsible for the so-called burn
during the running-in phase under and the cylinder wall to break down. spots. The piston also has to slide
heavy loads, when the piston rings However, faults in the combustion over the non-lubricated parts of the
are not yet run in and have hence not process and increased temperatures cylinder, which initially causes wear
yet reached their full sealing capabil- or insufficient cooling of the piston due to rubbing on the piston top land
ity (mostly on diesel pistons). The and cylinder wall can also affect or and subsequently leads to seizures on
combustion gases which flow past the even destroy the lubricating film. the entire piston skirt (Fig. 4).
rings heat up the rings and the cyl- Initially this causes the piston rings
inder wall excessively and cause the to run dry without lubrication. This

• Excessive engine loads during the • Unsuitable choice of lubricating oil • Insufficient oil supply to the cylinder
running-in phase. (incorrect grade and viscosity). running surfaces due to insufficient
• The structure of the honed cylinder • The temperature on the cylinder quantities of splash oil and cen-
surface was not perfect for good ad- running surfaces was too high trifugal oil from the connecting rod
hesion of the engine oil (squashing (malfunction in the cooling system bearings and crankshaft bearings.
of the graphite veins, peak folding, or deposits in the cooling ducts sur-
insufficient roughness and/or incor- rounding the cylinder).
rect honing angle). • Abnormal combustion and the
resulting increased temperatures
Note: during combustion (lean mixture,
You can find more detailed informa- glow ignition, injectors leaking or
tion on the subject of honing in our dripping after injection).
brochures called “Honing of gray
cast iron cylinder blocks” and “Oil
consumption and loss of oil”. Both
brochures are listed in the Appendix
together with their order number.

Piston damages
3.3 Seizures due to overheating
3.3.0 General information on seizures due to overheating
In the case of seizures due to over-

heating, the lubricating film breaks
down as a result of excessively high
temperatures. Initially this causes
mixed friction with individual friction
marks. As the damage progresses,
the material heats up further and the
piston loses all lubrication in the cyl-
inder. The seizure areas have a dark
discoloration and are badly broken
up. Depending on the cause for the
damage, seizure due to overheating
will either start on the piston skirt or
on the piston top land.

Piston damages
3.3.1 Seizure due to overheating centered around the piston top land

Severe seizure has occurred starting
from the piston top land which less-
ens more and more towards the end
of the skirt. The surface of the seizure
areas has a dark discoloration with
severe scoring marks, and has broken
up in places. The seizure marks are
distributed around the entire circum-
ference of the piston.
The piston rings also show signs
of seizure all around, whereby the
seizure marks decrease in intensity
toward the oil scraper ring.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
The piston crown has been heated ing extent. Ultimately this caused a installation clearance can be excluded
up so much as a result of extreme combination of seizure marks due to as the possible cause, because in this
thermal overload coming from the insufficient clearances and seizure case the damage would start in the
combustion chamber that, on the one marks due to insufficient lubrica- skirt area (see also point “3.1.1 Sei-
hand, it has bridged the running clear- tion all around the circumference of zure on the piston skirt due to insuf-
ances and, on the other hand, has the piston top land. A general lack of ficient clearance”)
destroyed the oil film to an increas- clearance due to insufficient piston

• Extended high loads on the engine • Faults in the engine cooling system. • Bent or blocked oil splash nozzles
before it has been fully run in. • Faults in the oil supply, i.e. pistons which provide the piston with not
• Overheating due to faults in the with oil cooling (jet nozzle type) enough or no cooling at all from
combustion process. with or without oil cooling gallery underneath.

Piston damages
3.3.2 Seizure due to overheating centered around the piston skirt

The piston skirt has seized nearly all
the way round. The surface of the sei-
zure marks has a dark discoloration
and is rough and severely broken up.
The ring zone has only suffered slight
damage due to worn piston material
which has been rubbed upwards.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
Severe overheating of the entire tic seizure marks due to insufficient age is centered on the skirt area it is
engine has caused the lubrication lubrication with a heavily broken up possible to exclude a motive overload
in the cylinder to completely break surface. As there are no seizure marks caused by abnormal combustion.
down. This has caused the characteris- on the piston top land and the dam-

• Overheating of the engine due to • On air-cooled engines: Overheating
faults in the cooling system (lack due to dirt deposits on the exteriors
of coolant, dirt, faulty water pump, of the cylinders, broken cooling ribs
faulty thermostat, torn or slipping or failed or compromised cooling air
V-belt, inadequate or faulty breather ventilation.
systems for the cooling system).

Piston damages
3.4 Damages due to abnormal combustions
3.4.0 General information about piston damage due to abnormal combustion
Abnormal combustion on
gasoline/petrol engines
The normal combustion of the air- as a result and reaches a maximum 1. Glow ignition
fuel mixture in the cylinder follows shortly after TDC. In order to protect causes a thermal overload of the
a precisely defined process. It is the engine components, the pressure piston
started by the spark from the spark increase per degree of the crankshaft 2. Knocking combustion:
plug shortly before top dead centre must not exceed 3–5 bar. However, causes erosion of material and
(TDC). The flame spreads from the this normal combustion process can mechanical overloads on the piston
spark plug with a circular flame front be disturbed by various factors which and the crankshaft drive.
and crosses the combustion chamber essentially can be reduced to three 3. Fuel flooding:
with a steadily increasing combustion completely different cases of combus- causes wear in conjunction with
speed of 5–30 m/s. The pressure in tion faults: oil consumption and even piston
the combustion chamber rises steeply seizure.
Fig. 1 shows the differences between knocking combustion and glow igni-
a normal combustion process, a tion.
Normal combustion Knocking combustion Glow ignition
Fig. 1

Piston damages
Additional information for

1. Glow ignition: Remarks:
In the case of glow ignition, a part On engines with a for the most part The term quenching area describes
which is glowing in the combustion hemispherical combustion chamber the area on the piston crown which lies
chamber triggers combustion before this causes holes in the piston crown closest to the cylinder head when the
the actual ignition point. Potential which usually occur on an extension piston is at TDC. On the upward stroke
candidates are the hot exhaust valve, of the spark plug axis. of the piston towards TDC the fresh
the spark plug, sealing parts and de- gases are squashed from this narrow
posits on these parts and the surfaces On combustion chambers with larger gap towards the centre of the combus-
which enclose the combustion cham- quenching areas between the piston tion chamber, swirling the gases and
ber. In the case of glow ignition, the crown and the cylinder head, the hence improving combustion in the
flame acts completely uncontrolled on piston top land usually starts to melt process.
the components, causing the temper- at the point in the quenching area
ature in the piston crown to increase which is subjected to the greatest Knocking combustion, which causes
sharply and reach the melting point of load. This often continues down to the high surface temperatures on individ-
the piston material after just few sec- oil scraper ring and into the interior of ual parts of the combustion chamber,
onds of uninterrupted glow ignition. the piston. can also lead to glow ignition.

Piston damages
Additional information for

2. Knocking combustion:
When the combustion is knocking Slight knocking with interruptions Fig. 1 shows a graphical represen-
the ignition is triggered in the normal can be tolerated by most engines for tation of the pressure curve in the
manner via the spark from the spark longer periods of time without sus- combustion chamber. The blue curve
plug. The flame front expanding from taining any damage. shows the pressure curve for normal
the spark plug generates pressure More severe and longer lasting knock- combustion. The red curve shows a
waves which trigger critical reactions ing causes piston material being to be pressure curve for a knocking com-
in the unburned gas. As a result, self- eroded from the piston top land and bustion with overlaid pressure peaks.
ignition takes place simultaneously the piston crown. The cylinder head
at many points in the residual gas and the cylinder head gasket can also Additional information for
mixture. This in turn causes the com- sustain damage in a similar way. Parts 3. Fuel flooding:
bustion speed to increase by a factor in the combustion chamber (e.g. the An excessively rich mixture, gradual
of 10-15, and the pressure increase spark plug) can heat up so much in loss of compression pressure and
per degree of the crankshaft and the the process that glow ignition (pre- ignition faults will generate an
peak pressure also rise substantially. ignition) can take place in conjunction incomplete combustion with concur-
In addition, very high frequency pres- with thermal overload of the piston rent fuel flooding. The lubrication of
sure oscillations are set up in the (i.e. material is melted on or removed the pistons, piston rings and cylinder
expansion stroke. Furthermore, the by melting). running surfaces becomes less and
temperature of the surfaces enclosing Severe continuous knocking will less effective as a result. The conse-
the combustion chamber increases cause fractures of the ring land and quence is mixed friction with wear and
a great deal. Combustion chambers the skirt after just a short time. This consumption of oil and seizure marks
which have been burned clean of any usually occurs without any material (please refer to the “Oil consumption”
residue are an unmistakeable indica- being melted on or removed by melt- and “Piston seizure” sections as well).
tion of combustion knocking. ing and without seizure marks.
TDC
pressure
crank angle
Fig. 1

Piston damages
Abnormal combustion on diesel condition of the engine. On a cold and, finally, also the piston skirt sur-
engines engine there is always a certain igni- faces. This means that the engine will
In addition to the basic requirement tion delay. During compression, the start to consume oil and lose power
that the engine is mechanically in cold cylinder walls absorb so much (please refer to the “Oil consump-
perfect working order, it is essential heat from the intake air - which is tion” and “Seizure due to insufficient
that a diesel engine has an injector colder anyway - that the compression lubrication” sections for examples of
with extremely fine fuel atomisation temperature present at the start of in- possible damage scenarios).
and precise delivery and correct start jection is not sufficient to immediately
of injection in order to ensure that ignite the injected fuel. The required Additional information to
the combustion process is optimised. ignition temperature is not reached 3. Injectors dripping after injection
This is the only way to ensure that the until the compression reaches a more To prevent the injectors from opening
injected fuel can ignite with a mini- advanced stage, at which point the again and post-injecting as a result of
mum ignition delay and, under normal fuel injected so far ignites suddenly. the pressure fluctuations in the sys-
pressure conditions, burn completely. This causes a steep, explosive pres- tem between the pressure valve of the
However, various influences can dis- sure increase which generates a noise fuel-injection pump, the fuel-injection
turb this normal combustion proce- and causes a sharp increase in the lines and the injectors themselves,
dure. Fundamentally, there are three temperature of the piston crown. This the pressure in the system is reduced
serious types of abnormal combus- can result in fractures in the power by a certain amount by the pressure
tion: unit, for example in the ring land and valve of the fuel-injection pump at the
the piston, as well as heat stress end of injection. If the injection pres-
1. Ignition delay cracks on the piston crown. sure of the injectors is set too low or if
2. Incomplete combustion it cannot be reliably maintained by the
3. Injectors dripping after injection Additional information for nozzle (mechanical nozzles), then it
2. Incomplete combustion: is possible that, despite this pressure
Additional information for If the fuel does not reach the combus- reduction, the injectors could still
1. Ignition delay: tion chamber at the right time, or if open several times in sequence after
The fuel injected at the start of de- it is not properly atomised, then the the end of injection as a result of pres-
livery will ignite with a certain delay short period of time available is not sure fluctuations in the fuel-injection
(ignition delay) if it is not atomised enough to ensure complete combus- line. Nozzles which leak or drip after
finely enough and if it does not reach tion. The same happens if there is not injection also cause an uncontrolled
the combustion chamber at the right enough oxygen (i.e. intake air) in the delivery of fuel into the combustion
time, or if the compression pressure cylinder. The causes for this could be chamber. In both cases the injected
is not yet high enough at the start of a blocked air filter, intake valves not fuel remains unburned due to the lack
injection. The degree of atomisation opening correctly, turbocharger faults of oxygen and ends up unburned on
depends on the condition of the injec- or wear on the piston rings and the the piston crown. There the fuel glows
tor. For example, an injector which valves. Fuel which has been burned away under quite high temperatures
demonstrates perfect fuel delivery either incompletely or not at all will at and heats local areas of the piston
during testing with an injector testing least partly wettens on the cylinder material so much that parts of the
device can be jammed in such a way walls, where it will adversely affect piston can be torn away from the
during installation that it no longer or even destroy the film of lubricant. surface under the effects of gravity
atomises the fuel properly. Within a very short space of time this and erosion. This results in substan-
will result in severe wear or seizure on tial amounts of material being carried
The compression temperature de- the running surfaces and edges of the away or washed away erosively on the
pends on the compression pressure piston rings, the edges of the piston piston crown.
and therefore on the mechanical grooves, the cylinder running surface

Piston damages
3.4.1 Removal of material by melting from the piston crown and ring zone
(gasoline/petrol engine)

The material has melted away on
the piston crown behind the piston
rings. The piston skirt has not seized,
instead piston material has been worn
away off the damaged area to the
piston skirt.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
The removal of material by melting mixture. These are essentially the the piston material go soft. Material is
from piston crowns on petrol engines spark plug, the exhaust valve and any carried away as far as the oil scraper
is the result of glow ignition on pistons residue adhering to the combustion ring due to the combined effects of
with mostly flat crowns and larger chamber walls. gravity and combustion gases entering
quenching areas. Glow ignition is trig- In the quenching area, the piston the damage site.
gered by glowing parts in the combus- crown is heated up significantly due to
tion chamber which are hotter than the the glow ignition. In the process, the
self-ignition temperature of the air-gas temperatures reach values which make

• Heat range of the spark plugs too • Glowing combustion residue on the • High quantities of oil in the combus-
low. piston crowns, the cylinder head, tion chamber caused by high oil
• Mixture too lean, resulting in higher the valves and the spark plugs. transfer rate on the piston rings or
combustion temperatures. • Unsuitable fuel with an octane rat- the valve guide.
• Damaged or leaking valves, or insuf- ing which is too low. The fuel quality • High engine or intake temperatures
ficient valve clearance, causing the must correspond to the compres- caused by inadequate ventilation of
valves to not close correctly. The sion ratio of the engine, i.e. the the engine compartment.
combustion gases flowing past sig- octane rating of the fuel must cover • General overheating.
nificantly increase the temperature the octane requirements of the en-
of the valves, and the valves start gine under all operating conditions.
to glow. This primarily affects the • Diesel fuel in the petrol, which low-
exhaust valves, as the intake valves ers the octane rating of the fuel.
are cooled by the fresh gases.

Piston damages
3.4.2 Material removal/fusion due to melting on the piston crown (diesel engine)

The crown area and the piston top
land area have been completely des-
troyed (Fig. 1). The piston top land
has melted away as far as the ring
carrier. Melted-away piston material
has been worn down on the piston
skirt where it has also caused damage
and seizure marks. The ring carrier of
the first compression ring is now only
partially intact on the left-hand side of
the piston. The rest of the ring carrier
has become detached from the piston
during operation and caused further
damage in the combustion chamber.
Fig. 1
The force of the parts flying around has
transported them through the intake
valve into the intake manifold and from
there into the neighbouring cylinder,
where they have caused further dam-
age (impact marks).
Additional information for Fig. 2:

Erosive-type removal of material due
to melting has occurred on the piston
crown and the edge of the piston top
land in the injection direction of one
or more nozzle jets. There are no sei-
zure marks on the piston skirt or the
piston ring zone.
Fig. 2

Piston damages
Damage assessment
This type of damage occurs particu- fuel to be injected into the combus- rial in the localised area becomes soft
larly on direct-injection diesel engines. tion chamber again after the end of the in the process. The force of gravity
Prechamber engines are only affected injection process (mechanical noz- and the erosion due to the combus-
if a prechamber is damaged and the zles). If the oxygen in the combustion tion gases speeding past will tear out
prechamber engine therefore effective- chamber has been used up, then the individual particles from the surface
ly becomes a direct-injection engine. individual fuel droplets will be distrib- (Fig. 2) or carry away the entire piston
If the injector of the affected cylinder uted throughout the entire combustion crown, ultimately leading to the type of
cannot maintain its injection pressure chamber and end up further outside damage seen in Fig. 1.
after the end of the injection process on the piston crown on its downward
and the pressure drops, oscillations stroke. There they glow away under a
in the fuel-injection line can cause the shortage of oxygen, generating quite a
nozzle needle to lift again, causing lot of heat in the process. The mate-

• Leaking injector nozzles or stiff or • On prechamber engines: Precham- • Excessive ignition delay caused
jammed nozzle needles. ber defect, but only in conjunction by the use of diesel with a cetane
• Broken or worn nozzle springs. with one of the above possible rating which is too low (reluctant to
• Faulty pressure relief valves in the causes. ignite).
fuel-injection pump. • Ignition delay due to insufficient
• Injected fuel quantity and injection compression caused by excessive
timing not set in accordance with gap dimensions (piston protrusion/
the engine manufacturer’s specifica- overlap too low), incorrect valve
tions. timing or leaking valves.

Piston damages
3.4.3 Cracks in the piston crown and combustion bowl recess (diesel engines)

The piston crown displays a stress
crack which extends on one side from
the piston crown to the piston pin
boss (Figs. 1 and 2). The hot combus-
tion gases which have flown through
the crack have burned a channel into
the piston material which runs out-
ward from the bowl to the cast bowl
below the oil scraper ring.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Piston damages
Damage assessment
As a result of the high thermal over- In the areas where before the material
load, the piston material is heated up was buckled and forced away, there
significantly in localised areas where is now suddenly a shortage of mate-
the prechamber jets reach the piston rial. This results in tensile stresses
(prechamber engine) or on the edge in this area which ultimately cause
of the bowl (direct-injection engines). stress cracks (see Figs. 3 and 4). If
In the heated up areas the material in addition to the stresses resulting
expands much more than elsewhere. from the thermal overload there are
As the overheated areas are not also superimposed stresses caused
surrounded by any cold surrounding by warping of the piston pin, then in
materials, the material at the hot, some cases the stress cracks can turn Fig. 3
thermally overloaded area is perma- into a much larger major crack which
nently deformed beyond its limit of causes complete breakage and failure
elasticity. Exactly the opposite hap- of the piston.
pens when it then cools down again.
Fig. 4

• Faulty or incorrect injectors, faults in • On engines which are subject to • Installation of pistons with an incor-
the fuel-injection pump, damage to frequently changing loads, e.g. city rectly shaped piston bowl for the
the prechamber. buses, earth moving machinery etc., engine. See also point “3.4.7 Piston
• High temperatures as a result of these factors can become particu- seizure due to the use of incorrect
defects in the cooling system. larly critical. pistons”.
• Faults on the engine brake, or exces- • Use of pistons with an incorrect
sive use of the engine brake. This specification, e.g. installation of
results in overheating. pistons without a cooling oil gallery
• Insufficient piston cooling on on an engine where the specifica-
pistons with a cooling oil gallery, tions require pistons with a cooling
caused for example by blocked or oil gallery, installation of pistons
bent cooling oil nozzles. made by third-party manufacturers
without fibre-reinforcement of the
edge of the bowl.

Piston damages
3.4.4 Ring land fractures

A ring land fracture is evident on one
side of the piston between the first
and second compression ring (Fig. 1).
The fracture starts at the upper edge
of the ring land in the base of the
groove and runs at a diagonal angle
into the piston material. Near the low-
er edge of the ring land the fracture
then changes direction back outwards
and emerges at the lower edge of the
ring land or slightly underneath in the
base of the groove. The longitudinal
cracks in the ring lands which limit the
Fig. 1
lateral expansion of the fracture are
extended downwards. There are no
piston seizure marks or evidence of
overheating.
Fig. 2 cross section of ring land
Damage assessment
Material faults are not the reason for Knocking combustion:
ring land fractures, even though they This means that the octane rating of combustion”). Ring land fractures
are often the suspected cause. This the fuel was not capable of covering caused by knocking combustion usu-
type of fracture always results from the engine’s needs under all operating ally occur on the pressure side. On a
overstressing the material. A distinc- and load conditions (see also point diesel engine, knocking can only be
tion can be made between 3 different “3.4.0 General information about caused by ignition delay.
causes for these symptoms of over- piston damage due to abnormal
stressing:

Piston damages
Hydraulic locks:
Liquid (water, coolant, oil or fuel) extend further down as well, as the
inadvertently enters the combustion force which causes the fracture acts
chamber when the engine is station- from above on the ring land.
ary or running. As the liquid is incom-
Fig. 3
pressible, the piston and crankshaft Installation errors:
drive are subjected to enormous During installation, the piston was
stresses during the compression knocked in rather than being slid in,
stroke. The unavoidable outcome is because the piston rings were not cor-
ring land fractures, hub fractures or rectly compressed or unsuitable tools
connecting rod/crankshaft damage. were used. In this case the ring lands
Fig. 3 shows an example of the devel- fracture in the reverse direction as the
opment of a fracture which occurs in pressure comes from below (Fig. 4),
response to knocking combustion and not from above as in the above case.
hydraulic locks. The fracture surfaces
Fig. 4

Knocking combustion on gasoline/
petrol engines Hydraulic locks
• Use of a fuel without suitable anti- • Intake air temperatures too high, • Accidental intake of water while
knock properties. The fuel quality caused by inadequate ventilation of driving through high water, puddles
must correspond to the compression the engine compartment or exhaust or low rivers/waters, or as a result
ratio of the engine, i.e. the octane gas backpressure. However, failure of larger quantities of water being
rating of the fuel must cover the to switch over the intake air flap to splashed up by passing vehicles or
octane requirements of the engine summer operation or a faulty auto- vehicles in front.
under all operating conditions. matic switchover mechanism will • Cylinder filling up with water while
• Diesel fuel in the petrol, which low- lead also to a substantial increase in the engine is stationary due to leaks
ers the octane rating of the fuel. the intake air temperature (particu- in the cylinder head gasket or due to
• Oil in the combustion chamber as a larly on older carburettor engines). cracks in components.
result of high oil consumption at the • Cylinder filling up with fuel while the
piston rings or valve guides lowers Knocking combustion on diesel engine is stationary due to leaking
the antiknock properties of the fuel. engines injectors (only applies to gasoline/
• Excessively high compression ratio • Injectors with poor atomisation or petrol engines with fuel-injection).
caused by combustion residue on leaking injectors. The residual pressure in the fuel in-
the piston crowns and cylinder • Injection pressure of the injectors is jection system is dissipated through
head or excessive machining of the too low. the leaking nozzle into the cylinder.
cylinder block surface and cylinder • Compression pressure too low due In this case and the one above the
head surface for engine overhaul or to the use of an incorrect cylinder described damage will occur when
tuning purposes. head gasket, insufficient piston pro- the engine is started.
• Ignition timing too advanced. trusion, leaking valves or broken/
• Mixture too lean, resulting in higher worn piston rings.
combustion temperatures. • Defective cylinder head gasket.
• Damage to the prechamber.
• Improper or excessive use of start-
ing aids (e.g. starting spray) during
cold starts.

Piston damages
3.4.5 Impact marks on the piston crown (diesel engine)

Severe impact marks can be seen on
the piston crown (Fig. 1). Nearly all
of the oil carbon deposits have been
removed from this area due to metallic
contact between the piston and the
cylinder head. The oil carbon deposits
have been pressed into the piston
crown as a result of the impacts, leav-
ing scarring in the process. The piston
rings indicate signs of severe wear. The
wear is evident even to the naked eye
on the oil scraper ring in particular.
On the piston shown in Fig. 2, an

imprint of the swirl chamber can be
seen on the front edge of the crown,
Fig. 1 and a strong imprint of the valve can
be seen on the right-hand side of the
crown. This means that, as well as the
swirl chamber, a valve has also made
contact with the piston crown during
operation, and the valve has gradually
dug itself into the piston crown (see
Fig 3). First indicators of rubbing marks
due to a lack of lubrication are evident
on the piston skirt (see Fig. 4).
Fig. 2
Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Piston damages
Damage assessment
The pistons have struck against the pressure when closed. The increased In the initial stages the piston skirt
cylinder head/swirl chamber and one injection of fuel into the cylinder is affected to a lesser degree, as it is
of the valves during operation. There causes fuel flooding. This in turn dam- continuously supplied with new oil
have been no fractures or breakages ages the oil film, which initially leads from the crankshaft drive which is
yet as a result of these violent im- to a higher level of mixed friction and still capable of providing lubrication.
pacts. However, the nature of the wear therefore increased wear in the piston Once the abraded particles from the
on the piston rings and the piston ring area. Oil consumption increases moving area of the pistons start to be-
skirt indicates that one consequence as a consequence. The characteristic come more and more mixed with the
of these impacts has been abnormal damage caused by unburned fuel does lubricating oil and the lubricating oil
combustion due to fuel flooding. not arise until the oil film is destroyed starts to lose its load-bearing ability
Mechanical contact between the pis- by the fuel to such an extent that the as a result of oil dilution, the wear will
ton crown and the cylinder head has piston is running without lubrication spread to all of the moving parts in
resulted in vibration, with associated (see also point “3.2.3 Dry running the engine.
vibration being transfered through to damage due to lack of lubrication
the injector. As a consequence, the caused by fuel flooding”).
injector has been unable to hold the

• Incorrect piston protrusion/over lap. • Incorrect valve timing caused by cylinder head during machining, the
The piston protrusion/over lap was incorrect adjustment, chain stretch- valves will not be recessed enough
not checked or corrected during an ing or a slipped belt. into the cylinder head and will pro-
engine overhaul. • Excessive reworking of the cylin- trude too far as a result.
• Connecting rod small-end bush der head sealing surface and the • Over-revving the engine. The valves
bored eccentrically during replace- resulting shift in the valve timing. no longer close in time due to the
ment of the small-end bushes. (The distance between the driv- increased inertia forces and strike
• Eccentric regrinding of the crank- ing pinion/sprocket and the driven against the piston.
shaft. pinion/sprocket changes. Depend- • Excessive clearances in the connect-
• Eccentric reworking of the bearing ing on the design of the chain or belt ing rod bearings or a worn out con-
counter bore (when resinking the adjustment mechanism, it may not necting rod bearing, particularly in
crankshaft bearing caps). be possible to correct this. conjunction with over-revving during
• Installation of a cylinder head gas- • New valve seat rings have been a hill descent.
ket with insufficient thickness. installed, but care was not taken
• Oil carbon deposits on the piston to ensure that they are correctly
crown and resulting restriction or positioned. If the valve recess is not
bridging of the gap. positioned deeply enough in the

Piston damages
3.4.6 Hole in the piston crown (petrol spark-ignition gasoline engine)

The piston crown has a hole which
penetrates all the way through. The
surface of the piston crown is covered
by the solidified molten material. The
skirt area has also been damaged as
a result of the enormous intensity of
the heat and the piston material which
has been ground down and displays
seizure marks.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
This type of damage is caused by heats up so much that the material Note:
glow ignition. Here, the self-ignition there becomes soft. The softened ma- Such rapid heating of a localised area
temperature of the air-gas mixture terial is then carried away as a result on the piston crown is only possible
is exceeded by glowing parts in the of the combination of the effects of as a result of glow ignition.
combustion chamber. These are es- gravity on the reciprocal movements
sentially the spark plug, the exhaust of the piston and the fast-flowing
valve and any combustion residue combustion gases. Due to the lack of
present in the combustion chamber. material strength no left in this area
As a result, the mixture ignites before after the material has been softened
it is due to be ignited by the spark and molten aluminium has migrated
plug. Combustion takes place so far away from the piston crown, the com-
in advance of the actual ignition point bustion pressure can then force a hole
that the flame has much more time in through the much weaker piston
to act on the piston crown than in the crown. In many cases there will not
normal combustion process. Within a even be any seizure marks.
short space of time the piston crown

Piston damages

• Heat range of the spark plugs too • Glowing combustion residue on the • High quantities of oil in the combus-
low. piston crowns, the cylinder head, tion chamber caused by high oil
• Mixture too lean, resulting in higher the valves and the spark plugs. transfer rate due to worn or dam-
combustion temperatures. • Unsuitable fuel with an octane rat- aged piston rings or valve guides, or
• Damaged or leaking valves, or insuf- ing which is too low. The fuel quality a combination of both.
ficient valve clearance, causing the must correspond to the compres- • High engine or intake temperatures
valves to not close correctly. The sion ratio of the engine, i.e. the caused by inadequate ventilation of
combustion gases flowing past sig- octane rating of the fuel must cover the engine compartment.
nificantly increase the temperature the octane requirements of the en- • General overheating.
of the valves, and the valves start gine under all operating conditions.
to glow. This primarily affects the • Gasoline contaminated by Diesel,
exhaust valves, as the intake valves which lowers the octane rating of
are cooled by the fresh gases. the fuel.

Piston damages
3.4.7 Piston top land seizure due to the use of incorrect pistons (diesel engine)

Clear localised scoring marks can be
seen on the piston top land. These
seizure marks go all around the
circumference of the piston.
The scoring marks are centered around
the piston top land. They start at the
edge of the piston crown and end at
the second compression ring.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
Due to the nature of the symptoms, One example not to be followed is: If the pistons which are used are
this damage has been clearly caused A piston for the Euro 1 emissions not prescribed for the relevant en-
by an abnormal combustion. However, standard, which has a bowl diameter gine type and the relevant emission
the fault lies in the use of an incorrect of 77 mm, has been replaced during standards, this can result in serious
piston, not with the fuel-injection sys- engine repairs with a piston for the abnormal combustion during opera-
tem as might initially be suspected. Euro 2 emissions standard with a bowl tion with completely unpredictable
Within the framework of the legisla- diameter of 75 mm. This caused incre- consequences. Apart from damage
tion for reducing levels of pollutants in ased heating at the edge of the bowl of the kind described above, failure
exhaust emissions, engines are now as, because of the smaller diameter to comply with the exhaust emission
designed and built in accordance with of the bowl, the injector was spraying regulations would be just the start of
the latest exhaust emission stan- onto the edge of the bowl rather than the problems. Lack of engine perfor-
dards. Often the pistons for the diffe- the centre of the bowl. This caused mance, increased fuel consumption
rent emission standards are barely any localised overheating of the piston and subsequent installation of the
different to look at. In this example, material where the fuel jets from the correct pistons lead to significant
pistons with different bowl diameters injector were reaching the piston, follow-up costs.
are used on the same range of engines and therefore also increased thermal
to meet different exhaust emission expansion which led to the localised
standards. seizure marks.

Piston damages

• Use of pistons with an incorrectly • Use of the incorrect style of piston. • Use of the correct pistons, but use
shaped bowl or an incorrect bowl For example, a piston with no coo- of other components which are
depth or diameter. ling oil gallery must not be used if unsuitable for the particular ap-
• Use of pistons which do not comply the engine manufacturer specifies a plication (injectors, cylinder head
with the dimension specifications cooling oil gallery the particular ap- gaskets, fuel-injection pumps or
(compression height). plication (e.g. for reaching a certain other components which affect the
power output). mixture formation or combustion
process).

Piston damages
3.4.8 Erosion on the piston top land and on the piston crown (gasoline/petrol engine)

The piston top land shows areas
where material has been carried away
in an erosion-type process (see Fig. 1).
This removal of material often contin-
ues on the surface of the piston crown
(see Fig. 2). There are not necessarily
any seizure marks or other damage to
the piston.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Piston damages
Damage assessment
Erosion-type removal of material chamber and run down between the material is carried away expands, par-
from the piston top land and from the piston top land and the cylinder wall ticularly if glow ignition also occurs as
piston crown always occurs as a result as far as the first compression ring. a result of the knocking combustion.
of extended periods of knocking At the reversal point of the pressure Material is often carried away in the
combustion (medium severity). In the wave, the kinetic energy tears out tini- damaged area behind the rings as far
process, pressure waves are gener- est particles from the surface of the as the oil scraper ring.
ated which spread in the combustion piston Gradually the area from which

• Use of a fuel without suitable anti- • Large quantities of oil in the com- • Intake air temperatures too high,
knock properties. The fuel quality bustion chamber caused for ex- caused by inadequate ventilation of
must correspond to the compres- ample by worn piston rings, valve the engine compartment or exhaust
sion ratio of the engine, i.e. the guides or the turbocharger (or other gas backpressure. However, failure
octane rating of the fuel must cover similar components) will reduce the to switch over the intake air flap to
the octane requirements of the en- antiknock properties of the fuel. summer operation or a faulty auto-
gine under all operating conditions. • Excessively high compression ratio matic switchover mechanism will
• The gasoline/petrol has been con- caused by combustion residue on lead also to a substantial increase
taminated with diesel. Accidental the piston crowns and cylinder in the intake air temperature (partic-
refuelling with the wrong type of head or excessive machining of the ularly on older carburettor engines).
fuel or shared use of tanks or canis- cylinder block surface and cylinder
ters for both types of fuel can lead head surface for engine overhaul or
to this kind of contamination. Very tuning purposes.
small amounts of diesel are already • Ignition timing too advanced.
enough to significantly lower the • Mixture too lean, resulting in higher
octane rating of the petrol. combustion temperatures.

Piston damages
3.5 Piston and piston ring fractures
3.5.0 General information about piston fractures
During operation of the engine, pistons can break as a result of an overload

breakage or can suffer a fatigue fracture.
An overload breakage (Fig. 1) is al- They are not worn down and they
ways caused by a foreign body which display no nodal line markings. The
collides with the piston while the piston breaks suddenly, with no de-
engine is running. This could be parts velopment of a fracture.
of the connecting rod, crankshaft or
valves etc. which have been torn off.
An overload breakage of the piston
can also occur if water or fuel gets
into the cylinder. The broken surfaces
of an overload breakage appear grey.
Fig. 1
In the case of a fatigue fracture severe shock vibrations of the piston,

(Fig. 2), nodal line markings form for example if the piston crown has
on the fracture surface which reveal mechanical contact with the cylinder
the starting point and the gradual head or excessive skirt clearance.
progress of the fracture. The frac- Excessive deformation of the piston
ture surfaces are often worn to the pin due to overstressing (warping and
point of being shiny. The cause for a oval deformation) cause cracks in the
fatigue fracture is overstressing of the pin boss. Furthermore, fatigue frac-
piston material. Overstressing can tures can also stem from heat stress
occur during knocking combustion, cracks on the piston crowns.
Fig. 2

Piston damages
3.5.1 Piston fracture in the piston pin boss

The early stages of a typical pin boss
fatigue crack are evident in the centre
axis of the piston pin bore (Fig. 2). The Fig. 1
crack has spread in a semicircle around
its starting point. A so-called cleavage
fracture forms from the initial crack, open from the bottom for the purposes
which splits the piston up to the piston of investigation; the original crack
crown into two parts – as can be seen extended from the piston pin bore to
Fig. 2 cross section of the piston pin boss
in Fig. 1 (the piston has been sawed the piston crown).
Damage assessment
Boss fractures arise as a consequence oil supply. An incipient crack in the normal loads, and will ultimately cause
of excessive loads. This process can be piston pin boss formed due to exces- the entire piston to split or break.
accelerated if there is not a sufficient sive loads will then spread even under

• Abnormal combustion, in particular • The cylinder has filled up with water, • Use of incorrect or weight-reduced
spontaneous combustion caused by fuel or oil whilst stationary, result- piston pins. The piston pin is de-
ignition delay. ing in a hydraulic lock. formed to an oval shape, placing
• Excessive or inappropriate use of • Performance enhancements (e.g. excessive loads on the bearings in
starting aids during cold starts. chip tuning) with continued use of the process.
the standard production piston.

Piston damages
3.5.2 Piston fracture due to mechanical contact between the piston crown and the cylinder head

Impact marks can be seen on the
piston crown in Fig. 1. The piston
crown has mechanical contact dam-
age, causing vibration. As a result of
the shock vibrations and the effects of
the violent impact during the pistons
cyclic operation, a fracture has
occured in the direction of the piston
pin.
On the piston in Fig. 2 the piston skirt

has broken off in the lower oil scraper
ring groove. The surfaces at the frac-
ture display the characteristics of a
fatigue fracture.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Piston damages
Damage assessment
Due to the exceptionally fast sequence ring (like the one shown in Fig. 2), the the cylinder wall with its skirt. As the
of hard impacts as the piston crown skirt nearly always breaks in the area material thickness is less in the area
strikes the cylinder head, the piston of the lower oil scraper ring groove. of the lower ring groove than in e.g.
is subjected to such violent shock After striking the cylinder head, the the piston top land, this is where the
vibrations that cracks are generated. piston no longer runs straight in the piston breaks.
On pistons with a lower oil scraper cylinder and subsequently strikes

• The so-called gap dimension (this is b )Insufficient thickness of the cylin- Caution:
the minimum distance between the der head gasket. Many manufactur- Checking the freedom of movement
piston crown and the cylinder head) ers provide cylinder head gaskets of the engine after an overhaul by
was too small at TDC of the piston. with different thicknesses for the turning the engine several times by
The following scenarios may have same engine. On the one hand this hand with the engine being cold does
caused this: is necessary to compensate for com- not guarantee that the piston will not
ponent tolerances during produc- strike the cylinder head when the
a) Installation of pistons with an tion, and on the other hand it also engine is at operating temperature.
incorrect compression height. Dur- allows an adaptation for the piston As the piston and connecting rod
ing engine overhauls, the sealing protrusion during repairs. For this heat up, they also expand in terms
surface of the cylinder block is often reason it is extremely important to of their length, which reduces the
reworked. If pistons with the original ensure that a cylinder head gasket gap between the piston crown and
compression height are then refitted with the prescribed thickness is the cylinder head. Particularly on
after the engine block is resurfaced, used during repairs. This is the only larger engines in commercial vehicles
then the piston protrusion/overlap way to ensure that the specified gap with large compression heights, the
may be too large. This is why pis- dimension will be achieved after the differences can be significant and
tons are available for repairs with repair. The thickness of the gasket reduce the freedom of movement of
a reduced compression height, must be redetermined depending the piston at TDC by several tenths of
enabling the piston protrusion to be on the piston protrusion in ac- a millimetre.
kept within the tolerance specified cordance with the manufacturer’s
by the engine manufacturer.* specifications if the cylinder block is • Excessive clearances in the connect-
reworked or replaced. ing rod bearings or a worn out con-
necting rod bearing, particularly in
conjunction with over-revving during
a hill descent.
* MSI supply pistons with a reduced compression height for most heavy duty engines. Please refer to our
current cataloque “ Pistons/Cylinders/Kit Sets”.

Piston damages
3.5.3 Material washout in the ring zone (ring fracture)

Severe material washout reaching as
far as the piston crown is evident in
the ring zone in the area of the first
ring groove. The ring groove displays
severe axial wear. Heavy imprints
from broken fragments of the first
ring can be seen on the piston crown.
In some places the running pattern
of the piston skirt has a matt, buffed
appearance.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Piston damages
Damage assessment
Due to the severity of the axial wear on piston rings increased steadily as a sult of continuous “hammering”. Once
the grooves and on the first ring groove result. In terms of its cross-section, the the washout finally reached the piston
in particular, the damage shown here ring was then severely weakened, and crown, the fragments of the piston ring
can only have been caused by ingress it could ultimately no longer withstand were able to enter the space between
of contaminants or dirt into the com- the pressures of the combustion the piston crown and the cylinder
bustion chamber. The contaminants process and broke. Consequently, the head, where they caused more damage
were then also deposited in the ring broken off part of the ring had even to piston crown and cylinder head.
groove, where they caused abrasive greater freedom to move around in the
wear on the piston ring and the piston rapidly enlarging groove, causing the
ring groove. The axial clearance of the washout shown in the picture as a re-
Possible causes for the dam

• Given the severity of the axial wear into the cylinder if they have not • This type of damage could also be
of the ring groove and the piston been pressed far enough into the caused by using a piston which is
rings, the only possible explanation piston ring groove. This usually hap- unsuitable for the intended pur-
is the ingress of foreign bodies into pens if the piston ring scuff band is pose. Pistons for diesel engines are
the combustion chamber. Refer to not fitted and tightened correctly subjected to greater loads and are
section “3.11.2 Wear on the pistons, around the piston, or if an incorrect expected to endure a longer service
piston rings and cylinders caused by or damaged insertion tool is used life, so they are equipped with a ring
the ingress of dirt”. during installation of the piston. carrier which is made of cast iron
alloyed with nickel. Pistons without
• If there is severe radial wear to the • Piston ring flutter caused by ex- a ring carrier are sometimes used on
piston rings without evidence of any cessive axial ring clearance. This diesel engines for cost reasons, but
axial wear then a likely cause is fuel condition can arise if only a new set only if the service life is expected to
flooding. Refer to section “3.11.3 of piston rings is installed during re- be shorter. This could be the case
Wear on the pistons, piston rings pairs, even though the ring grooves for example on agricultural machin-
and cylinders caused by fuel flood- in the piston are already worn. The ery. If this type of piston without a
ing”. excessive play causes the rings to ring carrier is used in engines which
flutter and possibly break. Another are intended to cover high mileage
• If there is no wear on the ring reason for excessive axial ring clear- or survive a long service life, there
grooves or piston rings and the en- ance may be the use of an incorrect is a chance that the resistance of
gine has only been run a short time set of piston rings. As a result, the the ring grooves to wear may not be
after a major overhaul, then this height of the rings may be too small, sufficient for the length of service
type of damage can be caused by so the clearance in the groove could life to be endured. At some point the
incorrect installation of the piston. It already be excessive when the rings groove is widened so far as a result
is possible for the piston rings to be are installed. of natural wear that the piston rings
broken when the piston is inserted start to flutter, and the ring(s) may
break as a result.

Piston damages
3.6 Piston pin fractures
3.6.0 General information about piston pin fractures
Piston pin fractures can occur as a During operation, the piston pin is shear stresses and bending loads,
result of overloads caused by abnor- bent by the forces exerted from the the crack then changes direction and
mal combustion, the effects of foreign combustion gases on the piston and becomes a lateral crack. This then ul-
bodies or material defects. In the case deformed into an oval shape. As a timately causes the entire pin to break
of a material defect, the crack usually result of this deformation into an oval right through.
originates from a slag line. This can be shape, under excessive loads a longi-
reliably verified by carrying out tests tudinal crack can initially form at the In addition to the scenarios described
on the material in a laboratory. ends of the pin, with its starting point here, fractures can also arise as a
either at the outer or inner diameter of result of some other kind of damage
Excessive or inappropriate use of the pin. The crack then spreads as a to the pin or because of a hardness
starting aids during cold starts (e.g. fatigue fracture on towards the centre defect.
starting spray) should be viewed in of the pin. In the area between the
the same way as the effects of ex- piston pin eye and the connecting rod
treme abnormal combustion. eye which is subjected to the greatest

Piston damages
3.6.1 Fractured piston pin
Fig. 1

The piston pin in Fig. 1 has been The shorter fragment has been split
completely broken due to a lateral along its length. The surfaces at the
crack at the transition between the fracture displays the characteristics of
connecting rod and the inner side of a fatigue fracture.
the piston pin boss.
Damage assessment
Provided there is no evidence of a then changes direction and becomes
material defect, piston pin fractures a lateral crack. This then ultimately
are always caused by excessive loads. causes the entire pin to break right
Material defects can always be reli- through.
ably identified by testing the material
of the broken pin in laboratory tests. Fig. 2 shows that an incipient crack can
not only be caused by an excessive
Under excessive loads, the deforma- load, but also as a result of improper
tion of the piston pin to an oval shape handling of the piston pin during instal-
in the piston pin bores initially causes lation. The end face of the broken pis-
a longitudinal crack at the ends of the ton pin clearly shows that the incipient
pin. This crack can originate both in the fracture was caused by impact damage
outer surface and in the inner diameter. due to a blow, e.g. from a hammer. As
The crack then spreads as a fatigue can be seen from the above descrip-
fracture on towards the centre of the tions, even under normal load condi-
pin. In the area between the piston pin tions any incipient fracture can develop
bore and the connecting rod small end as a fatigue fracture and ultimately lead
Fig.2
which is subjected to the greatest shear to total breakage of the piston pin.
stresses and bending loads, the crack

• Abnormal combustion on both pet- • Hydraulic locks
rol and diesel engines, in particular • Improper handling of the piston pin
as a result of knocking combustion during installation

Piston damages
3.7 Damage to the piston pin circlips
3.7.0 General information about damage to the piston pin circlips
Wire circlips or so-called Seeger-type oscillating in an asymmetric fashion cutout of the piston pin bore, where
circlips are used as retainers for the then this will cause the piston pin axis they cause substantial material wash-
piston pins. It is possible for both and the crankshaft axis to no longer out. It is also not uncommon for frag-
types to break in operation or jump or be parallel, resulting in precisely this ments to move through the inner bore
be knocked out of the groove in the axial movement of the piston pin. The in the piston pin right through to the
piston. piston pin then strikes in a very rap- other side of the piston, where they
idly alternating sequence against the then also cause substantial amounts
If the circlips fracture or their ends piston pin circlips and gradually forces of damage.
break off, this is always due to exces- them out of the groove. They are
sive loads or improper handling while then forced on as far as the cylinder
inserting the circlips. running surface, where they are worn
away. Ultimately the circlips will break
The circlips are only subjected to axial up. Some fragments become trapped
loads if the piston pin has an axial between the piston and the cylinder,
movement forced upon it. If the piston while other parts are thrown back and
is misaligned or the connecting rod is forth under the forces of gravity in the

Piston damages
3.7.1 Piston damage caused by broken piston pin circlips
Damage description I
On both sides of the piston, the end
of the piston pin bore has suffered
serious damage. In some places the
damage reaches up as far as the ring
zone (Fig. 1).
When the piston was removed there
was no longer a circlip in the retain-
ing groove. It had jumped out during
operation and broken into fragments.
Although the second circlip is dam-
aged, it was still installed in its groove
when the piston was removed. Due
to the lack of retention, the piston
pin has wandered outwards during
operation towards the cylinder run-
ning surface. Clearly the front face of
the pin has had prolonged contact
with the cylinder running surface. As
a result, the front face is worn to a
convexed shape (Fig. 3). The running
pattern of the piston is formed very
Fig. 1 asymmetrically.
Fig. 3
Fig. 2

Piston damages
Damage description II
In this case the piston has been
running at an angle, which has also
caused the piston pin circlip to be
hammered out. As a result of the pis-
ton running at an angle in the cylinder
and the one-sided load on the piston
pin, the piston pin has broken (Fig. 6),
and subsequently the piston has been
broken as well (Fig. 5). The asymmet-
rical running pattern resulting from
the piston running at an angle can be
seen very clearly in Fig. 4 .
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Piston damages
Damage assessment
Whether as wire circlips or Seeger- the case when a bent connecting rod ments. Under their own inertia forces
type circlips, the piston pin circlip leads to the piston running at an an- and the reciprocating movements of
can only be forced out or hammered gle. The reciprocating movements of the piston, the fragments hammer into
out in operation by means of an axial the piston result in an alternating axial the piston material and break it down
displacement of the piston pin. How- thrust which effectively hammers out within a very short space of time, as
ever, this is based on the requirement the circlip lying in the main pressure can be seen in Fig. 2. Individual frag-
that the circlip has been correctly direction. Once the circlip has jumped ments also move through the hollow
inserted and has not been damaged. out, it is then clamped between the piston pin and cause corresponding
Axial thrust in the piston pin always piston pin moving in an outward destruction on the opposite side of
occurs when the piston pin axis is not direction, the piston and the cylinder the piston.
parallel to the crankshaft axis during running surface. There, it is worn away
operation. This is most commonly and finally breaks into several frag-

• Axial thrust of the piston pin during • Bending or twisting of the • Excessive connecting rod big-end
engine operation caused by: connecting rod bearing clearance, particularly in
• Axes of conrod small ends not conjunction with asymmetrical con-
bored parallel to crank shaft axis necting rods
• Cylinder axis not rectangular (90°) • Use of old or damaged circlips
to crank shaft axis • Improperly installed circlips

Piston damages
3.8 General information about seizures in the piston pin bore
3.8.0 Seizures in the piston pin bore can be a primary or secondary consequence of piston skirt seizures.
As the piston pin and the piston pin For piston pins which are shrunk into Note:
bores are not forcibly supplied with the connecting rod, the clearance During the process of shrinking the
oil and only splash oil is available , in the piston pin bore is sufficiently piston pin into the connecting rod,
seizures on the piston pin bed are dimensioned to ensure that a thick it is also important that, in addition
nearly always typical dry seizures enough film of oil can form there at to the above-mentioned lubrication
due to insufficient lubrication, with all times. When reusing used shrink- of the piston pin, the piston pin bed
severely torn up surfaces and fusion fit connecting rods it is important to must not be checked for freedom of
of materials. ensure that the bore in the connect- movement immediately after installa-
ing rod has not become distorted or tion by tilting the piston back and
On floating-fit piston pins, primary damaged in any other way. Otherwise, forth. The temperatures are equalized
seizures in the piston pin bores arise once the piston pin has been shrunk immediately between the two com-
as a result of insufficient clearances in place it could become deformed to ponents after the cool piston pin is
or jamming if the piston is running at such an extent that the clearance in inserted into the hot connecting rod.
an angle. the piston pin bores is no longer suf- The piston pin can still become very
This restricts the freedom of motion ficient in places, as a result of which hot as a result and expand so far that
of the piston pin in the small-end seizures could form very easily. it seizes in the piston pin bore which
bush. The pin is then forced to move is still cool. If the bearing is moved
back and forth in the piston pin bore. Always lubricate the piston pin and in this state then it can cause initial
However, the clearance of a float- the piston pin bore when installing the rubbing marks or seizure marks which
ing-fit piston pin in the piston pin pistons in the engine to ensure that will cause subsequent stiffness of the
bore is too small. Extreme build-up of enough lubrication is provided for the bearing (and thus increased friction
heat and the resulting collapse of the first few revolutions of the engine. and heat generation) during opera-
lubrication system with dry running tion. For this reason the assembled
and seizures are then an unavoidable components should be allowed to
consequence. cool down first before checking them
for freedom of movement.
Due to the high temperature increase,
the piston also expands a great deal Secondary seizures in the piston pin
more on the skirt in the area of the bores are triggered by severe piston
piston pin bore. There, this can lead skirt seizures. Here, the entire piston
to a lack of clearances, as well as can be heated up to such an extent
dry-running and seizures (see also that the lubrication breaks down in
point 3.1.2 Piston seizures next to the the piston pin bores as well. In some
piston pin bore). cases, abraded material from the skirt
seizures can also be washed into the
piston pin bed.

Piston damages
3.8.1 Seizure in the piston pin bore (floating-fit piston pin)

The piston pin has seized heavily in the
piston pin bores. Piston material has
been virtually “welded” onto the pis-
ton pin (Fig. 1). The piston pin displays
a blue discoloration in the area of the
connecting rod-small-end bush. There
are no seizure marks on the piston
skirt itself.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
The blue discoloration of the piston only able to rotate in the small-end floating-fit piston pin is too small for
pin in the area of the connecting bush with increased difficulty or not this. The increased friction caused ex-
rod-small-end bush indicates that the at all. As a result, the only rotation of cessive overheating in the bearing, as
clearance there was insufficient, and the piston pin took place in the piston a result of which the oil film became
that as a result the piston pin was pin bore. However, the clearance of a ineffective and the piston pin seizure
arose.

• The clearance between the small- eliminated by a misalignment of the Note:
end bush and the piston pin was not connecting rod and the piston pin It is essential to lubricate the piston
made large enough. became seized as a result. pin and the piston pin bore when
• Possibly the clearance in the small- • The piston pin and piston pin bore installing the pistons to ensure that
end bush was reduced or even was not lubricated during installa- sufficient lubrication is present dur-
tion of the piston. ing the first few revolutions of the
engine and to prevent rubbing marks
from being formed straight away
when the engine is started.

Piston damages
3.8.2 Seizure in the piston pin bore (shrink-fit connecting rod)

This piston has clearly only run for a
short length of time. Neither a de-
posit on the crown nor any running
marks can be seen. The piston pin has
seized in both piston pin eyes on the
upper side, i.e. the side under pres-
sure load (Fig. 1). The surface at the
seizures is clean bare metal. No traces
of burned-in oil are evident.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
The piston has barely any running assumed that the piston pin seized dur- clear indication of a lack of oil in the
marks and can therefore only have been ing the first revolutions of the engine. piston pin bed.
run for a short time. It can therefore be The clean bare metal seizures are a

• It is possible that the piston pin • During the shrink-fitting process for
and the piston pin bore were not inserting the piston pin into the con-
lubricated before the piston pin was necting rod, the freedom of move-
assembled in the engine. ment between the piston pin and the
piston pin bore was checked immedi-
ately after inserting the piston pin by
tilting the piston back and forth. The
surfaces of the piston and the piston
pin bore can suffer at this point as
a result of the unusual temperature
differences between the components
which do not occur in normal opera-
tion.

Piston damages
3.8.3 Seizure in the piston pin bore (with piston skirt seizure)

The piston has seized all around its
circumference with the main focus on
the piston top land (Fig. 1). The com-
pression rings have become blocked
in the ring groves. Seizure marks are
present in both piston pin bores.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
As the main focus of the seizures is piston rings seized up, and the sei- to such a point that eventually the oil
on the piston top land, it is safe to zure marks spread increasingly down film in the piston pin bed became
assume that this is where the damage onto the skirt. The combustion gases ineffective, and seizures developed
obviously originated as a result of ab- which flew past the seized compres- here as well.
normal combustion. Subsequently the sion rings then heated up the piston

• Abnormal combustion which lead land and skirt and subsequently
to a seizure due to the combined also cause seizures in the piston pin
effects of insufficient clearance and bed.
lack of lubrication on the piston top

Piston damages
3.9 Piston noises
3.9.0 General information about piston noises
Piston running noises can be caused • Tilting of the pistons due to exces- • Piston pin striking alternately
by a wide variety of influences during sive clearance: against the piston pin circlips:
operation of the engine. The piston can tilt if the dimensions Axial thrust in the piston pin is
of the cylinder bore are too large or always the result of an alignment
as a result of wear / material break- error between the axis of the piston
down, stimulated by the pendulum pin and the crankshaft axis. As
motion of the connecting rod and described in the previous point,
the change of bearing surface of distortion or twisting of the con-
the piston in the cylinder, and the necting rod and asymmetry of the
piston hits hard against the cylinder connecting rod are the most com-
running surface (with the piston mon causes for this type of fault.
crown in particular) as a result. However, excessive big-end bearing
clearances (big-end bearing jour-
• Tilting of the piston caused by nal on the crankshaft) can cause a
insufficient clearance in the piston lateral pendulum movement of the
pin bed: connecting rod, particularly at lower
The clearance between the piston engine speeds. The piston pin is
pin and the small-end bush can skewed as a result in the connect-
either be too small by design, or it ing small end rod and is pushed
may have been eliminated by jam- back and forth in the piston pin
ming or warping in operation. This bore due to the pendulum motion
can happen particularly as a result of the piston. The piston pin strikes
of connecting rod misalignment against the piston pin circlips as a
(bending and/or twisting). consequence.
• Piston striking in the direction • The correct installation direction

of the piston pin: of the piston was ignored:
Any lateral striking of the cylinder In order to smoothen the change
bore by the piston mostly stems of the contact surface of the piston
from the connecting rod. Due to before TDC and before the power
misalignment of the connecting rod stroke, the piston pin axis is offset
(bending or twisting in particular), by some tenth of a millimetre
the piston performs a pendulum towards the piston pressure side.
movement during its upward/ If the piston is inserted the wrong
downward stroke in the longitudi- way round (i.e. rotated by 180°)
nal axis of the engine, as a result and therefore the piston pin axis is
of which the piston strikes in an offset to the wrong direction, then
alternating sequence against the the piston changes bearing surface
cylinder. Asymmetrical connecting at the wrong time. The piston tilting
rods or non-concentric support for is then much heavier and much
the piston by the connecting rod noisier.
have the same effect.

Piston damages
3.9.1 Radial impact points on the piston top land

The piston top land has impact marks
in the tilt direction (Fig. 1). The piston
skirt displays a more pronounced
running pattern to the top and bottom
than in the middle of the skirt.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
One type of piston noise which is alternating sides of the cylinder run- the tilt direction or in the oval plane
perceived as particularly annoying is ning surface. Depending on the cause, (piston pin direction) against the
caused by the piston crown striking the piston top land strikes either in cylinder wall.
Possible damage reasons • Excessively narrow fit of the piston Possible damage reasons for
for impact points in the tilt pin in the small-end bush impact points in the piston pin
direction (shrink-fit connecting rod). direction
• Excessive installation clearances If fit of the piston pin is too tight • In case of misalignment of the
and hence poor guidance of the pis- in the connecting rod small end, connecting rod, particularly in the
ton due to excessively large bored or then the connecting rod small end case of a twisted connecting rod or
honed cylinders. is deformed in the direction of the excessive big-end bearing clear-
• The installation direction was not narrowest wall thickness when the ances, the piston crown moves in a
observed for pistons with a piston piston pin is shrunk and installed. pendulum motion in the piston pin
pin axis offset. The connecting rod small end and direction and strikes against the
• Tight connection between piston the piston pin take on an oval form cylinder wall.
and conrod: As a result of the lack in the process. • Connecting rod alignment faults
of clearance, the piston top land • On shrink-fit connecting rods: re- (distortion/twisting): This results in
strikes against the cylinder running striction of the clearance between alternating axial thrust in the piston
surface in the so-called tilt direc- the piston pin and the piston pin, as a result of which the piston
tion. caused by distortion of the piston pin strikes alternately against the
Reasons for this are: pin as a result of the bore in the circlips at either end.
• Insufficient clearance in the connecting rod small end no longer
connecting rod small end or in the being geometrically round.
piston pin bore. • Seized piston pin

Piston damages
3.10 Cylinders and cylinder liners

Piston damages
3.10.1 Longitudinal cylinder liner cracks

The crack is usually vertical and usual-
ly extends in a vertical direction from
the liner flange. Dry liners can also be
affected because of their relatively
thin cylinder wall thickness.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
Cylinder liner cracks of this nature are generate a fracture during subsequent inder block can also cause this type of
frequently caused by careless operation of the engine and there- damage. The longitudinal cracks often
handling (e.g. the results of impacts fore cause failure of the component. occur in conjunction with lateral cracks
or blows). Even if the liner does not Similarly to the case described above, in cases of longitudinal cracks caused
suffer visible damage straight away, incorrect contact of the flange and dirt by faulty flange contact surfaces.
a microscopic crack or notch can between the cylinder liner and the cyl-
Possible causes for the da

• Improper and careless handling of • Hydraulic locks • Faulty flange contact. (Refer also to
the cylinder liners during transport • Foreign bodies underneath sealing point “3.10.2 Torn off flange on the
or repairs and associated damage surfaces. cylinder liner”)
due to cracks or notches.

Piston damages
3.10.2 Torn off flange on the cylinder liner

The complete flange of the cylinder
liner has been torn off (Fig. 1). The
flange crack starts at the base of the
lower edge of the liner flange and
extends upwards under an angle of
approx. 30°.
Fig. 1
Damage assessment
This type of damage is caused by detected by visual inspection alone
bending moments which arise as a unless the appropriate measuring aids
result of improper installation (dirt / are used.
form defects). There are many reasons One simple way to check for this
which can cause this type of frac- distortion is the use of bearing ink.
ture. In most cases, the cylinder liner The ink is thinly applied around the
flange is already pressed off when the contact surface of the liner flange on
cylinder head is tightened down. On the cylinder block. The new liner is
Fig. 2
the latest generations of engines for then inserted without gaskets and
commercial vehicles with unit injec- pressed onto the seat. The liner is
tors or common rail fuel injection sys- then removed again. The contact sur-
tems, the cylinder block is subjected face on the liner should now be evenly
to increasing loads as a result of the coated with ink around the entire cir-
increasing combustion pressures. The cumference. The liner seat needs to be
use of very hard steel cylinder head reworked if any areas have not come
gaskets on these two engine types into contact with ink. This reworking
can cause distortion of the crankcase is best performed on a stationary
in the area of the cylinder liner contact horizontal boring machine or with a
surface after the engine has been in mobile liner flange lathe. This is the
operation for a long time. The distor- only way to ensure parallelism to the
tion of the contact surface cannot be upper housing surface (Fig. 2).

Piston damages

• Use of non-approved gaskets (in • If the liner flange does not project
some cases the aftermarket gaskets by the prescribed dimension from
have different shapes and diame- the cylinder sealing surface, or if
ters). it is slightly recessed (Fig. 6), then
• Non-compliance with the engine the liner is not pressed onto the
manufacturer’s recommended tight- liner seat with enough force during
ening torques and tightening angles. installation. During operation, this
• Failure to carefully clean any dirt off can cause the liner to also adopt
Fig. 3
the liner seat in the cylinder block. a pendulum motion as a result of
• Failure to ensure that the flange con- the pendulum motion of the piston.
tact surface is perfectly rectangular The resulting forces acting on the
and/or parallel (Figs. 2 and 5). liner flange can cause it to be torn
• Reworking of the flange seat without off. If it is necessary to rework the
due care for the proper form. The liner flange contact surface during a
form of the liner seat must corre- major engine overhaul, it is possible
spond to the form of the cylinder to either insert steel adjustment
liner. shims underneath or use a liner with
The transition from the flange an oversized flange to provide the
surface to the precision-fit seat necessary protrusion of the liner
Fig. 4
diameter must have a bevelled edge over the cylinder surface. The solu-
of 0.5–1.0 mm X 45° to prevent the tion involving a liner with oversized
channel on the liner flange from flange* is preferable to the option of
making contact with the edge. If inserting adjustment shims under-
this is not ensured then it is very neath, as it is technically the more
easy for the flange to be pressed off sturdy solution.
when the cylinder head is tightened
down (Fig. 3).
Furthermore, it must also be
ensured that the shape of the liner
seat radius (D) in Fig. 4 is not cho-
Fig. 5
sen so large as to prevent the liner
from bearing loads at the inner or
outer edge on the liner flange.
Fig. 6
* MSI supply cylinder liners with oversized flanges for most engines.
Please refer to our current catalogue “Pistons, Cylinders and Kit Sets”.

Piston damages
3.10.3 Cavitation on cylinder liners

The wet cylinder liner displays
Fig. 2
severe cavitation in the area of
the water jacket. The damage has
progressed so far that there is
already one hole into the inside of
the cylinder.
Fig. 1
Fig. 3 cross section of liner
Damage assessment
Cavitation is more likely to occur in the wall, this results in temporary separa- particles from the surface of the cylin-
tilt direction of the piston (on the pres- tion of the water film from the cylinder der. With time, complete holes are torn
sure or counterpressure side) and is liner. Tiny vapour bubbles form in the out (washed out). A special feature of
triggered by vibrations of the cylinder resulting area of low pressure, and cavitation is the fact that the size of
wall. These high-frequency vibrations when the cylinder wall vibrates back the holes increases further inside the
are caused by the combustion pres- at exceptionally high speed, these material (Fig. 3), resulting in the cavi-
sure, the lateral forces exerted by the bubbles implode. The water displaced ties from which the name of this type
pistons and the piston’s change of by the bubbles hits the surface of the of damage is taken.
bearing surfaces at TDC and BDC. If the cylinder very suddenly when the tiny
cooling liquid is no longer capable of bubbles implode. The impact energy
following the vibrations of the cylinder generated in this way dissolves tiny

Piston damages

• Failure to comply with the correct • Lack of pre-pressure in the cooling • Engine operating temperature too
piston clearance (re-installation of system: The required radiator pre- low: If due to particular operating
pistons which have already been pressure cannot be maintained as a conditions or thermostat defects the
used, or use of cylinders manufac- result of using an unsuitable radia- engine does not reach its normal
tured too large). tor cap (not enough pressure can operating temperature, no excess
• Poor or inaccurate seating of the be maintained due to a defective pressure can build up in the cool-
liner in the housing. pressure relief valve) or because of ing system because of the reduced
• The required permanent anti-freeze a leak in the cooling system. If the thermal expansion of the coolant.
protection or corresponding ad- pre-pressure in the cooling system The low operating temperature
ditives in the cooling water are is in accordance with the require- also means that the pistons do not
missing. The anti-corrosion protec- ments, the boiling temperature of expand in the required manner. As a
tion agent contains inhibitors which the coolant is higher than under result they run with increased piston
prevent foaming. However, these atmospheric pressure. Although the clearance. Both cases assist the
inhibitors are gradually used up pre-pressure in the cooling system formation of the tiny bubbles and
with time. Therefore it is necessary cannot eliminate the cause for hence the effects of cavitation.
to change the anti-corrosion protec- formation of the tiny vapour bubbles
tion agent every 2 years and to use altogether, it can at least inhibit the
the correct mixture ratio. formation of the bubbles.
• Use of unsuitable coolants such as
salt water (sea water), aggressive or
acidic water or other liquids.

Piston damages
3.10.4 Uneven cylinder wear

The cylinder bores display an un-
even wear pattern with individual
brightly polished areas (Fig. 2). No
wear or rubbing marks are evident
on the pistons. The engine was
loosing oil at the sealing points, in
particular the radial oil seals. Fig. 1
clearly shows the corrosion on the
outer diameter of the cylinder liner
which caused the out-of-roundness
of the cylinder when it was installed.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Damage assessment
Highly polished irregular running for the oil nor the combustion gases. points around the engine, particularly
patterns on the running surfaces in The oil escapes past the piston rings at the radial oil seals. Furthermore,
the cylinders always indicate cylinder into the combustion chamber, where oil is forced through the valve guides
distortion. Wet or dry cylinder liners in it is burned. The increasing quanti- into the intake and exhaust ducts,
particular can already be distorted im- ties of combustion gases flowing past from where it is then sucked in by the
mediately after installation. If the cyl- the piston causes the pressure in the engine and burned or eliminated.
inder is distorted the piston rings can crankcase to rise. This overpressure
neither provide a perfectly tight seal causes oil loss at various sealing

Piston damages

• Uneven or incorrect tightening of the pressed into the cylinder block and a great extent) round and cylindrical
cylinder head bolts. still need to be bored and honed during subsequent operation of the
• Uneven cylinder block and cylinder after being pressed in. Slip-fit liners engine (provided the machining is car-
head sealing surfaces. are already finished off and only ried out properly).
• Dirty or distorted threads on the need to be slipped into the counter
cylinder head bolts. bore. Due to the clearance which It is recommended that when machin-
• Unsuitable or incorrect cylinder remains between the liner and the ing and inserting new cylinder liners
head gaskets. cylinder counter bore on slip-fit lin- into a cylinder block that has siamese
• Faulty flange contact in the housing, ers, this type of liner has a greater bores, that the actual siamesed bores
incorrect cylinder liner protrusion tendency than the press-fit type to should all have new cylinder liners fit-
and distorted and/or a worn out problems with distortion and corro- ted i.e.: a four cylinder block that has
lower liner guide can be the causes sion. a 2.2 cylinder formation (two cylinder
for substantial cylinder distortion. • Distorted cylinder bores on cylin- space and than a further two cylin-
• Liner seat too loose or too tight in der blocks without cylinder liners. ders) should have the two adjacent
the housing (on dry cylinder liners). Certain engines have a tendency cylinders machined and fitted with
• Individual ribbed cylinders must lie towards distortion during installa- new liners. The ideal situation is of
exactly plane-parallel to the crank- tion of the cylinder head. If these course two always fit new cylinder lin-
case and the cylinder head. If sev- engines are bored and honed in the ers in engine sets.
eral cylinders share a joint cylinder normal way then there can be dis-
head then it is important that the tortion problems during subsequent
ribbed cylinders have exactly the operation of the engine.
same height. The presence and ar-
rangement of the air baffles is highly Recommendation:
significant on this engine layout. On cylinder blocks without cylinder
• With dry liners, significant uneven- liners where the cylinders are bored
ness is often caused during op- directly into the cylinder block, we rec-
eration by contact corrosion in the ommend bolting a torque plate (also
counter bores in the housings (Fig. referred to as a honing mask) onto
1). In this case the cylinder counter the sealing surfaces of the cylinder
bore should be cleaned carefully. If before machining the cylinder. This
the process of cleaning alone does torque plate has the same openings
not promise good results, then the as the cylinder block (apart from the
cylinder counter bores should be water ducts) and is several centime-
reworked, and afterwards a cylinder tres thick. The act of bolting on this
liner with external oversize* should tool and tightening it to the specified
be installed. The liners have very tightening torque for the cylinder
thin walls and must be able to make head bolts creates the same tension
contact across their full length and conditions as if the cylinder head
width. If this is not the case then the were installed. Any distortion in the
liners will already become deformed cylinder bores which could arise after
on installation (and definitely during tightening the cylinder head bolts is
operation). therefore deliberately simulated and
With dry cylinder liners, a distinc- is therefore taken into account during
tion is made between press-fit and the machining of the cylinders. This
slip-fit types. Press-fit liners are ensures that the cylinder bore is (to
* MSI supply cylinder liners with oversize diameter.

Please refer to our current catalogue “Pistons, Cylinders and Assemblies”.

Piston damages
3.10.5 Brightly polished areas in the upper part of the cylinder

In its upper area, the cylinder running
surface has highly polished, bare
areas in which the honing structure is
completely unrecognisable (Fig. 1 and
Fig 2). There are no significant signs of
wear on the piston itself. The engine is
consuming increased quantities of oil.
Fig. 2
Fig.1
Fig. 3

Piston damages
Damage assessment
This type of damage pattern occurs cylinder, and the piston rings can still points which do not come into contact
when a hard oil carbon deposit forms continue to perform their sealing du- with the piston top land, then the
in operation on the piston top land ties in the normal fashion. The lubrica- cause for the damage is more likely to
as a result of burned oil and combustion of the cylinder is also unaffected, be found in distortion of the cylinder
tion residues (Fig. 3). This coating as it is still possible to retain enough (point “3.10.4 Uneven cylinder wear”),
has abrasive properties which lead oil in the open graphite veins of the fuel flooding (point “3.11.3 Wear on
to increased wear in the upper part of cylinder surface despite the loss of the pistons, piston rings and cylinders
the cylinder in operation due to the the honing structure. When assessing caused by fuel flooding”) or ingress
reciprocal motion and the change of this type of damage, it is important to of dirt or contaminants (point “3.11.2
bearing surfaces of the piston. The in- note that, in this case, the polished Wear on the pistons, piston rings and
creased oil consumption is not caused areas all coincide with points in the cylinders caused by the ingress of
by the polished areas themselves, cylinder which come into contact with dirt”).
as the polished areas do not cause the carbonised piston top land. If the
a noticeable out-of-roundness of the polished areas are also present at

• Excessively high ingress of engine • Excessive pressure in the crankcase • Inadequate finishing of the cylinder,
oil into the combustion chamber due to increased emissions of blow- resulting in increased ingress of oil
due to a defective turbocharger, by gases or due to a faulty crank- into the combustion chamber (see
inadequate oil separation in the en- case breather valve. also point 3.11.4 Piston ring wear
gine breather, defective valve stem soon after a major engine overhaul).
seals etc. • Use of non-approved engine oils or
engine oils of a lower quality.

Piston damages
3.10.6 Cylinder liner fracture due to hydraulic lock

The cylinder liner displays severe
damage due to a crack in its upper
area, together with seizure marks on
the running surface (Figs. 1 and 2).
The associated piston also displays
seizure marks on the pressure and
counterpressure side. A trough-
shaped indentation in the piston
Fig. 1
crown has formed in the area where
the seizure marks are present on the
skirt (Fig. 3).
Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Piston damages
Damage assessment
The cylinder has suffered a hydraulic rial has been squashed outwards, identified whether the hydraulic
lock in operation. The high pressure causing a significant restriction of the lock occurred while the engine was
from the liquid has burst the cylinder clearance in this area and the seizure running or while it was being started.
liner and pressed an a dent the piston marks on both sides of the piston and
crown. As a result, the piston mate- the cylinder liner. It can no longer be

• Accidental intake of water while • Cylinder filling up with water while • Cylinder filling up with fuel due to
driving through high water, puddles the engine is stationary due to leaks leaking injectors while the engine
or low rivers/waters, or as a result in the cylinder head gasket or due to is stationary. The residual pressure
of larger quantities of water being cracks in components. in the fuel injection system is dis-
splashed up by passing vehicles or sipated through the leaking nozzle
vehicles in front. into the cylinder. In this case and
the one above the described dam-
age will occur when the engine is
started.

Piston damages
3.11 Increased oil consumption
3.11.0 General information on oil consumption
The total amount of oil used by an Although the oil consumption due to the components themselves. Instead,
engine is primarily made up of oil oil which passes between the pis- wear on these components can nearly
consumption (i.e. oil burned in the ton rings and the cylinder wall into always be explained as the result of
combustion chamber) and oil loss (i.e. the combustion chamber cannot be an external event. Abnormal combus-
leaks). In contrast to still prevailing completely eliminated with technical tion due to incorrect mixture forma-
and widely-held views, oil consump- means, it can however be minimised. tion, dirt entering the engine from out-
tion due to oil passing the pistons The moving parts (piston, piston rings side, inadequate engine cooling, lack
and piston rings into the combustion and cylinder running surface) require of oil, incorrect oil grades and errors
chamber plays a far less important continuous lubrication to ensure fric- made during installation are the main
role today. tionless and smooth operation. During reasons for premature wear and, sub-
the combustion stage the remaining sequently, increased oil consumption.
As a result of the continuous develop- oil film on the cylinder wall is sub- The following pages contain detailed
ment of engines, the design of indi- jected to the heat of the combustion. descriptions of different types of
vidual parts, material compositions The quantity of oil which evaporates damage which affects pistons, piston
and production processes have been or burns here depends on the power rings and cylinders.
improved and highly optimised. For output of the engine, the engine load
this reason, the effects of wear on cyl- and the temperature. Guide values
inders, pistons and piston rings and for normal oil consumption are in the
the resulting increase in oil consump- range from 0.2 to
tion are among the more negligible 1.5 g/kWh (max.).
concerns on a modern engine. This is
underlined by the high mileages which In the majority of cases, wear on pis-
can currently be achieved and the tons, piston rings and cylinders and
reduction of incidents of damage to the resulting increased or excessive
the crankshaft drive. consumption of oil is not caused by
Due to the complexity of the whole booklet are: • excessively high oil levels
topic of oil consumption, a separate • excessive bearing clearance in the • abnormal combustion and fuel
booklet entitled “Oil Consumption turbocharger flooding
& Loss of Oil” has been published • blocked oil return line on the turbo- • incorrect piston protrusion
in the Service Tips & Information charger • irregular servicing / maintenance
series. Ordering information can be • worn fuel injection pumps • use of sub-quality mineral oils
found in the appendix attached to this • oil leaks into the intake system • cylinder distortion
document. The topics covered in the • worn valve stem seams and valve • machining faults during boring and
guides honing
• errors made during installation of • graphite exposure rate too low
the cylinder head • twisted/distorted connecting rods
• excess pressure in the crankcase • broken/jammed/incorrectly in-
stalled piston rings

Piston damages
3.11.1 Incorrectly installed oil scraper ring (increased oil consumption after engine repairs)

The rings do not display any visible or
measurable wear. No signs of wear are
evident on the pistons either (Fig. 1).
In this case, the oil scraper ring is a 3
piece oil control ring comprising the
expander spring and the two blade
rings. Both of the ends of the expand-
er spring should normally be flushed
against each other. In this case the
expander spring had been installed
incorrectly, and the last segment over-
Fig.1
lapped at the joint (Fig. 2).
green colour mark red colour mark
assembly recommendation
joint overlapped blade ring

expander spring
blade ring
Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Damage assessment
Due to the overlapping of the ends the blade rings. The blade rings are
of the expander spring during instal- then no longer pressed tightly against the combustion chamber, where it is
lation, its circumferential length is the cylinder wall, and as a result the burned. Excessive oil consumption is
shortened and the tension is lost for oil scraper ring is no longer capable of a result.

The mistake was already made when the ends of the spring are colour-coded, Caution!
the piston and piston rings were for example green for the left end of the Both coloured parts of the expander
installed in the cylinder bore, as care joint, and red for the right end of the spring must be visible after installa-
was not taken to ensure correct instal- joint. tion of the blade rings. These colour-
lation of the expander spring. Usually, coded marks should therefore always
be checked (even on pre-assembled
piston rings) before installation of the
pistons in the cylinder bore (Fig. 3).

Piston damages
3.11.2 Wear on pistons, piston rings and cylinder running surfaces caused by the ingress of dirt
(increased oil consumption)

The piston skirt (Fig. 1) displays a
milky-grey (buffed) wear pattern with
fine, small longitudinal scratches on
the piston top land and the piston
skirt. The tool marks created during
machining of the piston have been
completely worn away from the skirt.
Fig. 3 shows an enlarged section of
the piston skirt on which this abra-
sive wear is clearly evident. The axial
height of the piston rings has been
substantially reduced because of the
wear, and as a result the tangential
tension has also been reduced. The
edges of the compression rings (the
first ring in particular) and the edges
of the ring grooves are worn (Fig. 2).
The sharp, oil-scraping edges of the
piston rings have become frayed,
leading to the formation of a burr (Fig.
4). In the microscopic enlargement,
Fig. 1 roll marks can be seen on the surfaces
of the piston ring flanges. The cylin-
ders have been worn into a bulged
shape, with the largest diameter at
approximately the centre of the ring
running surface.
Fig. 2
Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Piston damages
Damage assessment
Scratches on the piston and piston
rings, a matt wear pattern on the
piston skirt, roll marks on the ring
flanges (Figs. 6 and 7) and a bulg-
ing cylinder wear (Fig. 5) are always
the consequence of abrasive foreign
bodies in the oil circuit. As the piston
rings are worn on the running surfaces
and edges, they can no longer seal the
Fig. 5 Fig. 6
cylinder sufficiently and can therefore
no longer prevent oil from passing into
the combustion chamber. At the same Roll marks on the rings are caused by
time, the pressure in the crankcase dirt particles which become lodged
increases as a result of combus- in the ring groove. As the piston ring
tion gases flowing past the cylinder. rotates in the groove, it keeps running
This excessive pressure can cause over the dirt particle and gradually
increased quantities of oil to escape creates the characteristic marks on
through radial oil seals, valve stem the piston ring flanks.
seals and other sealing points.
Fig. 7

• Abrasive dirt particles which enter engine is running, thus causing
the engine with the intake air due to abrasive wear. Figs. 8 and 9 show
inadequate filtration, including: this type of damage due to dirt. The
• missing, defective, deformed images were recorded with polar-
or poorly maintained air filters ised light under a microscope in our
• leaking points in the intake laboratory. Glass fragments and
system, such as distorted flanges, even entire beads of the glass used
missing gaskets or defective or for blasting can be clearly seen.
porous hoses • If the first oil change is performed
Fig. 8
• Particles of dirt which are not com- too late, the abraded particles
pletely removed during an engine which are generated when the
overhaul. Parts of the engine are engine is run in are then spread
often blasted with sand or glass through the oil circuit to the other
beads during an overhaul in order to moving parts where they cause
remove persistent deposits or com- more damage. However, the sharp
bustion residues from the surfaces. oil-scraping edges of the piston
If the blasting materials become rings are particularly prone to dam-
deposited in the material and are age.
not cleaned out properly then they
may work their way loose when the
Fig. 9

Piston damages
3.11.3 Wear on pistons, piston rings and cylinder running surfaces caused by fuel flooding

The piston displays signs of wear on
the piston top land and the piston
skirt. Rubbing marks can already be
seen on the piston skirt which are
characteristic for dry-running due to
fuel flooding. The piston rings display
very severe radial wear (Fig. 1). Both
of the webs (support surfaces) on the
oil scraper ring have been completely
worn down, which also indicates sig-
nificant wear (Fig. 2 ). By comparison,
Fig. 3 shows the profile of a new and
worn oil scraper ring (double bevelled
spiral expander ring).
Fig. 1
1 mm
Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Piston damages
Damage assessment
Fuel flooding due to abnormal combus- caused by fuel flooding”). However, ing area of the pistons start to become
tion always damages the oil film. This the increasingly ineffective lubrication more and more mixed with the lubricat-
initially leads to a higher level of mixed results in high levels of wear on the ing oil and the lubricating oil starts to
friction and therefore increased wear in piston rings, piston ring grooves and lose its load-bearing ability as a result
the piston ring area. The characteristic cylinder running surfaces. of oil dilution, the wear will spread to
damage caused by unburned fuel does In the initial stages the piston skirt all of the moving parts in the engine.
not arise until the oil film is destroyed is affected to a lesser degree, as it is This affects the crankshaft journals
by the fuel to such an extent that the continuously supplied with new oil and piston pins in particular.
piston is running without lubrication from the crankshaft drive which is still
(see also point “3.2.3 Dry running capable of providing lubrication. Once
damage due to lack of lubrication the abraded particles from the mov-
Possible causes for the da

• Fuel flooding due to faults in the • Incorrect piston protrusion/overlap: tion of fuel from the injectors and
mixture formation stage (gasoline/ The piston strikes against the cylin- thus fuel flooding in the cylinder
petrol and diesel engines). der head when the engine is run- (see also point “3.4.5 Impact marks
• Faults in the ignition system ning. On diesel engines with direct on the piston crown”).
(gasoline/petrol engines). injection, the shocks and resulting
• Insufficient compression pressure. vibrations cause uncontrolled injec-

Piston damages
3.11.4 Piston ring wear (soon after a major engine overhaul)

Fig. 1

The pistons display no signs of wear. Su- oil-scraping ring edges, mostly on the possible to detect this type of damage
perficial inspection of the piston rings bottom ring edge. A look at the enlarged by touching the clearly sharp, burred
initially reveals no visible or measurable image shows that the bottom ring edges edge of the ring (Fig. 1).
wear. However, closer inspection of have become almost frayed. Without
the rings reveals abnormal wear on the resorting to an enlarged image, it is also
Damage assessment
High hydrodynamic forces arise during the upward/downward motion
between the running surfaces of the of the piston and are lifted slightly off
piston rings and the cylinder running the cylinder running surface. In this
surface as a result of the worn piston way, increased quantities of lubricat-
ring edges and the consequent forma- ing oil reach the combustion chamber
tion of a so-called oil wedge (Fig. 2). where they are then burned.
The piston rings float on the oil film
Fig. 2

Piston damages

This type of burring is caused if the As the first set of piston rings will
piston rings are refitted in less than have removed most of the disadvan-
ideal conditions after the engine over- tageous edge layer on the cylinder
haul. The main reasons are insuffi- running surface (the so-called “peak
cient or inappropriate end finishing of folding formation”) through wear, a
the cylinder. If diamonds or blunt hon- second set of rings installed as re-
ing stones are used for finish honing, placement rings will encounter much
burrs and elevations which are folded better – if not normal – operating
over in the direction of machining conditions. The oil consumption will
form on the cylinder wall. This bend- return to normal levels after installing
Fig. 3
ing over of metal peaks is referred to new piston rings. In many cases this is
as the so-called “peak folding forma- incorrectly attributed to poor material
tion” and causes increased friction quality of the first set of piston rings,
during the running-in phase, prevent- which of course is not the case.
ing oil from becoming deposited in the Fig. 4 shows a microscopic enlarge-
fine graphite veins (Fig. 3). ment through a section of the cylin-
If these burrs are not removed in a der surface after honing the cylinder
subsequent machining process re- running surface. The bent-over peaks
ferred to as plateau honing, then this can be seen clearly. Fig. 5 shows the
will result in premature wear at the surface after plateau honing. The
piston ring edges during the running- burrs and peaks have been mostly
Fig. 4
in phase. The rings then take on the removed, and the graphite veins have
undesired duty of wearing away the been exposed. The piston rings will
folded peaks and cleaning the graph- immediately encounter good condi-
ite veins. However, this leads to wear tions for running-in and should pro-
on the piston ring edges and the burrs vide a long service life. Hone-brushing
described above. Judging from experi- the surface to create the plateau finish
ence, burrs created in this way on the delivers particularly good results.
piston ring edge can only be run off For further information on this topic,
in operation with great difficulty, if at please refer to our booklet “Honing of
all. The only practical solution is to gray cast iron cylinder blocks” (see
replace the damaged piston rings. appendix)
Fig. 5

Piston damages
3.11.5 Asymmetric piston wear pattern (increased oil consumption)

In Fig. 1, the wear pattern of the piston
over the entire piston height is asym-
metrical on both sides. The piston
top land has been rubbed bare on the
left-hand side of the piston above the
piston pin bore (left-hand side of the
picture), whereas stop marks are evi-
dent on the opposite side at the lower
edge of the piston. The uppermost
compression ring also displays an
uneven wear pattern. Load-bearing,
shiny surfaces alternate with darker,
matt areas with a blue discoloration
(tempering colours).
Fig. 2 also shows an example of a

piston which has not run perfectly
straight. However, in this case the
main area which has been worn is
on the lower right-hand edge of the
piston around the cutout for the cool-
Fig. 1
ing oil nozzle, rather than around the
piston top land.
Fig. 2

Piston damages
Damage assessment
This type of asymmetrical wear pattern tact with the cylinder. The hot combus- oil into the combustion chamber and
indicates that the piston has not been tion gases blow through and heat up thus increases oil consumption. Under
running perfectly straight in the cylinder the piston rings and the cylinder wall certain conditions an axial thrust can
and that the piston pin axis and the excessively. This weakens the oil film, be applied to the piston pin, which can
crankshaft axis are not parallel to each which may result in a dry seizure due to lead to wear or fracturing of the piston
other. As a result, the piston only bears insufficient lubrication. As the piston is pin circlips. See also point “3.7.1 Piston
against one side, and the piston rings running skew in the cylinder, its recip- damage caused by broken piston pin
cannot perform their sealing function rocating movement creates a pumping circlips”
properly due to the lack of proper con- effect at the piston rings, which pumps

• Bent or twisted connecting rods • Cylinder bores not rectangular • Excessive big-end connecting rod
• Connecting rod small end bushing • Individual cylinders not installed clearance, particularly in conjunc-
bored at an oblique angle straight (distorted during installation with asymmetrical connecting
tion) rods

Appendix

Piston damages
Appendix
4.1 Glossary
4.1.1 Technical terms and piston designations

Piston crown Oil cooling gallery
Combustion-chamber bowl Ring carrier
Edge of the piston crown
Top land
MT (KH–)
Ring zone
Compression ring groove
Ring land
Compression height
Bottom of the groove
Recessed ring land
Piston length
Groove walls
Oil ring groove
Pin bore
Oil return holes
Skirt
Piston pin boss
Separation of retainer grooves
Retainer groove
Distance between bosses
Guidance
Bottom of the skirt

Piston diameter
90° to tilt direction
Crown camber Piston crown
Edge of the piston crown

BÜ (KH +)
Top land
Compression ring groove

Ring zone
Ring land
Compression height
Bottom of the groove
Groove walls
Piston length
Oil ring groove
Oil return holes

Pin bore
Piston pin boss

Skirt
Separation of retainer grooves
Retainer groove
Distance between bosses
Guidance
Bottom of the skirt

Piston diameter
90° to tilt direction

Piston damages
Appendix
4.1.2 Explanation of the technical terms used in this document
A abrasive Rubbing/grinding
antiknock properties Capability of the petrol fuel to resist self-ignition.
assembly/kit set Repair set containing the cylinder liner, piston rings, pin
and pin retainers, sealing rings for wet liners
asymmetric Not symmetric
axis offset By design the piston pin axis is offset by some tenth of a
millimetre towards the piston pressure side. As a result,
the piston changes bearing surfaces at TDC before the
actual combustion takes place. This makes the change
of bearing surface quieter and less harsh than if the
change of bearing surface took place due to the starting
combustion under far greater loads. On diesel engines
the offset of the piston pin axis may also be towards the
counterpressure side for thermal reasons.
B blow-by gases Quantity of leakage gases which flow past the piston
rings into the crankcase during combustion. The worse
the sealing on the piston in the cylinder, the more blow-
by gases can flow past.
C cavitation Hollowing-out of material which are situated in water or

other liquids. If a vacuum is formed and a high tempe-
rature is present at the surface, vapour bubbles are for-
med (analogously to the process of boiling) which then
collapse again immediately. As the bubbles collapse,
the water column bounces back with high kinetic energy
onto the material and tears out tiny particles from the
surface of the material. The formation of these bubbles
can be triggered by vibrations or a strong vacuum.
centrifugal oil Oil which emerges from the bearings of the crankshaft
in a planned manner during operation of the engine
and serves to coat and lubricate the cylinder running
surfaces from underneath.
cetane rating Index which indicates the ignition qualities of diesel fuel.
The higher the cetane rating, the higher the ignition quality.
change of bearing surfaces The changing of the piston from the counterpressure
side to the pressure side in the cylinder or vice versa.
During the upward stroke the piston bears against the
counterpressure side of the cylinder and then changes
to the pressure side around TDC.
chip tuning Method for modifying the software of an engine control

unit in order to increase the power output of the engine.
common rail Name for the latest generation of diesel direct-injec-

tion systems. In this system, the electrically actuated
injectors are supplied with highly pressurised fuel from
a shared injection rail.
connecting rod Lack of parallelism between the crankshaft axis and the
misalignment piston pin axis

Piston damages
Appendix
continuous knocking Knocking combustion which persists continuously while

the engine is running.
counterpressure side The side of the piston or cylinder upon which the piston
moves upwards during the intake stroke and the power
stroke. The counterpressure side always lies in the
direction of rotation of the crankshaft.
D dead centre The point at which the reciprocating movement of the

piston reverses direction. A distinction is made between
top dead centre (TDC) and bottom dead centre (BDC).
direct-injection engine Engine in which the fuel is injected directly into the
combustion chamber.
downward piston stroke Movement of the piston towards the crankshaft during
the intake and power strokes (4-stroke engine)
E erosion The removal of material as a result of the effects of the

kinetic energy of solids, liquids or gases acting on the
surface.
exhaust emissions National or international legislation governing the limits

regulations for exhaust emissions from motor vehicles
expansion stroke combustion stroke/power stroke
F fatigue fracture A fracture which develops with time, as opposed to a

fracture which occurs suddenly due to overstressing of
the material. During operation, the speed at which the
fracture spreads can range from a few seconds to se-
veral hours all days. The fracture starts slowly from an
incipient crack, a point of damage or as a result of vibra-
tions, und does not develop suddenly. A characteristic
feature of fatigue fractures is that the fracture surface
is not evenly grey and matt, but instead has nodale line
markings which document the gradual progress of the
fracture.
fibre-reinforcement Fibre-reinforcement of the edge of the combustion

bowl on direct-injection diesel engines. Before cas-
ting, a fibre ring made of aluminium oxide is laid into
the piston moulding. This ring is then penetrated by
liquid aluminium during casting. As a result, the edge
of the bowl is more resistant to the formation of cracks.
Fibre-reinforcements are only possible for the process
of diecasting under pressure, in which the aluminium is
forced under high pressure (approx. 1000 bar) into the
moulding.
peak folding formation Squashing of material at the cylinder running surface

(metal smearing) caused by blunt honing stones or excessive grinding
pressure (honing)

Piston damages
Appendix
fuel flooding Excessive ingress of fuel into the combustion chamber.

As a result of poor atomisation or an overly rich mixture,
fuel is deposited on the components, from where it can
dilute or wash off the oil film on the cylinder running
surface, potentially leading to a lack of lubrication and
rubbing marks or seizures.
G gap/dimension width Remaining space between the piston crown and the
cylinder head at TDC of the piston. When overhauling an
engine, compliance with the manufacturer’s specifica-
tions for the dimensions of this gap must be ensured
at all times. (see also ”piston protrusion” / “piston
overlap”)
The gap is also referred to as the lead gap as it can be
measured with lead wire. The lead wire is inserted in the
cylinder during assembly, and the engine is then turned
over once. The lead wire is squashed flat as a result and
can then be remeasured. The size measured from the
squashed wire is the lead gap.
glow ignition Self-ignition of the air/fuel mixture before the desig-

nated ignition by means of the spark plug takes place.
In this process, the glow ignition takes place due to
components which have started to glow (cylinder head
gasket, spark plug, exhaust valve, oil carbon deposits
etc.).
graphite exposure rate The number of graphite veins exposed during hone-
brushing. A usable value for the graphite exposure rate
would exceed 20%.
graphite veins Graphite deposits in the base material during lamel-

lar graphite casting (grey cast iron). If the veins which
become exposed during the end finishing of the cylinder
are cleaned with honing brushes then oil can be depos-
ited there for lubrication of the piston.
H hone-brushing The last stage of the honing process. The peaks and
burrs are removed from the surface of the cylinder, and
the graphite veins are exposed and cleaned. With hone
brushing a graphite exposure rate up to 50% is possib-
le.
honing End-finishing of the cylinder by means of cross-grinding
honing structure Characteristic grinding pattern (cross hatch) created

during cross-grinding (honing)
I initial rubbing marks Pre-seizure stage occurring due to lack of lubricating oil
or a starting restriction of clearances

Piston damages
Appendix
lack of lubrication A lack of lubrication arises if the oil film is weakened to

L the point where it can no longer provide its full lubri-
cating function. It is caused by not enough oil being
present, the oil film breaking up or the oil film being
diluted by fuel. It then results in mixed friction and, if
allowed to continue, in rubbing marks or seizure of the
components.
lambda control Closed-loop control device used as part of the electronic

engine management on a petrol engine for monitoring
and controlling the mixture composition.
line markings Lines which can be found on the fracture surfaces of

fatigue fractures and which are caused by the spreading
fracture (the speed of which may vary). The fracture
occurs step-by-step. A new line is created every time a
new piece becomes fractured.
M material settling Microstructural changes and resulting changes in shape

to the piston skirt on a used piston (see piston installa-
tion clearance)
mixed friction Mixed friction describes when the oil film is damaged
between two moving parts which are mechanically
separated by an oil film. Individual material elevations
on one of the moving parts can then come into contact
with the material peaks of the other, causing metallic
friction.

Piston damages
Appendix
O octane rating The octane rating of a fuel (also referred to as the

Research Octane Number, RON) indicates the number
of seconds after which a to be tested fuel would change
from normal combustion to knocking combustion in a
specially developed test engine.
The motor octane number (MON) indicates the research
octane number (RON) at which a particular engine would
change from normal combustion into knocking combus-
tion.
octane requirement The octane requirement of an engine is a function of

its design characteristics. It increases with increasing
compression ratio, engine temperature, advanced igni-
tion timing, charge, engine load and disadvantageous
combustion chamber design. The octane rating request
of an engine should always be a few points below the
octane rating of the available fuel to prevent engine
knocking in all operating conditions.
oil dilution Oil dilution describes the thinning of oil with fuel. This
condition can arise if the vehicle is frequently driven
for short journeys, if there are faults in the mixture
formation stage or there is insufficient compression due
to mechanical engine problems. Unburned fuel is then
deposited on the cylinder wall where it is mixed with the
oil and ultimately reaches the oil pan. The viscosity and
lubricating capacity of the oil are reduced as a result,
leading to increased wear and oil consumption.
overload fracture A fracture which occurs within a fraction of a second as

a result of overloading/overstressing a material, with
no incipient crack beforehand. The fracture surfaces are
matt, granular and not smeared.

Piston damages
Appendix
P piston installation The clearance between the piston and the cylinder
clearance which ensures the freedom of movement of the new
piston in the cylinder during installation and operation.
During the first hours of operation the new piston is still

subject to permanent deformation (i.e. settling). This
is caused on the one hand by the temperature rise and
the resulting microstructural changes which still take
place, and on the other hand by the mechanical loads.
The maximum piston size (which always lies in the
skirt area) is therefore subject to a certain amount of
variation during the running-in phase. This variation will
vary according to the design, material composition and
specific loads. This is a completely normal response for
aluminium pistons in operation and does not represent
a cause for concern. Even in the event of piston damage
caused by lack of lubrication, overheating or mechanical
overloading, the piston skirt will be subject to plastic
deformation, which can result in even greater deforma-
tion and dimensional changes.
In cases of damage, the piston installation clearance is

often used to assess the wear, or installation clearances
are incorrectly calculated afterwards even though the
piston no longer has the original shape or dimensions
that it had when it was new. In many cases the maxi-
mum piston size on the skirt is deemed to be too small,
and wear is attributed to the piston even though the
fine machining marks or the graphitizing/coating on the
piston skirt are completely intact.
These piston dimensions measured on a used piston

and the installation clearances calculated from them
can neither be used to assess the quality of the engine
repair work carried out nor the quality of materials and
the dimensional accuracy of the piston when new.
If the installation clearance is too small then a seizure

due to insufficient clearance(s) (see point 3.1.1 Seizure
due to insufficient clearance) is the only potential con-
sequence. If the installation clearance is too large then
the engine will generate slightly more noise when cold
as a result of increased piston tilting. Piston seizures,
increased oil consumption or other forms of damage
cannot occur as a result.
The installation clearance must not be confused with

the running clearance of the piston. The running clear-
ance is not established until the thermal expansion
of the piston is complete, and cannot therefore be
measured.
piston protrusion Protrusion of the diesel piston beyond the cylinder

piston overlap sealing surface at TDC. The protrusion is an important
measurement which must be accurately checked and
adjusted with when overhauling an engine to ensure
that the compression ratio remains correct and the
piston does not strike against the cylinder head during
operation. Please refer to our current catalogue „Pis-
tons, Cylinders and Kit Sets“.

Piston damages
Appendix
piston tilting The changing of the piston bearing surface from the
pressure side to the counterpressure side and vice ver-
sa. The tilting of the pistons is the second loudest noise
on a reciprocating piston internal combustion engine
after the combustion noise itself.
piston running at an angle A piston running skewed on the cylinder due to a twis-
ted or bent connecting rod. Upon removal it reveals a
characteristic asymmetrical wear pattern.
piston running clearance The piston running clearance settles during operati-
on once the thermal expansion of the components is
complete. Due to its design characteristics and the
different wall thicknesses, the piston changes shape as
it is heated up. The piston expands more in areas where
the wall thickness is greater, which is taken into account
accordingly in the design.
piston wear pattern The wear pattern on the piston skirt where the skirt lies
against the cylinder.
piston with an oil gallery Piston with a cooling oil gallery casted into the piston
crown. During operation, oil is sprayed into this cooling
oil gallery from underneath via cooling oil nozzles.
prechamber Part of the combustion chamber on indirect-injection

diesel engines. Fuel is injected into the prechamber
where it then ignites. As the oxygen supply in the
prechamber is limited, only a small part of the fuel is
burned to start with. As a result of the excess pressure
generated in the prechamber, the remainder of the fuel
is forced into the cylinder where it then combusts with
the rest of the oxygen supply.
press-fit Type of dry cylinder liner which is pressed into the cylin-
der counter bore using a specially designated lubricant.
With just a few exceptions these cylinder liners are
semi-finished liners, i.e. the cylinder bore still needs
to be end-finished afterwards by boring and honing.
Advantage:
The liner fits tightly with in the cylinder counter bore.
pressure side The side of the piston or cylinder upon which the piston
moves downwards during the intake stroke and the
power stroke. The pressure side is always opposite to
the direction of rotation of the crankshaft.

Piston damages
Appendix
Q quenching area The part of the piston crown which gets very close to
the cylinder head during operation. At the end of the
compression stroke the mixture is squashed from the
increasingly restricted edge area into the middle of the
combustion chamber. This causes swirl and helps to
provide better combustion.
R ribbed cylinder Cylinders on engines cooled primarily with air cooling.

The cylinders have cooling ribs on the outside for coo-
ling of the engine.
ring carrier A steel ring with a high nickel content which is casted
into the aluminium piston. The first piston ring groove
is cut into the ring carrier. As a result, the first (and
sometimes the second) compression ring sits in a wear-
proof groove, enabling operation with higher operating
pressures and therefore higher loads. Ring carriers are
always used on pistons for diesel engines.
roll marks Wear marks on the piston ring flanks caused by the
ingress of dust or dirt into the engine. The dirt particles
become trapped in the piston ring groove, where they
cause characteristic wear marks on the grooves and
the flank of the piston ring. As the piston rings rotate
during operation, the particle(s) of dirt scratch a regular
pattern into the surface.
rubbing marks The initial contact between two moving parts which is
made when the lubricating oil film becomes damaged.
In contrast to a seizure, rubbing changes the microstruc-
ture of the surface but does not particularly change its
dimensions.
S shrink-fit connecting rod Connecting rod with a rigid link between the piston pin
and the connecting rod. When the piston and connec-
ting rod are assembled, the connecting rod small end
is heated up whilst the temperature of the piston pin is
significantly reduced. As a result of the shrinking of the
pin and the expansion of the connecting rod small end,
an air gap is generated which makes it possible to slide
in the piston pin by hand. As the temperatures then
equalize the clearance is eliminated and the piston pin
is firmly clamped in the connecting rod. The piston does
not need to be heated up when the piston pin is shrunk
into the connecting rod small end.
slip-fit A type of dry cylinder liner which can be inserted by

hand into the cylinder block. Usually, this type of liner is
already end-finished, so the cylinder bore does not need
to be bored and honed afterwards.
Dissadvantage:
A remaining gap between the liner and the counter bore.
swirl chamber Part of the combustion chamber on indirect-injection

diesel engines. The difference to a prechamber is that
the outlet opening of the chamber is larger and opens
tangentially into the combustion chamber. During com-
bustion, the shape of the combustion chamber imparts
a substantial swirl on the air flowing into the chamber,
which helps to improve the quality of the combustion
process.

Piston damages
Appendix
T tangential tension Force which presses the installed piston ring against the
cylinder wall
tilting direction Direction of rotation around the piston pin axis. As

rather than rotating around this axis the piston only tips
back and forth in the cylinder, this is also referred to as
the tilting direction.
U unit injector A special design used on direct-injection diesel engines

(pump jet injector) whereby the injector and fuel pump form a unit which
is installed directly in the cylinder head. The injection
pressure is generated via a pump piston which is driven
directly by the camshaft (in contrast to a distributor-ty-
pe injection pump or an inline-type injection pump). The
injectors are actuated electrically. The injection period
and injected fuel quantity are controlled electronically
by a control unit.
upward piston stroke Movement of the piston away from the crankshaft
towards the cylinder head (during the compression and
exhaust strokes, on a 4-stroke engine)

Piston damages
Recommended tools & testing instruments
4.2.1 Roughness tester T500
Roughness tester with inde- Accuracy class 1. Smallest roughness test sample
pendent power supply. Can display value 0.01 µm. RNDH (for calibration),
be used for measurements Surface measurement prism incl. small hex screw-
on level surfaces, shafts variables Ra, Rz, Rmax/R. driver, operating instruc-
and in bores. Especially Contents: Hommel tester tions and sturdy case.
Part-No. 50 009 888
suitable for mobile meas- T500, battery charger (230 Replacement 9.6V recharge-
urements. V AC, 50 Hz), 2 recharge- able battery
able batteries, standard Part-No. 50 009 905
4.2.2 Printer for roughness tester T500
The delivery scope includes

a printer, 2 rolls of paper
and a mains adapter.
(100–230 V AC, 50–60 Hz).
Part-No. 50 009 889
4.2.3 Cleaning set for valve guides
Often dirt is still deposited Part-No. Description ( in mm)

in the valve guides even 50 009 901 Valve stem diameter 5,0
after the cylinder head has 50 009 902 Valve stem diameter 6,0
been washed. These depos- 50 009 895 Valve stem diameter 7,0
its must be removed before 50 009 896 Valve stem diameter 8,0
Part-No. see table 50 009 897 Valve stem diameter 9,0
the valves are installed. The
cleaning set includes a 50 009 898 Valve stem diameter 10,0
nylon brush for pre-cleaning 50 009 899 Valve stem diameter 11,0
and a felt brush for finishing 50 009 900 Valve stem diameter 12,0
off.
4.2.4 Assembly tool for valve stem seals
This tool allows very easy

and straightforward assem-
bly of valve stem seals.
Part-No. 50 009 904 Part-No. 50 009 893 Part-No. 50 009 894

Part-No. (car 4V) 50 009 904
(Set for passenger cars, 4V): (Set for passenger cars): (Set for trucks):
Part-No. (car) 50 009 893
Part-No. (trucks) 50 009 894 ∅ of valve stem: 5 mm ∅ of valve stem: 7 mm ∅ of valve stem: 10 mm
∅ of valve stem: 6 mm ∅ of valve stem: 8 mm ∅ of valve stem: 11 mm
∅ of valve stem: 7 mm ∅ of valve stem: 9 mm ∅ of valve stem: 12 mm

Piston damages
4.2.5 Honing angle test film
The honing angle can be For further technical infor-

measured without great mation on the honing of
difficulty using the test film. cast iron cylinder blocks,
The honing angle should be refer to the KS brochure
between a minimum of 40° ”Honing of gray cast iron
Part-No. 50 009 873
and a maximum of 80°. cylinder blocks”.
4.2.6 Bracket for dial gauge (small/large) and dial gauge
Bracket for dial gauges. Art. no. 50 009 882 (small) Part-No. 50 009 884
Example of application: Total length: 75 mm matching dial gauge
to measure piston protru- 8 mm location hole Measuring range: 0–10mm
sion and cylinder liner Smallest measuring unit:
protrusion. Art. no. 50 009 883 (large) 0.01mm
Part-No. (small) 50 009 882 The scope of delivery does Total length: 90 mm
Part-No. (large) 50 009 883 not include a dial gauge. 8 mm location hole
Part-No. (dial gauge) 50 009 884
4.2.7 Assembly Part-No. Description ( in mm)

sleeves 50 009 865 Assembly sleeve for ∅ 86,0
50 009 877 Assembly sleeve for ∅ 94,4
The assembly sleeve en- 50 009 878 Assembly sleeve for ∅ 94,8
sures easy, safe and quick 50 009 866 Assembly sleeve for 97,0
assembly of pistons. As- 50 009 903 Assembly sleeve for 97,5
sembly sleeves are availa- 50 009 874 Assembly sleeve for ∅ 100,0
Part-No. see Table 50 009 875 Assembly sleeve for ∅ 102,0
ble for 13 different cylinder
diameters. 50 009 867 Assembly sleeve for ∅ 121,0
50 009 876 Assembly sleeve for 130,0
4.2.8 Piston ring scuff band with tightener
Infinitely variable
adjustment.
Part-No. 50 009 816 Part-No. 50 009 828

(Set for passenger cars): (Set for trucks):
Tightening range Tightening range
Part-No. (car) 50 009 816 ∅ 57–125 mm ∅ 90–175 mm
Part-No. (truck) 50 009 828

Piston damages
4.2.9 Liner flange seat facing attachment
Precision-type facing tool magnet (230 V, 50 Hz For further technical in-

for machining liner flange connection required). formation refer to Service
seats in cylinder blocks. The delivery scope includes Information SI 02/2002
May even be used with the a facing tool, a sturdy ”Liner flange fracture”.
engine installed. Refac- wooden case and detailed
ing by hand. The device is operating instructions
locked by an electric (turning tool not included).
Part-No. 50 009 817
4.2.10 Piston ring pliers
For installation and remo- Part-No. 50 009 815 Part-No. 50 009 829
val of piston rings. Sturdy For piston rings in cars For piston rings in trucks
workshop quality. Bright ∅ 50–125 mm ∅ 60–160 mm
nickel-plated.
Part-No. (car) 50 009 815

Part-No. (truck) 50 009 829
4.2.11 Honing brushes for plateau honing
Honing accessories for cast fibres with silicon crystals. For further information on
iron cylinder blocks for A minimum of 10 strokes honing cast iron cylinder
plateau honing to reduce should be carried out using blocks, refer to the KS
oil consumption and to honing oil. In doing so, the brochure ”Honing of gray
facilitate the running in of bore is cleaned and the cast iron cylinder blocks”
pistons, piston rings and peaks are removed. (refer to the Appendix for
cylinders. the order number).
The set of accessories con- Brushing does not cause
tains two honing brushes any further dimensional
Part-No. 50 009 864
which consist of nylon changes.
4.2.12 Honing accessories for aluminium cylinder blocks (Alusil®/Silumal®)
For further information on

Part-No. Description honing aluminium engines,
50 009 860 Honing stone set (2 roughing stones) refer to the KS brochure
50 009 861 Honing stone set (2 roughing stones) ”Reconditioning of alu-
minium engines” (refer to
50 009 862 Honing stone set (2 polishing stones) the Appendix for the order
number).
50 009 863 Felt pad set (2 felt pads)
50 009 859 Silicon paste

Piston damages
Technical brochures
Product Manual – Engine components

Basic technical information on all KS product groups
Part-No. Language Part-No. Language

50 003 734 German 50 003 731 Spanish
50 003 733 English 50 003 580 Russian
50 003 732 French
Piston damages
Recognising and rectifying

50 003 973-01 German 50 003 973-04 Spanish
50 003 973-02 English 50 003 973-09 Russian
50 003 973-03 French Additional languages upon request.
Honing of Gray Cast Iron Cylinder Blocks

50 003 823 German 50 003 818 Arabic
50 003 822 English 50 003 817 Portuguese
50 003 821 French 50 003 816 Turkish
50 003 820 Spanish 50 003 815 Russian
50 003 819 Italian 50 003 814 Czech
Reconditioning of Aluminium Engines

Brochure
50 003 813 German 50 003 808 Arabic
50 003 812 English 50 003 807 Portuguese
50 003 811 French 50 003 806 Turkish
50 003 810 Spanish 50 003 805 Russian
50 003 809 Italian 50 003 804 Czech
Valve Seat Inserts

Technical information and assembly instructions

50 003 728 German 50 003 725 Spanish
50 003 727 English 50 003 724 Italian
50 003 726 French 50 003 700 Russian
Piston damages
Technical brochures
Oil Consumption and Loss of Oil

50 003 605-01 German 50 003 605-04 Spanish
50 003 605-02 English 50 003 605-09 Russian
50 003 605-03 French
Technical Filter Booklet

50 003 596-01 German 50 003 596-04 Spanish
50 003 596-02 English 50 003 596-09 Russian
50 003 596-03 French
Interior Compartment Filter

50 003 939-01 German 50 003 939-04 Spanish
50 003 939-02 English 50 003 939-09 Russian
50 003 939-03 French
Tools & Testing Instruments

50 003 931-01 German 50 003 931-04 Spanish
50 003 931-02 English 50 003 931-09 Russian
50 003 931-03 French
Installation of Pistons / Rings / Bearings

Pane, 70 x 100 cm, with attachment eyes
Language Pistons Rings Bearings
German 50 003 842 50 003 717 50 003 999

French 50 003 840 50 003 715 50 003 996
Spanish 50 003 839 50 003 714 50 003 997
Italian 50 003 834 50 003 708 50 003 843
Arabic 50 003 838 50 003 712 50 003 995
Portuguese 50 003 837 50 003 713 50 003 846
Russian 50 003 835 50 003 710 50 003 844
English 50 003 841 50 003 716 50 003 998
Piston damages
MSI training programme
4.4 For engine reconditioners
• Courses (include a practical part)

Engine repair, trucks
- Short block and cylinder head machining
Engine repair, passenger cars

- Short block and cylinder head machining
Special course 1 : Engine reconditioning, trucks (Mercedes Benz)

- Actros, engine types OM 500
Short block and cylinder head machining
Special course 2 : Engine reconditioning, trucks (Mercedes Benz)

- Atego, engine types OM 900
Short block and cylinder head machining
Operator training course on precision machining instruments

- Machine training course for short block and cylinder head repair
Special courses
- Crankshaft surface welding and grinding
- Other subjects, contents and key topics to be agreed on an individual basis
• Seminars (without practical part)

Machining
- Drilling, honing and hone-brushing of cast iron cylinder blocks
- Reconditioning of aluminium cylinder blocks: General
- Reconditioning of aluminium cylinder blocks: Alusil machining
Product training
- Product training on the construction and function of the relevant KS product groups such
as pistons, piston rings, plain bearings, cylinder liners, valves, valve guides, valve seat
rings and filters
Assembly training
- Basic seminars on the assembly of the relevant KS product groups such as pistons, pis-
ton rings, plain bearings, cylinder liners, valves, valve guides and valve seat rings
From Practice for Practice

- Training on actual engine defects and their causes in relation to pistons, cylinder liners,
plain bearings, piston rings and valves
Other seminars
- Running in engines
- New engine designs - petrol / diesel
- Oil consumption (in preparation)
- Other subjects, contents and key topics to be agreed on an individual basis
Piston damages
4.5 For workshops
On-board diagnosis (OBD, EOBD), vehicle integrated engine monitoring and diagnosis
- Layout, function, execution and technical details
- Reading out faults and interpreting fault codes
- Experiences so far
- Fault diagnosis on the engine and ancillary equipment
AU courses* (in line with the latest legislation for vehicles up to 7.5 t gross vehicle weight)
- Introduction course
- Refresher course
Special courses
- Subjects, contents and key topics to be agreed on an individual basis
*) Only for employees of Pierburg Services
Module 1: OBD, EOBD, vehicle integrated engine monitoring and diagnosis
- Scope and function, execution and technical details, fault codes and test modes
- OBD-monitored Pierburg products
Module 2: Fuel supply and service

- Layout and function of modern fuel systems, fuel pumps, pressure regulators and valves
- Possible faults, causes and remedies
- Checking the system on fuel injected engines using the fuel pressure tester
Module 3: Vacuum supply

- Vacuum pumps are safety relevant components
- Types, application, special features and service
- Testing vacuum pumps with the vacuum pump tester
- Identifying and rectifying potential faults and their causes
Module 4: Reduction of harmful pollutants

- Exhaust gas recirculation and secondary air systems - layout of the system.
- Components in the system, EGR valves, secondary air pumps, function and actuation.
- Possible faults, checking components and their functions.
- How much help can OBD offer? Interpreting fault codes correctly
All MSI training courses (for workshops on request for owners, purchasers,
and engine reconditioners) are availa- internal and external sales employees.
ble from our customer services training For more information on our training
centre in Dormagen and in Neckarsulm, courses, please refer to our training
as well as on-site at the customer. programme or send us your queries
Technical seminars can also be offered to the following e-mail address:
training@msi-motor-service.com
Piston damages
4.5 For workshops
On-board diagnosis (OBD, EOBD), vehicle integrated engine monitoring and diagnosis
- Layout, function, execution and technical details
- Reading out faults and interpreting fault codes
- Experiences so far
- Fault diagnosis on the engine and ancillary equipment
AU courses* (in line with the latest legislation for vehicles up to 7.5 t gross vehicle weight)
- Introduction course
- Refresher course
Special courses
- Subjects, contents and key topics to be agreed on an individual basis
*) Only for employees of Pierburg Services
Module 1: OBD, EOBD, vehicle integrated engine monitoring and diagnosis
- Scope and function, execution and technical details, fault codes and test modes
- OBD-monitored Pierburg products
Module 2: Fuel supply and service

- Layout and function of modern fuel systems, fuel pumps, pressure regulators and valves
- Possible faults, causes and remedies
- Checking the system on fuel injected engines using the fuel pressure tester
Module 3: Vacuum supply

- Vacuum pumps are safety relevant components
- Types, application, special features and service
- Testing vacuum pumps with the vacuum pump tester
- Identifying and rectifying potential faults and their causes
Module 4: Reduction of harmful pollutants

- Exhaust gas recirculation and secondary air systems - layout of the system.
- Components in the system, EGR valves, secondary air pumps, function and actuation.
- Possible faults, checking components and their functions.
- How much help can OBD offer? Interpreting fault codes correctly
All MSI training courses (for workshops on request for owners, purchasers,
and engine reconditioners) are availa- internal and external sales employees.
ble from our customer services training For more information on our training
centre in Dormagen and in Neckarsulm, courses, please refer to our training
as well as on-site at the customer. programme or send us your queries
Technical seminars can also be offered to the following e-mail address:
training@msi-motor-service.com

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Tips & Information

2. Quick diagnosis ..................................................................................6

2 | Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying MSI Motor Service International

3.6 Piston pin fractures...............................................................52

MSI Motor Service International Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying | 3

4 | Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying MSI Motor Service International

1.2 Notes on using this brochure

The quick diagnosis pages are also

MSI Motor Service International Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying | 5

Piston skirt seizing

Seizure on the piston skirt due to Seizure due to insufficient clearances

Piston skirt seizure on one side Seizure due to overheating centered

Seizure due to lack of lubrication Seizure due to insufficient clearances

Dry running damage due to lack of Wear on pistons, piston rings

Piston head seizing

Seizure due to overheating centered Seizure due to lack of lubrication

6 | Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying MSI Motor Service International

Piston ring damages

Seizure due to lack of lubrication Wear on pistons, piston rings and

Incorrectly installed oil scraper ring Wear on pistons, piston rings

Piston ring wear (soon after a major

Further damages in the ring and skirt Panel

Ring land fractures ............................. 36 Material washout in the ring zone

Piston damage caused by broken Radial impact points on the piston

Asymmetric piston wear pattern

MSI Motor Service International Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying | 7

Piston head damages

Removal of material by melting from Material removal/fusion due to melting

Piston fracture due to mechanical Impact marks on the piston crown

Piston pin seizing & piston pin fractures

Seizure in the piston pin bore Fractured piston pin ........................... 53

8 | Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying MSI Motor Service International

Longitudinal cylinder liner cracks ....... 65 Cylinder liner fracture due to

Cavitation on cylinder liners ............... 68 Seizure due to insufficient clearances

Detailed descriptions of the

MSI Motor Service International Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying | 9

3.1 Seizure due to insufficient clearances

3.1.0 General information about seizures due to insufficient clearances

10 | Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying MSI Motor Service International

3.1.1 Seizure on the piston skirt due to insufficient clearance

Description of the damage

Damage assessment Note:

Possible causes for the damage

MSI Motor Service International Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying | 11

Description of the damage

12 | Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying MSI Motor Service International

MSI Motor Service International Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying | 13

Description of the damage

14 | Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying MSI Motor Service International

Possible causes for the damage

MSI Motor Service International Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying | 15

3.2 Seizure due to lack of lubrication

3.2.0 General information about seizure due to lack of lubrication

a) If the oil film is destroyed altogether:

b) If there is a lack of oil:

16 | Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying MSI Motor Service International

3.2.1 Seizure due to lack of lubrication on the piston skirt

Description of the damage

Damage assessment Note:

Possible causes for the damage

MSI Motor Service International Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying | 17

Description of the damage

18 | Piston damages – Recognising and rectifying MSI Motor Service International