INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
Sociology is the systematic study of society (Macionis and Plummer, 2005).

➢ It is the study of human society and social interactions and is, therefore, concerned
with the interactions of humans and the meaning they attach to these interactions.
➢ The founding father of sociology is the French philosopher, Auguste Comte (1798-
1857) and he was the first to use the term “sociology” in 1838.
➢ Comte referred to sociology as the scientific study of society and argued that all
societies develop and progress through three (3) stages: religious, metaphysical (being
philosophical), and scientific.

Sociology is an important social discipline because:

➢ It allows for the investigation of the influence of social forces on human behaviours.
➢ It helps the individual to understand human society and how social systems, structures
and institutions works.
➢ It looks beyond common sense to understand human actions and interactions.
➢ It allows for critical thinking about social issues and problems.

MODULE ONE-: SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS, PERSPECTIVES AND METHODS

FOREFATHERS OF SOCIOLOGY

Although Auguste Comte is considered the “founding father” of Sociology, he is not among
the three major founding fathers. These three are:
➢ Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
➢ Karl Marx (1818-1883)
➢ Max Weber (1864-1920).

However, Auguste Comte is important to consider for his role in the development of
sociology as a discipline. These being:

➢ Coined the term of sociology.

➢ Developed positivism (the belief that sociology can be studied as a science).
➢ Paved the way for the functionalist perspective – which was eventually developed by
Durkheim.

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CONTRIBUTIONS OF EMILE DURHEIM
➢ Developed the consensus perspective (functionalism)-This is the position that
everything exists in society for the purpose of benefiting society.
➢ Relied heavily on Auguste Comte work on positivism because he also believed that
society can be scientifically studied.
➢ Became the first sociologists to employ science in the study of society.
➢ Used science to study Suicide – He examined official statistics and made comparative
studies of suicide statistics from various studies – concluded that people commit
suicide due to various social factors.
➢ Employs the Macro approach in the study of society – This is the position that people
are powerless and are shaped by the social institutions and forces around them –
people are just puppets of society.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF KARL MARX

➢ Father of Marxism -Conflict perspective – The position that capitalist society is

shaped by class struggles between the ruling class and the working class.
➢ Developed the concept of Bourgeoisie (the capitalists or ruling class) and the
Proletariat (the working class).
➢ Consider the economic changes in society caused by the Industrial Revolution and
how it developed the capitalist class.
➢ Expands on the problems caused by capitalism.
➢ Used the macro approach.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF MAX WEBER

➢ Relied on the economic views of Marx but developed the Interactionism perspective
(The position that society is determine by human interactions and interpretations).
➢ Did not agree with positivism, believed that society cannot truly be scientifically
studied.
➢ Formed the view that interaction and meaning attached to things of importance.
➢ Used the micro approach, i.e., people have the ability to shape society.
➢ Did not agree that social institutions shape people. Instead, it is people who shape
social institutions.

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 ➢ Focused a great deal on social change – In his book, the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit
of Capitalism, he argued that society underwent a revolutionary transformation
moving from ancient slavery to capitalism. He accounted this change to changing
values and the spread of Protestantism – gives a religious undertone.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE CARIBBEAN

The development of sociology in the Caribbean was influenced by:

➢ The history of the region (such legacies as slavery, emancipation, indentureship,

colonialism and independence have shaped the social institutions and structures of the

region).

➢ The influence of major sociological perspectives such as functionalism, Marxism and

Interactionism have assisted Caribbean sociologists to better understand social changes in

the region. Caribbean sociologists draw reference from these theories to develop an

understanding of Caribbean society. For example, M.G. Smith (1965) relied heavily on

the Conflict perspective to develop the plural society thesis. Also, Kamau Braithwaite

(1971) relied heavily on the consensus perspective to develop the Creole society thesis.

➢ The economic changes of the Caribbean (the move from an agricultural economy to a

manufacturing one – led to changes in stratification, mobility and the occupational changes).

➢ Political reforms in the region (pre and post- independence era)

➢ The work of pioneers in the field.

MAJOR CARIBBEAN THEORISTS

➢ M.G. Smith –>The Plural Society Thesis

➢ Kamau Braithwaite – The Creole Society Thesis
➢ Edith Clarke – The Development of Afro-Caribbean families
➢ Lloyd Braithwaite – The Stratification System in the Caribbean
➢ Dereck Gordon – Social Stratification and Social Mobility in Jamaica

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 ➢ Carl Stone – The Class Society
➢ Raymond Smith – The Impact of Plantation Slavery on Families

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

1. Sociological Imagination

➢ Coined by the American sociologist C. Wright Mills

➢ It is the ability to shift from one perspective to another.
➢ The ability to see things socially and how they interact and influence each other.
➢ The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger
society.

2. Sociological perspective

➢ Coined by Sociologist Peter Berger.

➢ Invites sociologists to look at familiar surroundings in a fresh way.
➢ Emphasizes that our social backgrounds influence our attitudes, behaviours, and life
chances.

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECIVES

Sociology as a subject is comprised of persons who research on phenomena in an effort to

explain their existence. Many of these adopt a similar view/perspective of how and why
society exists and grouped according to the perspective/view they hold.

Hence a sociological perspective is simply a group of theorists who share common view as to
why society exists.

There are three major perspectives in sociology:

➢ Functionalist
➢ Conflict/Marxist
➢ Interactionist

Other minor perspectives exist such as the:

Feminist |Phenomenologist | Post Modernists

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FUNCTIONALISM

➢ Known as a macro perspective/theory because it takes a holistic view of society

instead of looking at individual action.
➢ Also called a structural theory because it looks at the structure of society.
➢ Founded by Aguste Comte, pioneered by Emil Durkheim, developed and made
famous by Talcott Parsons.
➢ Functionalism operates on the belief that society is like a human body made up of
interrelated organs, each with its own purpose (function).
➢ All organs are interdependent and must perform their function for the body in this
case - society) to exist.
➢ In society, the organs are the institutions e.g. (family, education, church, juridical
system etc.). Each institution must perform its function for the society to exist.
➢ Each institution must also perform its function in tandem with the other institutions;
hence a stable society is made up of a group of interrelated functional institutions.
➢ In performing its function each institution provides society with a functional
prerequisite i.e., an element or activity that is necessary for society's survival.
➢ One example of a functional pre-requisite is the value consensus, a societal agreement
on what is right or wrong.
➢ The value consensus is provided through socialization, where children learn what is
accepted as right and what is seen as wrong in their particular society.
➢ The teaching of these shared norms and values lead to the consensus/agreements
necessary to stabilize the society. Without these shared beliefs, society would
disintegrate into chaos (what Durkheim calls anomie).
➢ Just imagine if we all didn't share the view that we should stop at red light and go at
green. Imagine the chaos if some thought that red meant go and some thought that it
meant stop. For simple reasons like that the value consensus is a functional pre-
requisite (a necessity for society's survival).
➢ Functionalists also believe the norms of a society are the basis for its laws and they
govern social behaviour.
➢ Those who adhere to the laws are rewarded while those who deviate are punished.

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POPULAR FUNCTIONALIST IDEAS/THEORIES

TYPES OF SOLIDARITY: DURKHEIM

1.Mechanical Solidarity – Unity sprung from similarity: It is really social cohesion based
upon the likeness and similarities among individuals in a society, and largely dependent on
common rituals and routines. Common among prehistoric and pre-agricultural societies and
lessens in predominance as modernity increases.

2.Organic Solidarity – Unity sprung from interdependence: It is really social cohesion based
upon the dependence individuals in more advanced society have on each other. Common
among industrial societies as the division of labour increases. Though individuals perform
different tasks and often have different values and interests, social order and survival of
society depends on their reliance on each other to perform their specific task.

ROBERT K. MERTON - LATENT AND MANIFEST FUNCTIONS

Functionalists who believe that (they?) have both manifest (intended) and latent (unintended)
functions. The latent function of stratification and the collective goals is crime, as those who
can't succeed in "legitimate activities” will turn to crime.

TALCOT T PARSON'S AGIL MODEL

Parson's model of social stability is represented by the acronym AGIL, which represents the
four basic functions that all social systems in society must perform if they are to persist/
exist.

1.Adaptation: The problem of acquiring sufficient resources for human survival - economic
function.

2.Goal Attainment: The problem of settling and implementing goals.

3.Integration: The problem of maintaining solidarity, stability or coordination among the

sub-units or sub-groups of the system.

4.Latency: The problem of creating, preserving, and transmitting the system's distinctive
culture and values (socialization).

5.Social structure: In sociology, the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions whereby

human beings in a society interact and live together - social strata.

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CRITICISMS OF FUNCTIONALISM

➢ The functionalist perspective is often said to be utopian as it ignores the conflicts that
exist in society.
➢ The functionalist takes it for granted that all the institutions in the society are
functional (playing their respective roles properly), and hence there is little, or no
conflict and societies will be constantly stable.
➢ They give no account for dysfunctional families that provide inadequate socialization
for children, education systems or institutions that impart very little knowledge or
governments that are corrupt.
➢ It is also said to be overly deterministic as it gives little relevance to human free will.
Instead, it argues that the institutions will control what humans do and do not do.

MARXISM/CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

➢ There are many theories that make up the conflict perspective, but the most popular of
all and the one that has become synonymous with the conflict perspective is Marxism.
➢ Called a historic-macro theory, the Marxist theory, developed by Karl Marx, looked
to history for proof of its views.
➢ Like functionalism, it is also known as a macro theory because of its holistic views of
society.
➢ Karl Marx built his theory on the basis that humans have always needed to produce
(be it food or shelter) to survive.
➢ Production has two (2) components: 1. The social relationship that governs
production, and 2. The technical aspect i.e., the forces of production - land, capital,
raw material, and scientific knowledge.
➢ These two components of production make up the infrastructure or economy of
society.
➢ All other institutions (school, churches etc.) are a part of the superstructure and are
shaped and will facilitate the type of infrastructure/economy a society has.
➢ Thus, the values we learn at school or from our religious institutions are determined
by the economy and the values the economy needs us to have.

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 ➢ Karl Marx argues that throughout history there has always existed two (2) groups, the
rich who own the means of production and control the superstructure and the pool
who only own their labour.
➢ He contends that the capitalist era we live in (just as it was throughout history) there
is a dialectic relationship (a conflicting relationship between interdependent groups)
between the rich/upper class (bourgeoisie) and the poor / lower class (proletariat).
➢ This as though both groups are needed to produce (those with the means of production
must work with those with the labour) the upper-class (bourgeoisie) who the means of
production (land capital etc.) have always exploited the lower class (proletariat)who
provide the labour necessary to produce wealth.
➢ The proletariats are exploited as though their labour is used to produce the products.
The small bourgeoisie group retains majority of the profits from the products and pays
the proletariats a very small amount called wages.
➢ The bourgeoisie maintain this exploitive system by using the different institutions in
society such as the Education System, Judicial System and Religion to dominate and
indoctrinate the proletariat. These institutions teach the False Class Consciousness.
➢ The false class consciousness is the upper-class doctrine which tells the lower-class
that society is fair and equal, and that the suffering of the poor is due to their own
inadequacies. Thus, the poor are less likely to fight against the exploitive bourgeoisie.
➢ Religion is the most effective perpetrator of the false class consciousness as it teaches
that all things are ordained by God, hence if you are poor that's the way God wanted
it. Additionally, it says we should wait until after death to get our just rewards instead
of fighting for it now. The exploitation has been happening since the beginning of
time and continues in capitalism. However, the proletariat will one day see the
fallacies of the false class consciousness, tire of the exploitation and join together in a
bloody revolution against the bourgeoisie. This revolution will lead to a new
economic era called Communism.
➢ In a communist economy, all men are equal hence there will be no exploitive social
relationships, no conflict to cause a revolution and so this era will last forever.

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CRITICISMS OF MARXISM

➢ Many critics argue that the Marxists have a utopian view of the future, as they predict
a communist era where all men are equal. However, theorists such as Thomas Hobbes
argue that man is too selfish for any such era to be a reality.
➢ Marx is said to be economically deterministic as he sees the nature of the eco my
determining all other institutions (the superstructure) and social relationships It means
he ignores the individual's ability to make his own choices according to the
interactionist, and the impact of gender and patriarchal relationships according to the
feminists.
➢ Marx argues that the proletariat revolution will result from the destruction of the false
class consciousness, and the disappearance of religion. However, critics argue that
there is no evidence that religion that has been around since the beginning of time will
disappear, and if it doesn't, then the false class consciousness will continue to be
promoted hence no revolution will take place.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONALISM

➢ This perspective was developed by George Herbert Mead and posits that individuals
place meanings on objects in society and these meanings determine their behaviour.
➢ Interaction between individuals is only possible when the meanings of the symbols
are shared. For example, because the symbols (the words) in the English language are
shared we can all communicate.
➢ We interact by interpreting the symbols around us and act according to how we see
ourselves. E.g., if we see a man with a knife approaching which we interpret to mean
danger, and we see ourselves as cowards then we will run, but if we see ourselves as
brave then we will stay.
➢ Mead adds that in our minds we have a concept of “self.” The self has two parts the
“I” (our own beliefs about who we are, or our natural self) and the “me” (what we are
socialized to be).
➢ The “me" or the socialized self stems from our interaction with the “generalized
other" (society). In essence the “me” is who society tells us to be.
➢ Mead posits that the “me” is developed in childhood during the ‘Play' and the 'Game'
stages. Through playing games children learn that there are different roles they have

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 to play at different times, even if they don't want to. They learn that society has
certain expectations of them which they have to fill if they want to be accepted. They
start to understand the importance of stifling the “I” and becoming the “me.”

Mead emphasizes the three(3) principles:

1. Ascribed meanings: Human action is based on the meanings ascribed to objects.

2. Communication: The meanings we place on symbols are due to our interaction with
others.

3. Interpretation: Before we act, we seek to interpret the symbols before us.

ETHNO-METHODOLOGY

➢ Founded by Harold Garfinkel in the 1960's, this theory postulates that reality and
social order is a cognitive construction i.e., it is done in the mind.
➢ Individuals make sense of society according to a set of un-written rules to which they
subscribe, the documentary method. These rules guide their interpretations of their
situation and the interpretation then determines how they behave.
➢ Hence, two persons can be in the same situation and behave differently. This is
because their cognitive processes and consequent interpretation of the situation are
different.

INTERACTIONALISM

➢ Focuses on individual interaction instead of society on the whole. It is therefore called

a micro-theory.
➢ Argues that human behaviour is not determined by society or social systems, instead it
is dependent on human interactions, the meanings we allocate to the actions of others
and the situations in which we find ourselves.
➢ Thus, whether I decide to run or fight if confronted; is not determined only by my
socialization from society's institutions, but my assessment of the situation I am in,
and the meanings I affix to the actions of others. For example, I may fight if I
interpret my aggressors trembling to mean fear, or I may run if I interpret it to mean
extreme anger.

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 ➢ Above all, our behaviour is determined by our self-concept and our interaction with
others.
➢ Our self -concept (view of our self) is based on how we believe other people see us. It
is your view of others view of you. This view of self will guide our behaviour and
interactions with others. The process through which we form a view of ourselves (our
self-concept) is called the looking glass self. This term was introduced by Charles
Cooley. Interactionism was pioneered by Charles Cooley.

DRAUMATURGY

➢ The concept of dramaturgy was developed by Canadian-born Sociologist Erving

Goffman.
➢ Erving Goffman understood social interaction as if it were a play performed on stage
for an audience.
➢ He believed that people performed roles for each other and that we learn how to play
our roles better from others whom we interact with.
➢ A key element of this theory is front stage and backstage.

Front Stage and Back Stage

➢ In simple terms, “Front stage” is the type of behaviour people engage in when they
know others are watching while “Back stage” is what they do when no one is
watching.
➢ An example of “Front Stage” is a classroom lecture , where everyone has a role to
play , the teacher’s whose role is to teach and the students whose role is listen and ask
questions if needed. In the back stages of life one can be themselves as they have no
role to play and can also prep themselves for the return to front stage.

Impression Management

➢ A key aspect of dramaturgy is Impression Management.

➢ Impression Management is a very important part of the dramaturgical perspective. It
is the effort to control or manipulate others’ impressions of us on front stage.
➢ This aspect is very important in the development of social relationships and the
maintenance of these relationships.

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 ➢ Goffman said that people use things he referred to as sign vehicles to portray
ourselves to others.

Sign Vehicles

➢ Sign vehicles is the term used by Goffman to refer to how people use appearance ,
manner of interacting and social setting to communicate things about themselves.
➢ Simply , these are thing we use to convey impressions to people we interact with.
➢ Goffman sometimes referred to these things as props and non-verbal communication.
➢ Our appearance such as the things we wear conveys a certain impression of us.
➢ Manner of Interacting also gives off a certain impression about us. It conveys specific
attitudes of us , through verbal and non-verbal communication. Especially non-verbal
communication.
➢ Lastly, social setting is what it sounds like, it is the physical setting where
socialization takes place. How we arrange our spaces conveys a lot of information
about us.

CULTURE

What is culture?

Ralph Linton→ the way of life of its members; the collection of ideas and habits which they
learn, share and transmit from generation to generation.

Clyde Kluckholm→ a ‘design for living’ held by the members of a Society.

TYPES OF CULTURE

1.Material Culture

➢ Tangible and concrete objectives created by a society to reflect their interest and pre-
occupation.
➢ These include material articles that society creates for survival.

2.Non-Material Culture

➢ Intangible components of our way of life e.g., language, norms, values and ideas.
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Therefore, culture is both concrete and abstract, that is, we can observe it through cultural
objects as well as abstract through thinking, feeling and believing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

1.Culture is Shared

➢ Each society consists of agreements on what the norms and values are. Although
persons may exhibit different norms, there is a general consensus of what is
acceptable in each society.

2.Culture is Learnt

➢ Culture is not innate, you are not born with it, it has to be taught to you.

3.Culture is Transmittable

➢ Culture is passed down from generation to generation. If culture is not transmitted it

will die.
➢ Although each generation might add new elements to the culture of a society, for it to
remain and be constantly accepted, it has to be transmitted.

4.Culture is Adaptive

➢ Culture must adapt to changes in society.

5.Culture is Dynamic

➢ It varies from society to society and era to era.

➢ The culture of your grandparents or parents is not identical with your
own.(Generation gap).

Components of Culture

➢ Symbol
➢ Values
➢ Beliefs
➢ Norms
➢ Mores

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 ➢ Folkways
➢ Prescriptive
➢ Proscriptive
➢ Material culture

TYPES OF CULTURE

1.High culture: The elite

2.Popular culture: Common to the wider society.

3.Subculture: Shares some elements with the general culture but still maintains

unique elements.

4.Counterculture: “Outright rejection of conventional ideas or behaviour” ~Macionis.

CULTURAL CHANGE

1.Invention: New objects, ideas and social patterns are created.

2.Discovery: New purposes are found for existing resources.

3.Diffusion: This refers to the spread of a cultural trait, ideas or behaviour from one society
to another.

CULTURAL VARIABILITY

➢ Cultures vary around the world, some are similar, some are different.
➢ Difficulty adjusting to a new culture is known as culture shock.

RESPONSES TO CULTURAL VARIABILITY

1.Ethnocentrism

➢ Individuals cast judgment on another’s culture on the basis of their own value and
belief systems. This can lead to segregation, discrimination and oppression.

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2. Cultural Relativity

➢ Objectivity should be applied to understanding cultures. As such cultural practices

must be understood within the context and environment that it occurs.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF CULTURE

1.Functionalism

➢ Society is a stable system comprised of interdependent and interrelated parts.

➢ Culture functions to maintain this order and stability.
➢ It acts as the ‘glue’ between members of a society
➢ Cultural Universals are traits that are a characteristic of every society. E.g., Family
(Murdock), funeral rites and jokes.
➢ Culture facilitates the commonality of values ( a value consensus) which is imperative
if a society is to avoid anomie (chaos).

Critique

➢ Cultural stability ignores the impact of change.

➢ Cultural universals ignore the relevance of cultural diversity.
➢ Some cultural patterns dominate others reflecting the constant power struggle in
society.

2.Marxist/Conflict Theory

➢ Inequality and conflict are characteristic of society.

➢ One group usually dominates all others in society.
➢ ‘Common” values reflect the culture of the dominant class.
➢ Perpetuate inequalities and spread the doctrine of the false class consciousness.
➢ Lower class persons may try to develop their own culture, but attempts are stifled as
their culture is seen as inferior and non-productive.
➢ Culture is established in order to oppress members of a society.
➢ “Culture in its many forms may thus serve as a mechanism for encouraging people to
accept the existing social order uncritically as a means of winning consent”
(Macionis).

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 ➢ Inequality allows for change.

Critique

➢ Fails to identify the areas in society that promote integration.

3.Sociobiology

➢ Sociobiology argues that culture evolves naturally similar to how species evolve.
➢ Charles Darwin indicated that individuals will naturally change to adapt to the
environment in which they exist.
➢ Thus, culture is not learnt but develops instinctively. Culture is really an adaptation to
the environs of that society. For e.g., in the Caribbean because of the tropical location
we wear thin, cool clothing while in Alaska they wear bulky garments.
➢ Sociobiologists are of the opinion that cultural universals prevail in all societies
because people have the natural instinct to develop certain specific norms, values,
which facilitate their existences.

Critique

➢ Critics find fault in this theory because there is not sufficient information to support
the theory, and this theory can easily be used to defend the superiority of a particular
group.

THEORIES OF CARIBBEAN SOCIETY

1.Plantation Society

➢ The “Plantation Society” theory of culture argues that the Caribbean today operates
on the same basis it did during slavery, and thus our culture is largely shaped by the
same factors they were shaped by during slavery.
➢ George Beckford and Horowitz (1972) posits that the Caribbean society is still made
up of two groups; one large and unfree (usually the black masses) and one small free
group which is in total control of the society (the whites).
➢ The culture of the latter is the mainstream culture; it is seen as superior and is forced
on the masses.

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 ➢ The values of the white culture become the values of the entire society, and any
deviation from the mainstream culture by the masses is stifled.
➢ For example, speaking patios (largely spoken by the black masses and infused with
African words and slangs) is frowned up on, and all institutions demand the use of
standard English. Classical, standard English songs are seen as superior to the patois
ridden dancehall and reggae music (affectionately called “buggy yagga" by the
“haters”).
➢ Dancehall dress and dancing which is largely associated with the blacks is seen as
degrading and not fit for air play while carnival which is largely endorsed by the
whites in Jamaica is embraced and shown on national TV.

The Caribbean culture of modern day is similar to the days of the “Plantation Society” in
other ways as well:

➢ There is still a great division between the 'haves' and the 'have-nots.'
➢ There is still a pre-occupation with everything foreign, thus the demand for foreign
products is very high.
➢ There is still a dependence on foreign investments to aid development.
➢ Social stratification is based on factors such as race and colour (white is superior,
black inferior).

2.Plural Society

➢ M.G. Smith argues that there is no mainstream Caribbean culture and that division
between groups are much deeper than a small group forcing their culture on the
masses, which all society much share (Plantation Society).
➢ Instead, Smith argues that we live in a heterogeneous or “plural society”, with each
distinct racial group having its own culture and different versions/forms of the basic
institutions.
➢ He argued that due to slavery and indentureship, the Caribbean society is one made up
of various races, each of which holds on to its racial traditions as a means of identity.
For this reason, the society is heterogeneous. NB: - A society is heterogeneous when
the basic institutions (family religion, education) are not shared. If it is not
heterogeneous it is homogeneous.
➢ Thus, white families in the Caribbean are different from black families (white families
are usually nuclear, black families' single parent or extended).

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 ➢ The religion of the white groups is Catholicism while the black groups practice some
form of Protestantism.
➢ The Chinese and East Indian racial groups also have their own family types, religion,
etc.
➢ The lack of homogeneity in the Caribbean society renders it unstable as there is little
or no shared norms, values and beliefs.
➢ Additionally, there is much tension between the groups as walls are formed between
those like us and those who are not like us. - M.G. Smith.
➢ Plural societies are usually unstable.

Critiques of Plural Society

(a)Braithwaite

➢ The Caribbean is a plural society (simply because different racial groups exist)
➢ but they do share the same basic institutions (blacks have nuclear families as well as
whites, Chinese, etc., and almost all racial groups are Christian) thus society is
homogeneous.
➢ Though each racial group may have some sub cultural differences, there is still a
mainstream culture to which they all subscribe.
➢ Plural societies are not always unstable it can be culturally variable but nationally
unified- “black, whites and brown; but all still Jamaican."

(b)Carl Stone(1973)

➢ Jamaicans are not divided according to racial groups (as speculated by

➢ Plantation Society) or cultural groups (Plural Society).
➢ Instead, we are grouped according to occupational status and economic resources.
➢ People do not see themselves as a part of different cultural groups but as a part of
different classes.
➢ It is true however that different classes may have different practices, and that cultures
are class specific. But a class is not limited to any one race.

3.Creole Society(Created by Vernon Braithwaite)

➢ Braithwaite believes that each modern Caribbean society has its own culture (a Creole
culture) which is a combination of the cultures of al European, African and Asian
groups that inhabited each island.

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 ➢ Through a process called Creolization, Caribbean cultures have changed or time
adapting to and adopting the practices of its many inhabitants.
➢ Therefore, in each Caribbean society there now exists a syncretic/ creole culture
which is shared by all.
➢ This unique culture (Creole culture) is an amalgamation of the cultures of mainly the
white and black's past inhabitants and to a lesser extent the cultures of the East
Indians and the Chinese.
➢ The European culture is most dominant in the Caribbean creole culture, as during
slavery a process of acculturation took place where the European culture was forced
upon the slaves and to a lesser extent the indentured workers.
➢ Thus. the official language of many of the Caribbean countries is still that of its
European inhibitors and European religions and family practices are still very
pervasive.
➢ That being said, the African influence is still very strong, as is seen in the food, dance,
local tongue (patois) and religions in the Caribbean islands. This is so as although
acculturation took place, interculturation (where different groups in a society
influence each other's norms) took place as well, hence the norms of the Africans
were shared with the whites and the indentured servants.

CARIBBEAN POPULAR CULTURE

➢ Popular culture may include a range of expressions of creativity that are accessible to,
produced by, and enjoyed by the majority of a society.
➢ Popular culture has been one important means by which, even in days of colonialism
and slavery, people were able to express their identity.
➢ Popular culture helped to preserve parts of the heritage of the various ethnic that were
brought into the region.
➢ Caribbean popular culture in recent years is being marketed all over the world.
➢ Calypso, reggae, carnival, literature and steel pan have not gone unnoticed across the
globe.
➢ Popular culture used to be associated with the grassroots of society, however, within
recent times, a greater appreciation of Caribbean popular culture has developed.

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GLOBALIZATION AND CULTURE

Are we witnessing the birth of a single global culture?

Increasingly, the cultures of different societies are impacted by the global culture, thus
diminishing the differences between us and moving us toward one global culture. For e.g.,
jeans and gold jewellery are found almost everywhere. The process through which the
cultures of the world are becoming increasingly similar is called cultural levelling.

Activities which impact the movement towards the global culture:

➢ The Global Economy→ The flow of goods: There has never been more international
trade. The global economy has spread many of the same consumer goods (from cars
and TV shows to music and fashion) throughout the world.
➢ Global Communication→The flow of information: Satellite-based communication
enables people to experience the sights and sounds of events taking place thousands
of miles away, oftentimes as they are happening e.g., the Olympics.
➢ Global Migration→The flow of people: Knowing about the rest of the world
motivates people to move where they imagine life will be better. Moreover, today's
transportation technology, especially air travel, makes relocating easier than ever
before. As a result, in most countries significant numbers of people were born
elsewhere including some 30 million people who are now in the United States, 11 per
cent of the population).

Limitations To The Global Culture Thesis

Critics of the global culture have put forward the following criticisms of the global culture
thesis:

➢ People migrate to the large, wealthy Western countries; very few relocate to the
poorer nations. Thus, the flow of information and goods goes from the wealthy
nations to the poorer ones. The wealthy nations of North America and Western
Europe influence the culture of the others with little or no reciprocity (Jamaica is an
exception). Hence, the culture being produced is more a Western culture rather than a
global culture.

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 ➢ The global culture thesis assumes that people everywhere are able to afford various
new goods and services being traded internationally. "Third World countries that
experience extreme poverty can scarcely afford the necessities much less the global
brands characteristic of globalization. Hence there is no real sharing of the global
brands necessary for the existence of a global culture.
➢ Although many similar cultural practices are found throughout the world, people
everywhere do not attach the same meanings to them. And if symbols are not shared,
then the culture is not shared. For example, ‘locs' in Trinidad is largely seen as a hair
style but in Jamaica it should represent a particular way of life. In short, people
everywhere look at the world through their own cultural lenses and so though similar
are in fact very different.

CULTURE AND CHANGE

Causes of Cultural Change

1. Cultural Lag

➢ Occurs when one element of culture (usually the tangible element) changes faster or
before the intangible element. The result is a disruption in cultural system and usually
cultural change.
➢ William Oghurn (1964) observed that technology moves quickly, generating new
elements of material culture (such as test-tube babies) faster than non-material culture
(such ideas about parenthood, what a real child is) can keep up with them. The result
is cultural lag.
➢ However, changes in one dimension of a culture usually spark changes in others thou
not necessarily at the same time. For example, more and more persons are enquiring
about test tube babies, though not many are choosing it yet.

2.Value Contradictions

➢ When values conflict with one another or are mutually exclusive (achieving one
makes it difficult to achieve another). For example, the values of racism and
democracy are contradictory (democracy is all about equal rights) so one had to go.

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3.Cultural Diffusion

➢ This is the spread of cultural characteristics from one group to another or the spread
of cultural traits from one society to another. This borrowing of cultural traits from
another culture can be direct or indirect; it is voluntary and happens through factors
such as trade, inter-marriage and mass media.
➢ There are people who think that too much cultural diffusion takes away the distinctive
qualities of the native culture. The term cultural levelling refers to the process by
which cultures become similar to one another. One can travel to just about any corner
in the world and find a McDonald's or Coco Cola.

4.Acculturation and Inter-culturation

➢ Acculturation is the extensive changing of cultural traits of one group (usually

subordinate) by another, usually superior group. This is also called cultural
assimilation. In the Caribbean, colonialism led to the change of the culture of the
Africans via acculturation.
➢ The long term, close contact between groups also leads to the exchange of cultural
traits between groups in society (inter-culturation) and the emergence of a new
culture. This was also evidenced in the Caribbean during colonialism where some of
the norms of the Africans were shared with the whites.

5.Innovation

Innovation is the process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture. There are two forms
of innovation:

➢ Discovery
➢ Invention

(i)Discovery→Involves recognizing and better understanding something already in existence.

(ii)Invention→Refers to the process of creating new cultural elements. Invention has given
us the telephone, the airplane, and the computer, each of which has had a tremendous impact
on our way of life.

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SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS

Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

➢ Durkheim's study of suicide (1970) is one of the most popular studies of suicide to
this day and was an attempt by Durkheim to prove sociology could be studies in a
scientific manner.
➢ He started by sing official statistics on suicide (empirical data) which was widely
available in Europe.
➢ This study utilized a positivist methodology.

POSITIVISM vs INTERPRETIVISM

1.Positivism

➢ The positivist approach believes that social phenomena is similar to natural

phenomena and so emulates the research methods used by natural scientists.
➢ It looks at systems, structures, and institutions, viewing behaviour as largely the
product of forces outside our control. It posits that humans will have scientific
reactions to external stimuli based on their internalization of the society’s values.
➢ Thus, it argues that sociologists should study only what they can objectively see,
measure and count, and so uses methods that generate quantitative data.
➢ The researcher should avoid personal involvement and aim to produce value-free
evidence. Positivist thus value precision in measurement and specialize in
questionnaires, statistical analysis, standardized test and structured interviews.

2. Interpretivism

➢ The interpretive approach argues that social phenomena differ from natural
phenomena. It argues that individuals are active and conscious beings who act with
intention and purpose based on their interpretation of their social situation.
➢ These methods generate qualitative data – in other words, data that expresses how
people make sense of their social situations.
➢ There is recognition of subjectivity in analysis and main research methods used are
participant observations and open-ended interviews and discussions.

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TYPES OF DATA& RESEARCH

1.Quantitative Data→ Statistical numeric information/data.

2.Qualitative Data→ Narrative descriptive written information/data.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

➢ Quantitative data usually takes the form of statistical or numerical information.

➢ Sometimes this information is expressed in the form of rate, e.g., Crime rate.
➢ Durkheim believes that the analysis of statistical data can indicate both cause and
correlation.

Things To Consider

➢ Purpose of the research

➢ Sample size
➢ What data collection instrument will be used? In some cases where the sample is
large, researchers prefer to use questionnaires involving close ended questions.

Main Quantitative Research Methods

➢ Questionnaires
➢ Structured interviews
➢ Official Statistics

Advantages Of Quantitative Research

➢ The study is easily replicable.

➢ This method saves the researcher time and money (it is cost effective).
➢ It collects standard data.
➢ Data is easy to quantify
➢ Validity is enhanced by the use of large samples.
➢ It provides more objective data since the researchers may not have to interact with
➢ the respondents.

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Disadvantages OF Quantitative Research

➢ There is no indication about the respondents’ personal state of mind. For example,
their mood, attitude, feelings etc.
➢ Unrepresentative samples can sometimes be drawn thus leading to inaccurate and
invalid information.
➢ Generalizations of any kind may not apply to all people in all circumstances. For
example, not all crimes are committed by lower class citizens.

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

All researchers, regardless of their methodological persuasion, must follow ethical

procedures, some of which are:

➢ Obtain people’s consent to participate in the study. Permission must be sought to

record interviews.
➢ Emphasize confidentiality and ensure anonymity. Use pseudonyms where possible.
➢ Participation in and/or knowledge of dangerous and illegal activities implicitly
sanctions bad behaviour.
➢ Be aware to people’s right to privacy. This is a dilemma for covert participant
observers .
➢ Researchers must be aware of the sensitive nature of the topic under study. Dobash
and Dobash used female interviewers for their research on women who had suffered
domestic violence.
➢ Avoid misrepresentation of events. Results should not be manipulated to prove
hypotheses or enhance careers.
➢ Offer special care to those who may feel threatened due to age, status or
powerlessness.
➢ Be aware that funding agencies may set conditions as well as criteria for findings.
➢ Inform respondents of the results of the study, especially if requested. Results must
be truthful and accurate.
➢ Avoid plagiarism. Ensure that research is collected independently.

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SAMPLING

Sample: A group of people selected from the population who are deemed to be representative
of the population from which they are drawn( that is, they have the same characteristics as
those of the population or are selected in proportion to their numbers in the population.

Sampling Frame: Usually drawn from the population and it comprises of sampling units
possessing the social characteristics relevant to the research. For example, social class,
background, religious affiliation and educational attainment.

Population: All the individuals who make up a particular society, group or organization with
a wide range of social characteristics such as sex, religion, age and social class.

SAMPLNG METHODS/TYPES OF SAMPLES

REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES

1.Random Sampling

➢ This means that everyone in the population has an equal chance of appearing in the
sample, thus ensuring the sample is unbiased.

2.Simple Random Sampling

➢ This involves selecting people through the use of a random number generator on a
computer to come up with the required number. Alternatively, there is a systematic
random sampling where every 10th, 20th name on a list( such as the electoral register)
can be selected, depending on the sample size needed.

3.Stratified Random Sampling

➢ This divides the research population into a number of strata based on what are
regarded as significant variables, such as gender, age, ethnicity or class.
➢ Samples are then randomly drawn from each of the strata and combined to form the
final sample.
➢ Stratified sampling allows the researcher to ensure that all potential target groups with
a population are represented in the final sample, and that all variables considered
potentially important are covered.
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4.Cluster Sampling

➢ This can be used whenever no sampling frame is readily available.

➢ It is based on identifying a number of clusters in the population, such as schools or
classes within schools, and then selecting individuals from within these clusters.
➢ This is quicker than random sampling but may of course be biased.
➢ The pre-selection of clusters means that not every individual has an equal chance of
being selected.

5.Multi-Stage Random Sampling

➢ This involves the selection of a sample through various stages.

➢ Each stage involves the selection of a sample from the previous sample chosen, until
the researcher arrives at a list of individuals.
➢ Though an easy and cost-effective sampling method, it can lead to issues of
representativeness.

6.Spatial Sampling

➢ This involves the study of participants at a particular event(such as a demonstration or

open-air concert), with individuals chosen randomly from those assembled there.
➢ This is a highly targeted method which ensures that only applicable respondents are
chosen.

NON-REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING

There are, however, times when the researcher might want to select a sample that is not
representative of the population, in other words, a non-representative sample.

1.Accidental Sampling

➢ This involves the selection of all individuals the researcher happens to come in
contact within a given period.
➢ Usually, the aim with this sampling method is to obtain qualitative data.

2.Purposive Sample

➢ This involves the selection of people on the basis that they are likely to be relevant to
the subject being studied.

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 ➢ This means that the sample reflects judgements made by the researcher, making it
biased.

3.Volunteer Sampling

➢ This is based on people volunteering to be studied( they answer advertisements,

leaflets, posters or radio/TV appeals).
➢ This yields useful information (since those involved are committed to the result),
though it is not remotely representative.

4.Quota Sampling

➢ This resembles stratified sampling but instead of choosing randomly from strata
within the population, the researcher sets a quota precisely outlining the number of
people meeting certain criteria that are to be included in the sample.
➢ So, for example, it might include the first twenty white women who appear to be
under 30 who pass by.
➢ This tends to be the basis of national political opinion polls and market research.

5.Snowball Sampling

➢ In the case of snowball sampling, researchers start with very few people and ask them
for recommendations of further people to interview that fit the criteria of the study.
➢ When interviewing these people, the same procedure is applied and gradually a
sample is built up.
➢ It is a method often associated with participant observation.

RESEARCH METHODS

1.SOCIAL SURVEYS

Social surveys are usually large-scale research projects that collect standardized data from a
large cross section of the population. A government census is a good example. Censuses,
however, are based on the entire population, whereas sample surveys are based on a sample
of the population.

There are three(3) main types of surveys:

1.Descriptive

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 ➢ This collects quantitative data.
➢ The questions are usually close-ended and allow the researcher the opportunity to
make correlations about social phenomena.

2.Attitude Surveys

➢ This asks manly close ended questions that attempt to find out people’s feelings or
opinion about a party, political figure or brand of food.
➢ The Jamaica Gleaner has been known to conduct polls concerning the voting
intentions of the Jamaican electorate.
➢ The St. Augustine Research Agency(SARA) also conducts attitudinal surveys about
the spiralling crime rate, racial equality and equity in employment and the relative
popularity of prominent political figures.

3.Explanatory

➢ This type of survey, unlike the first two, seeks answers that require more than a
simple yes or no response. Respondents are given the opportunity to clarify their
feelings in greater depth.
➢ Some Weberians have made extensive use of explanatory surveys.

Advantages of Social Surveys

➢ It allows sociologists to understand the world from the respondents’ point of view.
➢ They are valid because the data is collected from a large cross section of the
population.
➢ The data can be used to make generalizations about the behaviour of society as a
whole.
➢ Statistical techniques can be used to analyse the data, thus saving the researcher time.
➢ The selection of representative(unbiased) samples saves the researcher the time of
having to find all individuals with relevant information.
➢ The research is easily replicable (especially by other researchers). The reliability pf
the survey is thus easy to verify.

Disadvantages of Social Surveys

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 ➢ The data can be invalid if a representative sample was not selected.
➢ Once a questionnaire is used, the researcher will suffer the same disadvantages( that
is, problems of validity).

2.QUESTIONNAIRES

A questionnaire is a number of pre-set standard questions that can contain open-ended or

close-ended questions and is designed to garner statistical information.

The steps in constructing a questionnaire are summarized below:

1. Operationalize the key terms and concepts and break them down into measurable
terms.
2. Formulate questions based on each sub-topic.
3. Once the questionnaire is constructed, the researcher might decide to test it before
conducting the survey. This is referred to as a pilot study (where a small group of
people with similar characteristics to those of the target sample answer the
questions). Based on their responses ,the researcher can determine a number of facts
about the questions, for example, the suitability of the wording, and the amount of
non-response.

The Advantages of Questionnaires

➢ They are usually easy to administer.

➢ They can be used to reach a large number of people even if they are geographically
dispersed(for example, the mailed questionnaire can do this.).
➢ They save the researcher time since a large number can be administered
simultaneously.
➢ It is not costly to produce a large number of questionnaires.
➢ The data can be easily tabulated, measured and analysed.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

1.What is gained in reliability may be lost in terms of validity for the following reasons:

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 ➢ The wording may or may not intentionally, mislead the respondent.
➢ The researcher’s bias affects what he deems as important in formulating the
questionnaire.
➢ Respondents left to themselves may be noncommittal about the questions. They may
thus lie or treat the issue too lightly.
➢ The close-ended questionnaire may force a respondent to choose an answer that does
not quite capture his feelings about the issue. YES/NO, TRUE/FALSE choices
encourage this.
➢ Respondents may lie, forget, or lack information. The latter creates a case known as
missing data.

2.Postal questionnaires have a low rate of return (usually less than 50 percent) and may be
filled out by someone other than the intended recipient.

3.OFFICIAL STATISTICS

➢ Official statistics are a secondary source of data.

➢ Unlike questionnaires and social surveys, the researcher relies upon other people to
collect the data.
➢ Statistics are numerical information about human behaviour.
➢ They are called official because they are usually collected by the government or
another agency empowered to do so.
➢ For instance, The Central Statistical Office (CSO) of Trinidad and Tobago collects
demographic, census and economic data.

Advantages of Official Statistics

➢ They save the researcher time since these provide a readily available source of data.
➢ The conclusions drawn are objective (free from bias as there is no interaction with the
respondents).
➢ The researcher can generalize because statistics can cover data for a large number of
people.
➢ The researcher can understand the nature of social change by comparing statistics of
different times.

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 ➢ The researcher can use statistics to gain a deeper understanding of human
relationships.

Disadvantages of Official Statistics

1. Like all other secondary sources, official statistics can produce invalid data because
producers may be biased in collecting the data.

(a) Crime statistics may be biased because:

➢ Police officers may record some crimes and not others.

➢ Economic statistics such as unemployment and inflation rates may be influenced by
government officials who may wish to give the impression that policies are working.

2.The validity of some official statistics such as criminal statistic, may be lowered because
people may not always report crimes considered too trivial. In addition, some victims may
fear the police or reprisal. There is always a “dark figure”.

3.Technological developments like DNA analysis and camera surveillance) may make it
appear that there are more crimes taking place now. Thus, it may be difficult for researchers
to compare past and present statistics.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research methods include the following primary or secondary forms:

➢ Unstructured Interviews (Primary)

➢ Participant observation (Primary)
➢ Case studies (Secondary)
➢ Documents (Secondary)

Qualitative research collects subjective data such as information about people's emotions,
feelings and values. The researcher usually interacts directly with respondents that is, face to
face or by actually joining in their everyday activities.

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1.The Unstructured Interview

➢ The unstructured interview is a face-to-face interactive process in which a researcher

tries to get as much useful information (as possible) from a respondent or a number of
respondents. It can take the form of a one-on-one session interview or a number of
sessions that seek to explore the topic further.
➢ It is important that the researcher gains the respondents' trust. Factors such as the
social class, sex or ethnicity of the interviewer can influence the level of trust. W.
Labov reported that black children did not trust white interviewers as much as they
did black interviewers. Feminists insist that women are best suited to interview other
women, especially in cases of rape, assault or intimidation (by male perpetrators).
➢ Interviewers can either employ a directive or non-directive approach. H. Becker
admitted to the use of persuasive tactics (the directive approach) to get teachers to
acknowledge their positive perception of middle-class students.

The Advantages of Unstructured Interviews

1.It offers validity by doing the following:

➢ The researcher can detect lies or inconsistencies in the interviewee's accounts by

observing facial reactions or body language.
➢ Misunderstandings can be clarified.
➢ The researcher can understand the world from the respondent's point of view Jock
Young, in his study of marijuana users, found out that the youths started to see
themselves in terms of the police perception of them
➢ The researcher can gain information that he never thought about asking because there
are no set questions. Such was the case of Elizabeth Bott who found that conjugal
relations were affected by spouses' social networks.

2.They may be the most practical research technique for exploring specific issues. A
questionnaire completed by a rape victim provides limited amounts of data ,but an
unstructured interview can help the interviewer understand the victim’s experiences.

3.Because small samples are used the unstructured interview can be useful for challenging or
refuting already existing theories. For example, Ann Oakley interviewed her respondents in
order to dispute Young and Willmott's claim that by 1970 the working-class family had
become symmetrical (that is, more sharing of housework, childcare and decision making).

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Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews

➢ The validity of the data can be reduced (that is, made invalid) by the observer

effect' - this occurs when the presence of the interviewer influences or inhibits the
interviewee. They may provide responses that they believe the researchers want to

hear.

➢ The responses given may not be accurate and may not reflect real behaviour.
➢ Respondents may lie, forget or lack the information required. To give a simple
example, some of the criminals interviewed by Laurie Taylor (1984) later con fessed
that they had made up fanciful stories about their escapades in order to see
how gullible Taylor was.
➢ Critics of questionnaire data have pointed that interviewees may not act in accordance
with stated beliefs. When reflecting on past events they may alter their interpretation
in the light of subsequent experience.
➢ Interviews are artificial so Cicourel has asked whether they 'capture the daily life,
conditions, opinions, values, attitudes, and knowledge base of those we study as
expressed in their natural habitat.'

2.Participant Observation

Participant observation is a research method which allows the researcher to conduct his
research by joining the group he is studying and observing their behaviour. It can be overt or
covert.

Overt – Respondents are aware that the researcher has joined the group to conduct a study .

Covert - Respondents are unaware that research is taking place.

Advantages of Participant Observation

➢ Compared to other research techniques it is least likely to lead to

sociologists imposing their views on those they are studying.

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 ➢ It provides the best means of obtaining valid pictures of social reality. For e.g., with a
structured interview or a questionnaire, sociologists have already decided what is
there to be found out but in participant observation, they go to find out what is there.
➢ It allows you to ask questions about what is seen and thus make new discoveries.
➢ It provides a clear, first-hand picture of the 'life of ordinary people, on their grounds
and on their terms' as said by Liebow when he studied black men on corners.
➢ In participant observation, it is also more difficult for the people being studied to lie
or mislead the researcher than it is in other research methods. The researcher is on the
spot and witness actual behaviour rather than relying upon people's accounts of their
lives.
➢ Closeness of the relationship developed with the researcher and respondents lead to
more truthful responses.
➢ Participant observation is a particularly appropriate method for symbolic
interactionists because researchers experience many of the same events as the
observed; they are better able to put themselves in their position and to understand
why they interact with others in particular ways. For example, Pryce felt that
participant observation allowed him to understand and explain the subjective views of
some West Indians in Bristol. He said, “There is a tendency to either ignore or
disregard the subjective feelings of members of the West Indian minority: One of
those subjective feelings was the belief of some that there was no point in trying to
earn a living through ordinary employment, which was dismissed as “slave labour'
and ‘shit work' (Pryce, 1979).
➢ Participant observation studies are often carried out over an extended period of time
and it is therefore possible to study the process through which changes happen.
➢ It is the best means of studying interaction as it is most times difficult for respondents
to describe or articulate their relationship with each other.
➢ Participant observation may be the most practical method for studying deviant or
secret groups and activities such as gangs and homosexuality. The covert form allows
the researcher the opportunity to gain information that would not be obtained from
open methods like unstructured interviews and questionnaires.

Disadvantages of Participant Observation

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1. The validity of data may be compromised in the following situations:

➢ The covert observer may forget about information when making secret recordings
(that is, in his field notes).
➢ The covert observer may provide his/her own interpretations of the group's behaviour
because asking for clarification may reveal the researcher's identity.
➢ Overt observation is likely to produce the ‘observer effect' since the participants may
change their behaviour once under the scrutiny of the observer.

2. The data lacks reliability because:

➢ The study takes a long time to he completed, thus social changes such as further
education or maturation may change the social outlook of the group. This makes it
impossible to study the group again.
➢ There is no standardized way to observe people's behaviour. Sociologists will use
their own observational techniques.

Participant observation is costly and time consuming. The researcher takes very long to
collect valid data, and this may prove too expensive for the researcher especially if
sponsorship is inadequate.

At this stage you should realise that in the use of the covert or overt research form of
participant observation, what is gained in validity is lost in terms of reliability.

3. Non-Direct Observation

This involves the researcher being completely detached from the group under observation. It
is effective in experimental situations where people are observed under laboratory-like
conditions. A good example of this is the observation of Hawthorne workers' attitude to
changes in their physical environment. A similar situation involves examining people's
behaviour from the outside under laboratory conditions.

Advantages of Non-Direct Observation

➢ The data is more objective than data obtained from participant observation
because the researcher's presence does not influence the group's behaviour.

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Disadvantages of Non-Direct Observation

➢ The validity of the data is compromised by the fact that the researcher draws
conclusions about people's behaviour with whom he did not interact (that is, his
findings may result from personal interpretation or guesswork).
➢ Putting people under laboratory conditions creates artificiality (that is, people are
aware that their behaviour is to be observed).

4. Documents

Documents contain information usually represented in a qualitative form. There are two main
types of documents:

➢ Personal
➢ Historical

Personal documents include letters, diaries, biographies and autobiographies. However,

historical documents are usually in formation written by people who lived during a particular
era. For example, Columbus's log, or accounts by plantation bookkeepers or owners.

Documents, unlike unstructured interviews and observation are secondary data sources. The
data already exists and hence it saves time for the sociologist.

The Advantages of Documents

➢ Documents save the researcher time and money.

➢ They provide insights into aspects of life which sociologists would otherwise have no
access to. For example, diaries can provide information about the individual's private
life that he would not easily disclose (we can see the world through the eyes of the
producer).
➢ Documents may be the most practical method of studying past events. For example,
we will rely on documents to help us understand the social and economic history of
the Caribbean.
➢ The information from documents can be used to measure the extent of social change.
For example, planters' log entries can help us understand how social jus tice has
increased since slavery.

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The Disadvantages of Documents

➢ The main disadvantages of documents are the invalidity and unreliability of the data.
➢ The data may be invalid because of producer bias. People may deliberately falsity
information especially if they know that their writing will attract an audience.
➢ Information from old documents may be difficult to read and some may contain
missing pages. This affects the usefulness of the document for drawing conclusions.
➢ Some types of documents may be extremely difficult to access (that is, they may be
lost, mis-placed or stolen).

SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

What is a Science?

Science has been defined as ‘a body of systematically arranged knowledge that shows the
operation of general laws’ (Tischler 2002). According to Comte, human behaviour is
governed by the same laws of cause and effect as those that pertained to the study of the
natural sciences. Further, he believed that this behaviour was measurable. In particular,
behaviour such as crime, marriage, divorce and church attendance are easily measurable via
rates.

According to Giddens (1986), science is the use of systematic methods of research and
investigation and the logical analysis of arguments in order to develop an understanding of a
particular subject matter. Many sociologists believe that sociology resembles a science in its
approaches and procedures. The key concept ‘systematic’ refers to a step-by-step procedure
that is easily replicated.

Sociology possesses characteristics that allow us to identify it as a science:

(1) It is Empirical

Sociological knowledge is based on solid evidence that has been acquired by objective (bias
free) procedures. Sociological research follows the steps of the scientific method. In order for
information to be empirical, it has to be based on facts obtained through various methods of
investigation. These methods are inclusive of questionnaires, surveys, interviews and
observations.

(2) It is Theoretical

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The data obtained by research are used to formulate theories, which are models that attempt
to explain various social phenomena such as issues of family life and educational attainment.
According to Schaefer and Lamm (1998), ‘a theory is a set of statements that seeks to explain
problems, actions or behaviour. An effective theory may have both explanatory and
predictive power.’ In sociology we have different theoretical perspectives (that is, different
approaches to the study of the same phenomena).

(3) It is Cumulative

The sociologist builds upon the efforts of his/her predecessors. Most new theories develop,
modify, expand and refine the older ones. Its cumulative nature implies that new knowledge
continuously builds upon what is already known. Durkheim built on ideas of society as an
organism, first developed by Herbert Spencer. He showed how the different institutions are
interconnected in greater detail than did Spencer.

(4) It is Objective

The sociologist tries to be dispassionate and unbiased at all times and his/her values, and
personal preferences should not be allowed to influence the research. However, in
contemporary times, most sociologists recognize that this is almost impossible to attain.
Some go so far as to say that subjectivity makes the quality of data richer.

(5) It is ‘Value-Free’

Scientific research should simply discover and report the truth rather than offer moral
judgements or commentary on social life. Research that is non-ethical must be objective. The
sociologist must therefore prevent personal values and beliefs from influencing his/her work.
In studying society, the facts obtained by research must be accurately reported and not
distorted to agree with the researcher’s feelings, preferences and emotions. Sociology studies
human social behaviour, which is sometimes abstract, changing, and not always easy to
measure. Sociology has developed approaches to overcome this problem. The term
‘empirical’ indicates that sociology is based on facts and not on value judgements, emotions
or even opinions. Empiricism restricts knowledge to the domain of experience and establishes
that knowledge should be based on experience. The theory underlying sociology is based on
observation, and even inquiry. Comte, Locke and Bacon advocated empiricism. Opposing
empiricism is another philosophy known as rationalism, which advocates that the mind
recognizes reality by means of reason. Advocates of this school of thought were philosophers

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such as René Descartes. Immanuel Kant, another philosopher, believed that there should be a
compromise between empiricism and rationalism, which would limit knowledge to the
domain of the experience and, at the same time, integrate sensations into that experience.
Based on the foregoing discussion, one may conclude that if sociology is empirical,
theoretical, cumulative, objective and non-ethical, then it possesses the major characteristics
of a science However, there are those who are of the opinion that the study of sociology
should be conducted in a much different manner to the natural sciences. This school of
thought is of the view that since the subject matter of sociology is the study of communities
and societies, sociology cannot be studied in the same manner as the study of matter, and
therefore the laws of the natural sciences cannot be applied to the study of people.
Phenomenologists and ethnomethodologists adopt this view and call for the use of humanistic
methods (qualitative methods, such as participant observation and unstructured interviews).
Some theorists call for a middle ground with a combination of both approaches. Ralf
Dahrendorf, writing about Max Weber in his essay ‘Max Weber and Modern Social Science’,
has been quoted as saying that Weber was of the opinion that ‘statements of fact are one
thing, statements of value another, and any confusing of the two is impermissible.’ It is not
known where Max Weber stood on objectivity, but it is widely believed by many that Weber
was advocating a two-tiered approach

Positivists

Durkheim & Comte- Sociology can be studied as a science as long as it follows the
scientific methodology, which is:

➢ Studies only observable phenomena - nothing cognitive, as they cannot be measured

or properly understood.
➢ It is empirical - statistical data.
➢ It is objective – the researcher is detached from those being studied and is not
influenced by his personal beliefs or that of others - totally unbiased.
➢ It is accumulative - this allows for the accumulation of a body of knowledge, that is,
new knowledge is added to what is already known.
➢ It is theoretical – the data obtained by research is used to formulate theories that seek
to explain social phenomena.

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 ➢ It is value free - it should only discover and report the truth and not give moral
judgment and commentary.

1. Interpretive theorists

➢ Sociology cannot be studied as a science as humans have consciousness and thus will
not always react in the same manner to external stimuli. This is unlike non-living
things studied in natural sciences. There can therefore be no universal law of human
behaviour.
2. Weber

➢ Weber adds that it is impossible to study sociology scientifically as to study human

behaviour one must practice 'verstehen' which includes 'placing oneself in the
respondents’ shoes. It is only through this process that the researcher can fully
understand human actions and the meanings behind them. The practice of 'verstehen'
eliminates the objectivity necessary for scientific study.

3. Phenomenologist –> Atkinson and Cicourel

➢ Sociology cannot be studied scientifically as there can be no objectivity. Even with

the statistical data promoted by the positivists scientific methodology the information
gathered is subjective. This is so, as the process of gathering statistical data is
influenced by the perception of the person collating and analysing the data. They add
that observable phenomena is not important as only through the analysis of meanings
and interpretations can we understand human behaviour.

4. Kaplan

➢ Sociology can't be studied using the methods the positivists mentioned above as there
is no objectivity. In fact, no science can be objective as they don't use 'reconstructed
logics' (methods of research they claim to use) but “logics in use” (methods actually
used) instead. He gives the example of Michael Lynch's observation of scientists in a
laboratory studying rats. These scientists dismissed the anomalies in the rats’ brains as
they were being influenced by their pre-set perceptions. Thus, they ignored their
reconstructed knowledge that asked for objectivity and resorted to their subjective
logic in use.

5.Thomas Kuhn

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 ➢ Sociology can't be studied using the methods the positivists mentioned above as there
is no objectivity. In fact, no science can be objective as researchers are influenced by
their paradigm, or in the words of Gouldner their domain assumptions (taken for
granted beliefs). The researcher's paradigm determines his topics, the research
methods chosen, and the conclusions reached. Thus, the researcher seeks to “show the
known, not to uncover the unknown.” Kuhn adds that the accepted paradigm may be
wrong which will lead to incorrect conclusions and distorted data.

6.Realist

➢ Sociology is very similar to natural sciences and so should be considered a science.

Like sociology, some sciences such as medicine and geology deal with unobservable
phenomena like viruses and gravity. Similarly, there are many other natural sciences
like sociology which are unable to predict with certainty. For ex ample, a
meteorologist is not always able to predict the weather. Thus, as long as sociology
uses the scientific methodology it can be considered a science.

7.Gomm

➢ Gomm claims that there can be no objectivity in research as researchers and their
conclusions are guided by the social context of the era and those providing the
funding for the research. Thus, Darwin's theory was popular in its day because it
advocated competition and stratification in a budding capitalist society.

8.Feminism

➢ Feminists believe that sociology and all other sciences are not objective as they are
controlled by men and thus uphold male values.

9.Postmodernists

➢ Postmodernists state that there is no such thing as a science as science denotes the
presence of facts which denotes the presence of truth and there is no universal truth.

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 In the modern world facts are the opinions of the majority, and truth is what is most
easily sold.

DURKHEIM'S STUDY OF SUICIDE → A PROOF OF POSITIVIST

METHODOLOGY

➢ Durkheim’s study of suicide (1970) is one of the most popular studies of suicide to
this day and was an attempt by Durkheim to prove that sociology could be studied in a
scientific manner.
➢ He started by using official statistics on suicide (empirical data) which was widely
available in Europe.
➢ From his analysis of those statistics, he was able to identify co-relations (various
casual relationships between independent factors and suicide (the dependent factor);
for example, he found that there was a correlation between the independent factor’s
religion and suicide, and also that there was a correlation between education and
suicide.
➢ Staying true to positivist methodology, which states that the methods of natural
sciences should be used in the study of sociology, Durkheim employed multi variate
analysis (which is a method widely used by natural scientists) to establish causation
between the independent variables identified and their relationship with the suicide
rate.
➢ A multivariate analysis is a tool used to test each correlation in a bid to prove which
independent variable has the strongest relationship with the dependent variable (in
this case suicide) and therefore prove that it is not just associated with it, but actually
causes it.
➢ From his multivariate analysis. Durkheim concluded that suicide was caused from two
main factors. These two factors are integration (or a lack of integration) in society and
society's regulation (or a lack of regulation) of the individual.

MODULE 2→SOCIETAL INSTITUTIONS(FAMILY, RELIGION, EDUCATION)

FAMILY

Introduction

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 ➢ Family is the backbone of society, a pre-requisite for societal stability and a symbol of
our humanity.
➢ Family- the family is a social group characterized by common residence economic
cooperation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes at least two of whom
maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children owned or
adopted by the sexually cohabiting adults. ( George Peter Murdock 1949).

Nuclear Family

➢ Also called cereal package family.

➢ Dominant type of family across the world and is seen as the ideal family type.
➢ Only universal family type and the only functional unit that exist ( George Murdock).
➢ In the Caribbean it is seen as the ideal but not the most popular.

Reasons The Nuclear Family Is Seen As Ideal

It is enriched in the Christian doctrine of marriage taught during colonialism that man

should leave his mother and cling to his wife.

Talcott Parson argues that the nuclear family best fits modern industrial societies such as

the Caribbean island for the following reasons:

➢ Geographic mobility- In industrial societies, it is necessary to be geographically

mobile so that one can easily move to find employment.
➢ Extended families Are Obsolete- In pre- industrial times extended family members
were needed to provide important functions for the family such as education, security
etc.

However, with the evolution of specialized institutions such as schools, police stations and
hospitals, the extended family members are no longer needed to perform these functions. The
family can therefore exist without them and can live in a nuclear form.

Conflict of Status In Extended Families-With industrialization cane the evolution of

“achieved status”. However, extended families are largely still based on ascribed status. Thus,
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in an extended family where the adult child has achieved a higher status than his parent, there
would be conflict of status as no one is sure which status is superior.

Murdock argues that in modern societies like the Caribbean, the nuclear family is the only
unit that provides the functions necessary for the family's survival. All other units are broken
or watered-down versions of the nuclear family and are not equipped to produce well
socialized, economically looked after children and stable sexually satisfied parents.

Arguments Against The Nuclear Family

➢ R.D Laing argues that the nuclear family is not beneficial to either its members or the
society.
➢ He argues that the tight knit nature of the nuclear family leads to conflict among
members as each yearns for love and attention and in such a small group there is just
not enough attention to go around.
➢ The family members internalize the conflicts that happen in the family and walk
around with it every day.
➢ Additionally, family members are so preoccupied with family conflicts that they
become angry citizens which lead to crime and violence in society.
➢ Edmund Leach argues that nuclear families are too small and private to handle the
pressures of an industrial society.
➢ He believes that family members look to each other for love and support but in a
small nuclear unit, there are not enough members to bear the problems of each family
member. Thus “the family is like an overloaded socket where parents fight and
children rebel”
➢ If the family was extended and a child's parents were too busy to deal with his issue,
then he could simply go to an uncle or a grandparent for the support needed.

Extended Family

➢ Extended families are described simply as family units which is larger than nuclear
unit. They may include members from the same or different generations and can be
extended to in laws.

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Types of Extended Families

1.Vertical/Consanguine Family –includes one, two or even three generation of families.

2.Horizontal Family- includes siblings and their spouses within a household.

Reconstituted Family – these are formed through the union of persons who were

previously married ( Brady Bunch).

Reasons For The Prevalence Of Extended Families

➢ Economic Reasons- In poor, Caribbean countries like Jamaica, citizens find that it’s
cheaper to live together in extended form where bills, rent, etc. can be shared. This
point is shared by international theorist Michael Anderson.
➢ Extended families also have the luxury of shared services; thus, a grandmother can
babysit a child while the parents go to work. This diminishes the burden of everyday
life.
➢ Elizabeth Roberts argues that persons live in extended families out of moral duty and
obligations. For example, persons will often “take in” a poor or orphaned relation or
an elderly relative because they feel they “ought to”
➢ The culture of particular racial groups facilitates extended families. For example, the
Indians and the Chinese have a long heritage of extended families and hold them in
high regard.

PERSPECTIVES OF THE FAMILY

1.Functionalist Perspective

(a) George Peter Murdock

➢ The family has four (4) major functions – economic, sexual and reproductive and
educational/ socialization.
➢ These functions are beneficial to the individual and the society as well. For example,
the educational/socialization functions for society by providing consensus therefore
ensuring there is stability and no chaos, and it functions for the individual by teaching
him how to behave so he or she won’t be an outcast.

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 ➢ The sexual function is functional for the individuals in the family by strengthening the
conjugal bond between husband and wife, therefore making the home a happier place.
It functions for society by reducing promiscuity as adults who are getting sex at home
will not seek sexual gratification outside the home.
➢ The economic function is functional for the individuals as it ensures that their needs
are satisfied. Additionally, both spouses enjoy a safety net as they can depend on the
other for economic support. It is beneficial for society as it relieves the state of the
burden of financing all its citizens.

(b) Talcott Parsons

➢ The family has two (2) basic functions: Primary socialization and the Stabilization of
adult personality.
➢ During primary socialization, the child develops his personality, and a major part of
his identity. The child learns who he is and who he ought to be from his parents.
Consequently, many children grow up to be similar to their parents.
➢ The family acts as a stabilizer for its adults' members by providing love, stress relief
and sex. The industrial society is harsh, and the family acts as a source of refuge so
they can mentally recharge.
➢ They are also given the chance to live their dreams through their children. Many
adults get a chance to re live /their lives vicariously through their children. This
reduces their anxiety and frustration from not being all they wanted to be.

2.Social Pathology

➢ This perspective developed in the Caribbean has similar views to that of the
functionalist.
➢ The approach was followed by the West Indian Royal Commission of 1937.
➢ They concluded in their findings that man in West Indian Society was not viewed as
the head of the household.
➢ It also identified the woman as the supporter of the home and claimed that
promiscuity and illegitimacy were prevalent.

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Characteristics of A Caribbean Family According To Social Pathologists

➢ Family life was seen as loose and unstable, and relationships appeared to be casual.
➢ Conjugal ties were occasionally faithful and enduring but were more often
promiscuous and transitory.
➢ The fathers contact with children was irregular and because of poverty he was usually
unable to provide economic support.
➢ Children were illegitimate, effectively fatherless, unschooled and subject to severe
parental discipline.
➢ The crisis in Caribbean family life brought with it a range of social problems. The
deviances of society are attributable to the inadequacies and weakness of the family.
➢ There was therefore a need to persuade people to adopt the superior co-residential,
nuclear family sanctioned by marriages and producing legitimate offspring.
➢ Policies had to be implemented to try to alter the structure of Caribbean families. It
was felt that this would result in the moral and social well-being of Caribbean
societies; for example, an island wide campaign to encourage marriages in Jamaica.

3.International Feminist Perspectives

(a) Margaret Benson (Marxist Feminist)

➢ Women are exploited by the capitalist system as they perform domestic labour for
which they are not paid. The domestic labour performed by females ensure that males
who toil in the capitalist economy have a comfortable home to return to. This is
important as work in a capitalist society is alienating and frustrating and the man
leaves each day angry and willing to initiate the much needed proletariat revolution.
➢ However, once they get home, the woman ensures that he is comfortable, by
providing a clean home, a good meal and all the sex he needs. The domestic and
sexual services the woman provides de stresses him, thwarts his anger and postpones
his desires to revolt.
➢ Hence, the domestic and sexual labour of females provide society with de stressed,
male labourers whose productivity increase the profit of the capitalist. Yet the woman
is not paid, hence she is being exploited.

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(b)Margaret Benston (1972)

➢ The amount of unpaid labour performed by woman is very large and very profitable to
those who own the means of production. At present, the support of the family is a
hidden tax on the wage earner- his wage buys the labour power of two people.
➢ The family also promotes and protects the capitalist system by ensuring the males
cannot withdraw their labour. As breadwinners in the family, he cannot leave his job
as his family may starve, thus he is forced to stay in his job though he may wish to
withdraw his labour.
➢ When husbands go to their exploitive jobs, they often come home stressed and angry,
this frustration is directed at their wives through domestic and sexual abuse.

(c)Fran Ansley

➢ When wives play their traditional role as “takers of shit” they often absorb their
husband’s legitimate anger and frustration at their own powerlessness and oppression.
With every worker provided with a sponge to soak up his possibly revolutionary ire,
the bosses rest more secure.

(d)Dianne Feely and Cooper

➢ Wives also indoctrinate their children in sub ordinance which produce the docile
attitude necessary for working in the exploitive capitalist system.

4.Radical Feminist

(a)Leonard and Delphey

➢ The family is an economic unit in which all members work for the head of the
household –the male. The male is seen as the head of the household even if the wife
earns more than he does.
➢ Labour and payment in the household is determined by gender, with the domestic
burden borne mostly by the female. Females are however, paid very little ( if any at
all) by their husbands for the work they do.
➢ The sons are seen as superior to the daughters in the homes and many times daughters
have to perform domestic labour for sons.

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(b) Laura M. Purdy

➢ Women are exploited daily by men in the family as they are often times dependent on
them financially. This dependence is further facilitated by motherhood which ties the
woman to the home and makes her more dependent on the father.
➢ Women can only escape the exploitation of family life if they go on “baby strike.”
Without motherhood, they will no longer be tied to be home or so dependent on their
male counterparts.

(c) Germaine Greer

➢ Women are exploited by the males in the family- not only as wives, but also as sisters
and daughters. They are sexually, physically and emotionally abused.
➢ The only means of escaping this oppression is for women to do away with families
and live in all-female communes.

(d) Jennifer Summerville

➢ For the most part, women are disappointed with men and how females are treated in
the family. Still, they desire men, marriage and family life, and so the family will
always exist.
➢ However, family life is threatened and made more uncomfortable for women by a
capitalist economy still based on employees (usually males) spending long hours at
work.
➢ For family life to become more stable and equitable, government policies need to
make work more family friendly.

(e) Ann Oakley

➢ The modern woman does not live in a symmetrical family as purported by Yong and
Wilmott (1973). Instead, the modern woman must bear “triple burden” (2008).

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 ➢ Women still bear the majority of the domestic burden as a man's view of helping out
in the house is playing with the children. All the real work is done by the woman.
➢ The woman also has or shares the economic burden as most women now work or
worked for a period in their lives.
➢ Finally, women have the emotional burden of keeping the family together. All events
the family hosts or takes part in are organized by the woman. She is responsible for
keeping the relationship between herself and her spouse going. She also has the bur
den of keeping the peace in her house. The man simply has to exist.
➢ Ann Oakley adds that when a man gets married, his life gets better, but when a
woman gets married her life gets worse.

Gender and The Family( The Caribbean Reality)

➢ The role of the female in the Caribbean family is somewhat different from their
international counterparts.
➢ The prevalence of matrifocal families means that oftentimes women are the head of
the household with no male breadwinner to whom they must be subordinate.
➢ Nancy Gonzales postulates that for lower class Caribbean women this is deliberate
➢ choice as it makes more financial sense. She argues that single mothers opt not to
have a husband as financially he would not be able to look after her family. Instead,
she chooses to have several visiting spouses; each of whom will make financial
contributions to her family and her.
➢ Other Caribbean feminist argue that the women’s role have changed since they have
greater opportunities to choose whether to be a housewife and mother or to have a
career or both.
➢ This is because women now have access to higher education and have surpassed their
male counterparts in the education system.
➢ The increase in technology has also resulted in the availability of more female
friendly(less physical jobs) so more women have joined the workforce and are no
longer totally dependent on men financially.

These changes have resulted in the following alterations in Caribbean family life and the

role of women:

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 ➢ Higher divorce rates/ more matrifocal families- women are independent so they no
longer have to stay in emotionally un-satisfactory marriages because of economic
need. Additionally, many are opting to have children without permanent fathers as
they can afford to look after their children on their own.
➢ Caribbean families are also smaller as women are having fewer children and start
childbearing at a later age due to years of study.
➢ Increase in domestic abuse- Men feel threatened and marginalized by their more
successful spouses and seek to use physical prowess to show their dominance.
➢ Spoilt/inadequately socialized kids- some theorists argue that with two parent
working, there is little or no time to properly grow and socialize kids- which is the
possible source of crime and deviance in the majority of Caribbean societies.
➢ Decision making in the home may become more egalitarian as both spouses are
making financial contribution.
➢ Men are forced to do more in the house though the domestic burden is still largely
borne by women. Men get more involved with looking after the children.
➢ The standard of living of the family improves as both parents work.

Characteristics Of Caribbean Family Life And The Kinship Patterns

➢ Caribbean families are influenced by the diverse cultural background and traditions of
their societies.
➢ Marriage is not necessary for pro-creation and occurs infrequently except in the
middle and upper classes.
➢ When it happens in the lower classes, it is usually after the child is born.
➢ Children are often grown by relatives who can offer them better opportunities.
➢ The father's role is marginal and traditionally they do not fulfil their economic
obligations, even if they reside in the household.
➢ Mother-children relationships and sibling relationships are most important.
➢ Herskovits(1964)- claimed that lower class negro families were matriarchal and
frequently extended. This he claims, is possibly due to the remanence of polygamy.
➢ Cohabitation is prevalent.
➢ Extramarital/relationship relationships and sexual liaisons (by males) are widespread
and accepted as normative.

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 ➢ Franklyn Frazer (1932) blames the ills of the black community on female headed
household, illegitimacy, and family disorganization.

Types Of Caribbean Families

1. East Indian Families in the Caribbean- Morton Klass

➢ Dominant in Trinidad and Guyana where the East Indian population is large.
➢ Strongly based on patriarchy. Authority is in the hands of the elder males and those
who go against their wishes are ostracized.
➢ The importance of the father figure stems from the fact that he represents the family
in the Indian community.
➢ Family and Kinship relationships are very important and there are very strict
guidelines about marriage practices.
➢ Marriage is strongly encouraged as it strengthens family ties.
➢ Families are extended and women marry young without engaging in visiting
relationships while in their fathers' homes. This is unlike the blacks.
➢ However early marriages usually take the form of religious rather than legal
ceremonies and the breakup rate is quite high.

2. Dispersed Nuclear- Solien

➢ The “black Carib” families of Guatemala are usually nuclear, but unlike Murdock's
description, they don’t reside in the same household.
➢ Husbands usually live with their own mothers, children with maternal relatives and
wives as live-in maids in the urban areas.
➢ Still there is financial cooperation and family members remain quite close, keeping as
much in contact as possible.
➢ Solien points out that the “black Caribs” do not believe that this “dispersed nuclear
family” is the ideal type of family but are forced to live in this form due to lack of
economic resources.

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3.Kindred Groups/ Organizations – Davenport

➢ Lower class Jamaicans live in extended family forms.

➢ This extended group or “ kindred group” usually includes “ parents, their children,
parents’ parents, parents' siblings and their children.
➢ However, it can also include other relations with whom they have special
relationships. Thus, a second cousin or a grandaunt who lives nearby or who is close
to the members of the group may be included in the “kindred group”.
➢ In the “kindred organizations” sibling relationships and mother children relationships
are most important.
➢ The “kindred group” is usually described by its members as “near family” and all
other relations as “far family”

4.Common Law Unions

➢ Persons live in a nuclear family without being married.

➢ These unions are usually long term, but unfaithfulness usually on the part of the male
is rampant.
➢ Typical of lower- class families but becoming increasingly popular in middle and
upper income families as a prelude to marriage.

5.Visiting Union

➢ This is a relationship where the mother and her children live separately from the male
in the union. The male visits from time to time.
➢ R.T Smith (1961) stated that such relationships are found in lower class African
families.
➢ The women, in order to support herself and her children, may enter into a relationship
with another man who provides her with economic support.
➢ A large number of first born children may be born to visiting relationships, which
may later lead to common law.

6.Caribbean Matrifocal Family

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 ➢ Female headed and mostly poor, there is no husband or long-term sexual
relationships.
➢ Family may be headed by the mother of the maternal grandmother.
➢ Father or spouse may occasionally make financial contributions to the family, but he
has no real role to play in the lives of his children.

Reasons For Matrifocal Family

➢ Herskovits – Retention of African polygamy, where the father had many wives and
played a marginal role in the family.
➢ M.G Smith – Due to the plantation system where planters tried to break up families
and alienate males. The family was therefore and still is largely female headed.
➢ Oscar Lewis- Due to economic factors; males are too poor to look after their families,
so they withdraw from the family; ashamed that they can't take care of their
responsibilities.

Edith Clarke (My Mother Who Fathered Me)

➢ Family types differ according to social class. Upper class families are usually nuclear,
middle class families are mainly common law and lower class families are single
parent.
➢ Edith Clarke did her study in Jamaica on three communities she called Orange Grove
upper class, Moca- middle class and Sugar Town- lower class.
➢ She explained that it was the pervasive belief that before marriage a man had to
accumulate some amount of material possessions, such as his own house. As many
poor males were unable to do this, marriage become the domain of the upper class.
➢ She adds that lower classes were less open to stigmas against children out wedlock
and that lower class males were free to be more promiscuous as there were no real
repercussions for abandoning his family.

Trends That Affect The Family

Four Trends that Impact Families Around the Globe:

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 ➢ Changes in family structures
➢ Demographic Aging
➢ Rise of migration
➢ HIV/AIDS pandemic

1.Changes In Family Structure

➢ Shift from extended to nuclear families and single parent or single person families.
➢ Falling fertility rates, migration, increase in divorce rates and increase in the number
of older persons are responsible for smaller size households.
➢ Household size has fallen to an average of 3.7 persons in East Asia, 4.9 in Southeast
Asia, to 4.1 in the Caribbean, 5.7 in North Africa and to 2.8 in developed regions.
➢ Age at first marriage has risen to between the mid to late twenties in all regions of the
world, often because of better educational and employment opportunities for women.
➢ Women have fewer children later in life.
➢ Current fertility rates are 1.57 children per women in developed regions, 3.1 in less
developed countries and 5.47 in least developed countries.

2. Demographic Aging

➢ Lower fertility rates and higher life expectancy contribute to a larger share of older
persons within the overall population. Thus, society will soon be faced with fewer
children and families as there are less young people available.
➢ Support ratios (number of working people in relation to retired persons) have been
declining and ageing impacts on inter-generational solidarity, housing, social, security
systems, care giving and health costs.

3. Rise Of Migration

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 ➢ 175 million people (three per cent of world population) reside outside their country of
birth; 20 million refugees in 2001.
➢ Violence, discrimination, natural disasters and the hope for better economic
opportunities have been the main factors for migration.
➢ Migration can cause major stress on family life because of cultural, ethnic, racial and
religious differences and lack of integration.
➢ Seasonal and internal migration of men contribute to a higher number of female-
headed households around the world.

4. HIV/AIDS Pandemic

➢ 42 million people live with HIV/AIDS

➢ HIV/AIDS affects the most productive members of society who often just started
their own families.
➢ Care for infected relatives, coping with the loss of numerous family members and the
increase of the number of orphans cause major stress on families and societies. Family
structure has changed to increasing adolescent and grandparent-headed households in
some regions of Africa.

Effects Of The 4 Trends

➢ These trends challenge the ability to fulfil basic functions of production, reproduction,
and socialization as well as needs of family members regarding health, nutrition,
shelter, physical and emotional care and personal development.

Some Issues Facing Contemporary Caribbean Families

Domestic Violence

➢ Statistics show that the rate of domestic violence has been increasing in most
Caribbean territories.

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 ➢ Although all ethnic groups and social class are affected. It appears that the lower
socio-economic groups are most vulnerable.
➢ Also, women and children are most often the victims due to their dependence on the
male breadwinners.
➢ Women with less skills and education are usually less independent, have fewer
options and therefore tend to remain in abusive relationships longer.
➢ Also, teenagers growing up in homes where they lack adequate love, care and
attention may be lured into early sexual encounters, thereby leading to teenage
pregnancies.
➢ Rhoda redock cited in the Jamaica Observer December 4, 2006, states some reasons
for the pervasive problem of domestic violence are:
o The increasing violence in society in general
o The result of the normalization of violence in the US dominated media
o Alcohol and drug addiction with inadequate facilities for prevention or
treatment.
➢ In Jamaica in 2004, domestic fights leading to homicides ran a close second among
the list of top motives for murder with 29% or some 1, 401 of the total number of
numbers for the given period.

EDUCATION

Education in a society is concerned with the systematic transmission of that society’s

knowledge. It ensures the transmission of basic facts, job skills, cultural norms and values to
the members of society. Education may be formal, in that, persons are specifically taught the
values, norms and cultures of society through formal institutions such as the school, colleges
and universities. Education may be informal which occurs naturally when a person learns in
an unplanned and unstructured manner

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Historical Development of Education In The Caribbean

➢ Education had always been valued in the Caribbean.

➢ In the pre-emancipation era, education was limited to whites and blacks were
excluded. Planters feared educating slaves as this will normally spark rebellions.
➢ Until the 1820s, most slaves when without formal education and it was with the help
of the missionaries that some were taught to read and write.
➢ In the post-emancipation era, educational facilities were poor. The colonial leaders
felt that it was useless to develop schools and favoured an uneducated workforce.
➢ The Baptist missionaries who created free villages helped to develop schools and as
the ex-slaves became wealthy through peasantry, they had a strong desire to educate
their children.
➢ Most of the Indians who came to the region during Indentureship were excluded from
educational opportunities.
➢ Until the 1900s, most of the colonies, save and except, for Jamaica went without
formal educational institutions.
➢ Those that were developed in the early 1900s, were developed by black leaders and
adhered to a great extent to the educational principles and curriculum of Britain.
➢ By the 1930s, more blacks became involved in politics and felt that education was
essential to national progress and productivity. More formal schools, with the aid of
the Church, were developed.
➢ By 1940s, regional unity led to the development of the University of the West Indies,
founded in 1948, which changed the face of education in the region.
➢ For most parts, the post-emancipation period saw increase in secondary schools and
with further reforms more Caribbean people were able to seek educational
opportunities

1.Functionalist Perspective

Functionalists are of the view that schools socialize children into the norms and values of
society and enable them to play useful roles.

(a) Emile Durkheim

➢ The education system has three (3) major functions

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 ➢ Its most important function is the creation of social solidarity via the transmission of
society's norms and values thus ensuring there is a value consensus.
➢ This is done via the teaching of history and loyalty to one's country.
➢ Education also prepares us for society by exposing us to social rules. At home the
rules are not always enforced and there are not set consequences. This is not so u
school where rules and punishments at enforced regardless of attributes (similar to
laws in society). School is therefore a bridge between the home and society
➢ Finally, the education system equip with the specialized knowledge nee for the
division of labour characteristic capitalist society.

(b) Talcott Parsons

➢ Education system is meritocratic (fair) as it exposes us to universalistic standards,

thus ensuring that status is achieved.
➢ Universalistic standards are those that are applied to all regardless of colour class or
creed. Hence, we all go to schools, have similar teachers and take the same exams.
➢ This is unlike in the home where standards are particularistic, and status is a scribed.
In exposing us to universalistic standards it is also preparing us for a society in which
status is achieved. Hence, like Durkheim, he believes that school acts as the bridge
between the home and society.
➢ The school is an agency of secondary socialization that ensures social reproduction
and order.(Durkheim also shares this view)
➢ Education systems also functionally teach two (2) very important values:
▪ 1. The value of achievement
▪ The value of equality of opportunity

In summary, the functionalists believe that education has three (3) basic functions:
socialization, skills provision and role allocation.

(c) Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore

➢ Education systems function for society by ensuring that the most talented gets the
most functional job.

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 ➢ The system ensures all students work hard by re-enforcing that great rewards are
given to those who excel. The greatest of those rewards are high paying jobs.
➢ Then through the use of exams the system sifts and sorts to ensure that the brightest
students are rewarded with the best qualification and the most important/ functional
jobs.
➢ These functional jobs carry the highest salaries; hence the functional job is a reward
for the hard work and talent- yes, I see the irony) of the talented.
➢ Davis and Moore also believe that the education system is meritocratic as those who
are talented regardless of initial social class will have the ability to achieve a high
income job.

Criticisms Of The Functionalist View

➢ Marxists argue that education transmit the values of the ruling class
➢ Education is not always meritocratic –> schools can place hidden restriction on
students such as class, race, gender which undermines their ability to achieve.
➢ Davis and Moore’s theory justifies inequality in society.
➢ Education sometimes has no correlation with the roles fulfilled by people in society.
Some job requirements are not met by the curriculum in schools.
➢ Education can stress competition amongst students which causes conflict and
undermines solidarity.
➢ Many students actively reject the values and rules in schools and so education is not
always effective in socialization.

2. Marxist Perspective

Marxists are of the view that education reproduces inequality and conflict. It ensures cultural
reproduction as the capitalists impose their beliefs on the working class through the hidden
curriculum. The hidden curriculum is an informal way in which conformity and acceptance of
failure and inequality are encouraged in working class young people through education.

(a) Samuel Bowles & Herbert Gintis

➢ The role of the education system is the reproduction of the capitalist labour force.
➢ It does this via the hidden curriculum which teaches the values and attitudes necessary
to be a part of the exploitive capitalist labour force.

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These values include:

➢ Subservience and Docility

➢ Motivation By External Rewards
➢ Fragmentation of Knowledge
➢ Acceptance of Hierarchy

➢ The most disturbing of the values is the motivation by external rewards. Bowles and
Gintis argue that school, like work is alienating and boring and students hate the
experience. This is so as teachers employ the “jug mug” teaching methodology, where
teachers as the jug simply pour the information in the heads of the students (the
mugs).

➢ Still students continue to go to school as they are motivated by the external rewards of
qualifications. The same happens at work where persons hate their capitalist jobs but
go just the same because they are motivated by the external rewards of wages.

➢ Additionally, the education system is not meritocratic as only those who can afford to
stay long in school (the bourgeoisie) will be rewarded with high qualifications and the
consequent high paying jobs. Hence the status quo is maintained.

➢ Bowles and Gintis wrote that “a high IQ is not the cause, but the consequence of long
stay in school.”

➢ Finally, they argue that the education system instils in us the “myth of meritocracy"
and the “illusion of equality of opportunity” by teaching us that failure is the fault of
the student and not the system. In so doing, the education system helps to promote
false class-consciousness.

The Hidden Curriculum(Zoomed In On)

The hidden curriculum consists of those things that students indirectly learn through the
experience of attending school, rather than the stated educational objectives of such
institutions. Bowles & Gintis (1976) argue that the hidden curriculum manifest itself in the
following ways:

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 ➢ It produces a submissive workforce of uncritical, passive and docile workers – the
school prepares students for the workforce.
➢ It encourages an acceptance of the social hierarchy/ inequality.
➢ At school, students learn to be motivated by external rewards just as the workforce in
a capitalist society is motivated by external rewards
➢ Students have little control over their school involvement and get little satisfaction
from studying as learning is based on the ‘jug and mug principle’. By this, the school
feels you with too much information. It’s as if students are empty mugs and teachers
are jugs filling them with useless knowledge.
➢ The fragmentation of school subjects corresponds to the fragmentation of the
workforce

Criticisms of Bowles and Gintis

➢ Bowles and Gintis have been criticized because they made assumptions about the
hidden curriculum but had little empirical evidence to support their claims.
➢ They have been criticized for underestimating the influence of formal curriculum,
this curriculum focuses on academic subjects rather than subject matter relate
to work.
➢ The hidden curriculum was supposed to result in subservient students. How
there are numerous schools where students show little regard for school-teachers and
authority.
➢ Bowles and Gintis also indicated that education legitimates inequality by an that
educational success and failure are based on merit. However, studies reveal that most
people believe that success is dependent on family background and economic factors.
Thus, education did not succeed in legitimating inequality.
➢ There is evidence that education can bring about solidarity and order in society
through the transmission of rules, norms and values
➢ Bowles and Gintis downplay the benefits of a formal curriculum
➢ Functionalists argue that even if there is a hidden curriculum, this would strengthen
their argument that the school indirectly transmit learn universal traits such as
competition, achievement and equality
➢ The Marxists fail to explain how the economy shapes the educational system ✓
Education can produce diversity rather than inequality
➢ Critical subject areas such as math, business, entrepreneurship, are taught in school

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 ➢ Many students rebel against school rules and so the hidden curriculum is not always
effective

(b)Pierre Bourdieu→ Cultural Capital

➢ Neo-Marxist Pierre Bourdieu argues that the educational system is owned and
operated by upper class individuals.
➢ Consequently, the aim of the education system is cultural reproduction, i.e., they only
teach and test upper class norms and values.
➢ On entering the educational system, the upper class student who has been previously
socialized (at home) in the upper class norms and values are at a significant
advantage.
➢ The advantage they possess is called Cultural Capital.
➢ Lower class students on the other hand are at a disadvantage, as they were socialized
in the lower class culture at home. Hence on entering the educational system, they
have to start from scratch and on some occasions unlearn some of the truths they
knew to be true if they are to be successful.
➢ Still both the upper class and lower class students are taught using the same methods
and are forced to sit the same exams.
➢ Upper class students (the possessors of cultural capital) are therefore more likely to
succeed in the educational system and the lower class more likely to fail.
➢ This, however, is the way the bourgeoisie want the system to be.

3.Interactionalist Perspective

Interactionists are concerned with the perceptions of pupils by teachers. Their examination of
education is based on what is observed in the classroom.

(a)David Hargreaves & Frank Mellor

➢ Failure or success in the education system is determined by teachers and how they
label students.
➢ On entering the educational system students are labelled by teachers according to
their social background.

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 ➢ The labelling process has three (3) stages: speculation, elaboration ,and
stabilization.
➢ Once labelled, the students are treated according to the label applied.
➢ Lower class student are usually labelled as under achievers and are treated
accordingly.
➢ The label, according to Cicourel and Kitsuse, becomes the students' master status i.e.
(they only way in which the student is seen).
➢ Soon students act according to the labels applied, and become what teachers had
originally labelled them to be – a process called the self-fulfilling prophesy.

(b) Steven J Ball & Neil Keddie

➢ A student's success or failure in the education system is determined by his or her

teacher.
➢ Teacher's label and stream students according to their view of the ideal student.
➢ Ideal students display upper class values and attitudes and most importantly do not
challenge their teachers.
➢ Thus, it's the lower class students who are labelled as under achievers and are placed
in lower stream or bands.
➢ Lower class students receive inferior knowledge (Keddie) or inferior subjects (Ball)
which allows them little success in the education system, and soon society.
➢ This is unlike their upper class counterparts who are labelled as “bright” and given
superior knowledge and subjects to do, thus ensuring their educational and societal
success.

(c) JWD Douglas→ The Home & The School

➢ J. W. B. Douglas and colleagues studied 5362 British children who were born be.
tween March 1-7,1946.
➢ Douglas did a longitudinal study hence the kids were tracked in their educational
progress up to 1962 when they were 16.

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 ➢ Students were divided by ability using many tests including IQ style tests. They were
also divided into four social class groupings. These divisions into groups allowed for
comparisons and contrasts, using statistical work.
➢ Douglas found significant difference in the educational attainment of students who
had the same IQ, but different social classes.
➢ Almost always, the lower class child was performing worse in school than his upper
classmate with the same IQ.
➢ Douglas found that the biggest factor in student attainment was parental involvement
in the child's education, measured by frequency of visits of the parents to t school.
➢ Lower class students were more likely to fail because their parents were less it volved
in their educational pursuits.
➢ The opposite was true for upper class students whose parents were very involved in
their education and who did much better in school.

OVERVIEW OF THE THEORISTS(ALONG WITH SOME NEW ONES)

FUNCTIONALISM

1.Emile Durkheim

Education provides society with 3 functions (social, solidarity teaching of social rules and
giving you the skills to be a part of the specialized labour force). It is the bridge between
family and society.

2.Talcott Parsons

Education system is meritocratic as it is based on universalistic standards. It teaches the

values of achievement and equality of opportunity.

3.Davis and Moore

Education system is meritocratic and functional. It ensures the most talented gets the most
functional jobs.

MARXIST

4.Bowles and Gintis

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Education system is not meritocratic as only those who can afford to stay long in school will
get good qualifications. It reproduces the capitalist labour force.

INTERACTIONALIST

5.David Hargreaves

Failure or success in education system is determined by teachers who label students

according to their social class.

6.Steven J Ball and Nell Keddie

Lower class students are placed in interior streams (Keddie) and bands (ball) and given
inferior subjects and inferior knowledge.

OTHER THEORES

7.Cicourel and Kitsuse(1963)→Interactionalist

They are of the view that teachers respond to students based on how they look and treat
students differently. Once a student is labelled, they normally fulfil the teacher's prophecy
about themselves.

8.Gordon and Beckford (Caribbean Theorist)→Marxist

Education system maintains the privileges of the whites, and it allows blacks to fail it is not
meritocratic

9.Ishmael Baksh→Marxist

Lower class students in the Caribbean are given inferior technical subjects which will lead to
low paying jobs. The education system is not meritocratic.

10.Applewaite→Feminist

Girls are encouraged by parents and teachers to do well academically, boys don't get as much

encouragement, so will fail in the education system.

11.Errol Miller→Marxist

Educational success is not associated with masculinity, so boys don't try as hard in the
educational system. Thus, girls outperform them

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12.Barry Chavannes→Functionalist

Mainly female teachers in the education system leave boys with few role models.
Additionally, female teachers teach in a manner conducive to the learning styles of girls and
that of not boys.

13.Mark Figueroa→Functionalist

The prevalence of the matrifocal family leads to the failure of boys as single mothers are
unable to control their teenage boys who are left to their own devices which usually does not
include educational pursuits.

14. Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968)→Interactionalists

Conducted research to test the validity of the ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ in an elementary

school.

15. Howard Becker (1963)→Interactionalist

Looks at the labelling of students, (good, bad or dull) and argues that this affects student’s
performance because they accept their labels. Labels such as “learning-disability” and
“gifted” have effects on students.

Criticisms Of The Interactionalist Perspective

➢ Ignore external factors that could affect the performance of students in schools such
as parental interest, diet, parental income, housing conditions etc.
➢ They have not explained how teachers form their different perspectives of students.

GENDER AND EDUCATION(THIS IS WHERE I ADDED THE STUDIES TO USE

AS REFERENCES IN THE ESSAYS)

➢ Unlike developed countries, in the Caribbean, girls have more success in the
education system than boys.
➢ Applewhaite(1998), from her study in Trinidad posits that this is due to the fact that in
and out of school girls were encouraged to be more academically successful than
boys.

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 ➢ Boys are allowed to wander and live according to their own devices, while girls are
kept at home and constantly reminded to study and the importance of doing well. The
result is that girls do well and boys fail.
➢ Errol Miller who did his study in Jamaica noted that during socialization, high
education achievement was not associated with masculinity, thus boys did not strive
to become successful in the education system.
➢ Boys who are popular are the ones who are athletic, or funny or worse outlaws!
Hence boys who have a natural academic inclination, “dumb themselves down” in a
bid to be popular.
➢ Girls who do not do well in school do not have the same popularity and so are more
inclined to do well.
➢ Additionally, Professor Barry Chevannes argued that feminizing of teaching has left
boys with very few male role models on whom they can pattern their lives.
➢ In 2019 the percentage of female teachers in Jamaica was a staggering 88.92%,
according to the World Bank collection of development indicators.
➢ Most teachers are women who use examples that females understand and can identify
with.
➢ Hence girls who can better relate to teachers and understand the instructions do well,
while boys fail.
Other Points
➢ Girls are socialized to accept educational opportunities. Girls expect more from
themselves than boys do.
➢ Teachers tend to encourage girls more than they do boys. Boys are expected to be rule
and disruptive.
➢ Peer groups have a significant impact on female achievement. Girls tend to have a
mutual interest to learn as opposed to boys.
➢ Epstein et al (1999) suggest that girls have always outperformed boys, but in the past
girls did not go beyond certain levels of education due to the acceptance of traditional
roles.
➢ Increasing job opportunities for girls encourage them to enter into fields once male
dominated e.g. law, economics, business, accounting and science.

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CHALLENGES FACING THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN THE CARIBBEAN

There are many problems that are undermining the effectiveness of Caribbean educational
system:

➢ High incidence of illiteracy and numeracy

➢ Marked gender differences in achievement as girls out-perform boys (Miller, 1991)
➢ Untrained teachers at the Early Childhood, Primary and Secondary levels
➢ Student under-performance at the secondary level
➢ Student repetition of grade levels
➢ Little harmonization of curriculum and assessment across the region
➢ Inadequate policy for recruitment and selection of teachers
➢ Lack of systems of certification, evaluation and licensing of teachers
➢ New jobs associated with higher technology occupations requiring higher entry levels
➢ A mismatch between the graduates and the available jobs

EDUCATIONAL REFORMS IN THE CARIBBEAN

➢ Breaking the colonial ties: introducing the Caribbean examinations (CXC) and
Caribbean related curricula
➢ Greater funding for schools: led to free and compulsory education at the primary and
secondary levels in most Caribbean countries
➢ Increased state involvement – less church ran schools and more government-based
schools
➢ Increase in the number of teacher’s college (for example, Micro, Sam Sharpe in
Jamaica or the Corinth Teachers College in Trinidad and Tobago) leading to better
educated teachers.
➢ Greater introduction of technology in the schools with emphasis on information
technology. Teachers are also taught the appropriate way to teach using education
➢ Gender equity in the schools – less focus on gender-based subjects
➢ The increase in vocational schools e.g., Heart/NTA in Jamaica and other training
schools in Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago

RELIGION

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What Is Religion?

➢ Religion is a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people

struggle with the ultimate problems of human life. It is a group- supported road to
salvation ( John Milton Yinger,1970).
➢ Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world and the
soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. (Karl Marx).
➢ Religion is a set of symbols evoking feelings of reverence; and is linked to rituals or
ceremonies in which a community of believers practice. ( Talcott Parsons, 1973)
Robertson, 1970).

CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS

1.Church

➢ A church is a large, religious group with inclusive membership.

➢ It supports the status quo and is in no tension with surrounding society; in fact, it is
usually an accepted and embedded part of society.
➢ It is properly organized with a bureaucratic structure.
➢ Its affairs are managed by a trained clergy and other paid officials.

2.Sects

➢ Small, exclusive group whose views conflict with or are against those of society.
➢ Usually formed as a result of a split from a church or a more established religious
group.
➢ Has a negative relationship with the other institutions in society.
➢ Claims religious legitimacy, they and they alone know the path of righteousness.
➢ Members are normally converted rather than born into the faith.
➢ There is usually no formal organization on paper, but a strict hierarchical structure is
usually in place and well respected.
➢ Usually intolerant of other groups.
➢ Usually short-lived but some may grow in size and eventually become denominations.

3.Cults

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 ➢ Cults introduce new, different religious traditions in the society.
➢ They are very innovative: pride themselves on introducing new ideas and new beliefs.
➢ They are not rebellious groups, and though do not embrace society, they seek to live
in harmony though sometimes outside of society.
➢ If successful, these can overtime become new churches or sects within the mainstream
tradition.
➢ They are loosely organized and short-lived
➢ A few spiritual doctrines are upheld but there is little demand for moral purity, rather
focus is on the personal benefits
➢ They usually appeal to the lower socioeconomic groups.
➢ The use of astrology, black magic, and transcendental meditation is found in some
cults.

FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE

➢ Religion is functionalist as it creates and maintains the value consensus.

➢ It is a conservative force that acts as a barrier to social change or ensures that the
change is gradual and does not threaten cohesion and stability.

(a)Durkheim’s Theory

➢ Durkheim based his theory from his study of the totemism religion in primitive
societies.
➢ From his study, he concluded that all societies are divided into the sacred ( things that
should be shown reverence) and the profane (non-sacred things).
➢ Anything can be scared as long as it is revered ( viewed in reverence). Religion is
concerned with the sacred.
➢ In religion, sacred things or beings are seen as all powerful integrating forces which
are above and beyond individuals and control their behaviour.
➢ Society has those same characteristics i.e., it is all powerful and integrating and is
above and beyond individuals and finally it controls their behaviour.
➢ Thus, in worshipping sacred things and deities, humans are actually finding a simple
way to revere society, as society is what controls them and allows them to exist.

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 ➢ The ceremonies are rituals of religion are also used to create cohesiveness and social
solidarity especially during times of upheaval such as birth, death and marriage.
➢ Religion is also important because it re-enforces the collective conscience and is
largely responsible for social order and social control.

Criticisms Of Durkheim

➢ Religion does not always cause or enhance social solidarity; it can also cause conflict
and thereby threaten social order. One example of this is the conflict between Roman
Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland.
➢ Religion, according to Weber, can be a source of change. Durkheim overlooked this
aspect of religion.
➢ Some theorists state that by examining religion in a small traditional society,
Durkheim incorrectly generalized and concluded that all religion is the worship of
society.

(b) Malinowski Theory

➢ The aim of religion is to help people cope in time of change and anxiety e.g., marriage
and death.
➢ Through the use of rituals such as funerals, persons are given activities which provide
them with social comfort and cohesiveness when they need it most.
➢ The result is that persons receive the mental stability necessary to exist in a harsh
world, society is therefore stabilized as well.

(c) Parsons Theory

➢ Religion’s major function is to provide us with guidelines for behaviour. In this

➢ way, religion helps to provide society with the consensus which, according to
Parsons, is required for order and stability.
➢ Like Malinowski, he also believed that religion addressed particular problems that
occur in all societies.
➢ The cultural system provides general guidelines for action in the form of beliefs,
values and systems of meaning. Religion is part of the cultural system that provides

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 guidelines for human action and standards against which people’s conduct can be
evaluated.
➢ Life is disrupted by certain problems e.g., death and natural disasters. When person
are hit with these unforeseeable events, religion would help to restore the normal
pattern of life.
➢ Religious beliefs give meaning to life; ‘they answer man’s question about himself and
the world he lives in’. He argues that one of the major functions of religion is to
‘make sense’ of all experiences even if they appear to be trivial. This allows
intellectual and emotional adjustment, which promotes order and stability in society.

MARXIST PERSPECTIVE

➢ Marx sees religion as an illusion that eases the pain produced by exploitation and
oppression. Religion facilitates the ruling class ideology by justifying and legitimizing
the subordination of the subject class, and the domination and privilege of the ruling
class.
➢ He saw religion as an illusion that justified the existing arrangements in society and
encouraged people to accept them.
➢ The ideology of religion serves to distract the people from a true perception of their
social environment. Exploitation is seen as tests by God, which if passed on earth,
will result in great rewards in heaven.
➢ Poverty is seen as virtue or God’s will; thus, lower classes never truly understand that
they are being oppressed by the upper class and that they should do something about
it.
➢ Religion was created by the ruling elite in societies. It is used to control the masses by
blocking class consciousness. People are deflected from their real interest and what
emerges is ‘false class consciousness’.
➢ Religion also promotes continuity and blocks change as we are taught that everything
is the way God wanted it to be, and instead of trying to do all we can on earth we
should direct our attentions on getting to heaven. “ The rich man in his castle, the poor
man at his gate, God made them high and lowly and ordered their estate”. A line from
the hymn. “ All things bright and beautiful”

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 ➢ Religion was man made. There is no all-powerful being above but rather this is a
creation of the capitalists to serve their interests, therefore all religions are fake.
➢ Perhaps the statement made by Marx summarizes his theory on religion, ‘Religion is
the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world and the soul of the
soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.
➢ In other words, those who suffer from the exploitative effects of capitalism without
knowing how to find a solution to them, turn to religion as a release from the miseries
of life. These individuals find consolation in religion, which enables them to tolerate
their situation.
➢ Marx sees religious beliefs as a product of a particular set of economic relationship in
society, namely capitalism. Religion would disappear with communism.

Criticism of Marxism

➢ Instead of distracting people from the true perception of their environment, religion
sometimes lobbies against oppression. History has many eras in which religious
movements organized themselves and protested against oppression.
➢ Also, over the years, religion has produced many movements to improve the material
conditions of the oppressed people, for example, the role of the church in the USA
civil rights movements of the 1960s involving Reverend Martin Luther King Jr.
➢ Religion does not always legitimize power; it can sometimes provide an impetus for
social change. This view is promoted by Max Weber and the Calvinist approach.

WEBER THEORY

➢ While the Functionalist and Marxist examine religion as promoting social integration
and preventing social change. Weber argued that the effects of religion on society
could be flexible, that is, it can act as a conservative force as well as an impetus for
change.
➢ Weber adopted the approach of trying to understand the subjective meaning of beliefs
for the believers themselves.

➢ Weber was interested in religion as a precursor to capitalism. He did not agree with
Marx’s theory that capitalism existed only because of economic factors. He admitted

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 that at certain times and in some places, religion is shaped by economic factors, but
this is not always the case.
➢ Weber saw religion as one of several forces that existed and needed to exist before
capitalism could develop. Weber examined how Calvinism and its ethics influenced
or in fact led to the development of capitalism.
➢ The Calvinist religion is based on the premise that God has already chosen those who
are going to heaven- “the select few”.
➢ Only God knows who those select few are, however, prosperity and success in one’s
calling/career is evidence that you were selected by God.
➢ Thus, all Calvinist protestants developed a particular work ethic geared at success and
prosperity so that they could be assured (they could convince themselves that they are
among “Gods select”

FEMINISM THEORY

➢ Feminist theories like Marxist theory, view religion as an instrument of domination

and oppression.
➢ However, they see religion as a product of patriarchy- rather than of capitalism- where
men oppress women.
➢ Women were not always subordinate in most religions. In the Middle East, Asia and
parts of Europe, archaeologists have uncovered symbols of the great mother goddess.
There were few early symbols of gods as men. However, the status of women in
religion declined with time, as men become more chauvinistic”
➢ Jean Holm argued that many religions stress equality between men and women;
however, in practice women have been given subordinate roles. Women's second
class status is often related to their sexuality. For example, menstruation and
childbirth are universally regarded as “polluting”
➢ Religion can be used by the oppressors (men) to control the oppressed(women) and it
also serves as a way of compensating women for their second-class status by equality
in heaven. This helps to maintain a status quo in which women are unequal.

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 ➢ Religion became patriarchal through the misinterpretation of religious beliefs by men.
As monotheism became prominent, religion became oppressive to women. Therefore,
the only way women can improve their position is by seeking their own.

CARIBBEAN RELIGIONS

➢ Religion played an important role in the development of the Caribbean. Religious

missionaries tried to improve the plight of the slaves. As religion developed in the
Caribbean, it was always at the forefront of social development.
➢ Caribbean religions are really amalgamations of European “mainstream” religions and
African “pagan” religions. And even when European religions are adopted fully, the
everyday practice of the religion including its rituals are most times tailored to fit the
culture of that island.
➢ Christianity is still the dominant religion in the region. However, there are a myriad of
denominations and Christian cults. Other religions such as Hinduism and Islam also
exist along with Christianity.
➢ Religion is entrenched in the Caribbean society and is the basis of our laws, provides
guidelines for our education systems and even guides government policies.
➢ Religion is probably the most significant phenomenon that highlights the
heterogeneity of the Caribbean. It is a reflection of the different traditions and
cultures that occupied the Caribbean region. It also highlights the common experience
of slavery and indentureship.
➢ The strength of the various religions is dependent on the territory as well as the social,
educational and economic status of the members of that religion.

SECULARIZATION

It is generally argued that changes in society will lead to changes in religion. Many have w
that these changes will lead to a weakening or even the disappearance of religion. This
decline in religious influence on social life is known as secularization.

Secularization - The decline in religious influence or the importance of religion

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Auguste Comte

➢ Relieved that human history passed through three stages.

➢ The first was the theological stage where religion and superstitious beliefs were
dominant.
➢ The second stage was the metaphysical stage, where philosophy was important.
➢ The third stage was the positive stage where science would dominate human
behaviour. Thus, there would be little or no need for religion in this society.
➢ Thus, Auguste Comte believed that we would see a continuous decline in the
importance of religion; in other words, secularization would take place.

Emile Durkheim

➢ Emile Durkheim did not believe that religion would totally disappear, but he foresaw
its decline in significance.
➢ In an industrial society with its specialized division of labour, the importance of
religion would decline. The education system for instance, would provide
socialization and social solidarity, so there would be little need for religion.
➢ Thus, Durkheim believed secularization would take place.

Max Weber

➢ Max Weber argued that there would be a decline in religious beliefs as rationalization
would replace religious influence. The simple answer that it is “Gods will” will no
longer satisfy humans as science will be able to give answers to life's hardest
questions.
➢ Thus, individuals would turn to science and rationality to solve their problems rather
than religion.
➢ Religion would lose its importance and influence, thus secularization would and is
taking place.

Karl Marx

With the emergence of communism, religion will disappear as it will have no purpose.

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 ➢ The aim of religion is to legitimize the exploitation and oppression of the poor, but in
a communist system there is no exploitation, no oppression and since poverty is
relative no poor.
➢ However, once capitalism is alive and well, it means religion has not declined a in
religion would lead to a corresponding decline in capitalism.

The Institutional Approach to Determining Secularization

➢ The institutional approach deals with the use of positivistic/quantitative indication

such as church attendance.
➢ While the societal approach focuses on qualitative indicators such as beliefs and
meanings attached to religions by individuals.

The institutional approach examines four areas to determine whether secularization

taking place:

1.Participation→Church Attendance

➢ The British Social Attitudes Survey in 1991 found that while people still believer in
God, the number attending church had declined. From 1860–1910, 28 per cent of the
adult population were members of a church. By 1995 however, this was reduced to 12
per cent. It should be noted though, that some denominations such as the Mormons
increased.
➢ Wilson used statistical data to show that church attendance and the status and number
of the clergy are indeed declining. Thus, secularization is taking place.
➢ The same can be said for Caribbean institutions where church membership has been
steadily declining.
➢ This view is not shared by Martin who argues that one cannot use reduction in church
attendance alone to measure decline in religion. He further contends that the figures
do not indicate the reasons why people attend church, it could simply mean that with
the advent of technology, people can now go to church in their bedrooms by watching
service on T.V.

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2. Disengagement

This focuses on the declining importance of the church in a person's social life.

➢ In pre-industrial days religion was integral to society and in fact controlled the state
and all the members of society.
➢ It was almost solely responsible for the education of the masses, hospitals and the
dispensing of justice.
➢ Society is no longer controlled by religion and is now confined to a person's private
life. Today specialized state agencies have taken over many activities that we
formerly carried out by the church.
➢ In the Middle Ages, the church and state were unified, but today the church 15 hardly
represented in government.
➢ Martin sees this as evidence of the decline in the power and influence of the church,
and as such secularization has taken place.

Differentiation

➢ Parsons disagrees, stating that in a structurally differentiated society religious

institutions ore specialized but not necessarily less important.
➢ He believes that in an industrial society religion's role of providing guidelines for
behaving fostering cohesiveness is integral to society. Additionally, people still look
to religion for answers and so religion has lost none of its influence or significance.

3. Religious Pluralism

➢ Researchers have argued that a truly religious society has only one religion and one
church. And the mere presence of multiple religions proves that secularization has
taken place.
➢ Additionally, Wilson argues that the increase in new religious movements is evidence
of secularization. The competition between religions undermines their credibility.
➢ In addition, Berger sees the growth of sects as evidence of decline in religion. The
fact is that persons no longer believe that religion is important enough for them to
change their lifestyles to fit in. Consequently, they keep creating new religions to fit
their lifestyles .

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 ➢ 4.Secularization of religious institutions
➢ According to Herzberg, the church is preoccupied with secular concerns and most
major denominations have compromised their religious principles to make them ‘fit
in' with society.

Religion has lost its significance as it is no longer important enough to individuals to

prompt them to change themselves. Instead, religion is compelled to change to fit them.
For example, we now have dancehall gospel.

The Societal Approach

This approach is concerned with the decline in the influence of religious belief on social
norms, values and attitudes. It consists of two major areas:

➢ Transformation versus generalization

➢ Desacralization versus individuation

Transformation

Religion on no longer guides our norms and values. Instead, our guides have been
transformed from religious to secular guides such as science and psychology. Additionally,
some beliefs and practices have been stripped of their religious significance, for example,
confession has been replaced with therapy.

MODULE 3→SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Introduction

Have you ever wondered what the determinants of poverty and wealth are? Is it education
Aptitude or attitude; is it genetics or simply the luck of the draw?

And for those unfortunate enough to be poor; is it a constant state? Are they the Children of
Sisyphus; forever doomed to a life of struggle only to remain in the same social position in

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which they started, or are they charters of their own faith, able to move up the social strata on
their own accord, not restricted by unforeseeable forces, or educational and social barriers?

Of interest as well, is the culture associated with the different classes. Are their distinct
behaviours, and values associated with the different social classes? And if so why?

Definitions

Social stratification – a society's categorization of its people into groups based on

socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation,
social status, or derived power (social and political).

Egalitarian society - one in which all members are equal; no one is rich or poor.

Social inequality – unequal distribution of wealth, power, prestige, opportunities and

influence.

People are usually stratified according to income and wealth (class) but they can also be
stratified according to race and gender, religion and caste.

However, it is important to appreciate the fact that strata may be based on other factors such
as status and prestige, as Weber argued.

Please note that the term 'social class' is different from the term 'social group.' Social group is
the generic (all encompassing) term which refers to the stratified cohort to which one
belongs, regardless of whether the society is stratified according to race, caste, gender ".
Wealth. If a society is stratified according to income and wealth, then social groups are called
social classes.

BASIC CONCEPTS

1.Status

➢ This refers to the amount of honour and prestige enjoyed by a person occupying a
particular role in society.
➢ Weber was of the view that status was derived from the amount of social honour and
prestige an individual was given by other members of the society.

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 ➢ Status may vary both within and between strata. Therefore he believed that the newly
rich did not enjoy the same status as those who were born into we example, "a butu in
a benz is still a butu.'.
➢ Although social inequality exists in all societies, there may be differences in the
manner in which inequality is structured or different determinants of a person's status
in society.
➢ Societies may base status on ascribed or achieved factors.
▪ Ascribed statuses are those that are fixed at birth and unchangeable
during a person's lifetime. One's sex and race are examples of ascribed
statuses.
▪ Achieved statuses are those that a person can achieve through his or
her lifetime. Becoming a lawyer or street vendor are examples of
achieved statuses.
➢ Parsons argued that in contemporary Western society, achieved status is dominant
while ascribed status is obsolete. This is due to the fact that industrial societies, with
their universalistic meritocratic principles, are not conducive to ascribed statuses.

2.Social Class

➢ Notions of social class have been widely associated with the writings of the great
German philosopher, Karl Marx (1818–83).
➢ Marx thought that classes came about when differences in income were so great that
one (small) dominant group exploited the labour of a large mass of “property less”
individuals (who own nothing but their labour).
➢ Later writers such as Max Weber (1864–1920), have concluded that income and
wealth are not the only determinants of social class. He is of the view that prestige,
honour and status are also used to determine social class.

Social class can be measured in 3 main ways:

➢ Objective Measures
➢ Subjective Measures
➢ Reputational Measures

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(a)Objective Measures

➢ One can assign people to various social classes based on objective. i.e tangible or
measurable criteria involving wealth, power and prestige.
➢ Objective indicators include occupation, educational level, a number of dependents,
type of residence, infant mortality and life expectancy rates.

(b)Subjective Measures

➢ Class is measured using perception, by asking respondents what they perceive their
class position to be.

(c) Reputational Measures

➢ The reputational method is limited to smaller communities, where people are familiar
with each other's reputation. Social classes are measured by asking individuals their
view of what class others belong to, and based on reputations, persons will give their
answers.

3.Elites

➢ The ruling class of a society is called the elites.

➢ Pareto (1963) and Marxist writers such as John Scott (1982) were of the belief that
elites would always maintain their control through the practice of endogamy
(marriage restricted to their own social category) and attendance to superior schools.
Elites are usually a small proportion of society; in the Caribbean they are seen as the
land and business owners who are white. However, they also include heads of
government, and top professionals.

4.Race&Ethnicity

➢ A race is a human population that is believed to be distinct in some way from other
humans, based on real or imagined physical differences.
➢ Racial classifications are rooted in the idea of biological classification of humans
according features such as skin colour or facial characteristics.

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 ➢ Ethnicity, while related to race, refers not to physical characteristics but social traits
that are shared by a human population. Some of the social traits often used for ethnic
classification include:
• Nationality
• Tribe
• Religion
• Language
• Culture
➢ Unlike race, ethnicity is not usually externally assigned by other individuals. The term
ethnicity focuses more upon a group's connection to a perceived shared past and
culture.
➢ M.G. Smith claims that Caribbean islands are stratified according to race, and that
different races have their own distinct culture with variations of the major institutions
(family, education, religion, etc.), thus the Caribbean is comprised of plural societies.

5.Sex and Gender

➢ Sex refers to biological characteristics or differences between males and females

while gender refers to social characteristics or differences. Gender is learned while
sex is ascribed.
➢ Feminists argue that almost all societies are stratified according to gender With males
ascribed dominant and high social statuses and females ascribed inferior low social
statuses.
➢ One notable feminist, S. Firestone, showed that there is a sex-class system in which
men belong to the dominant (exploiter) class and women, regardless of their
economic situation, occupy the subordinate class position.
➢ Robert Stoller (1968) suggested that gender relations were culturally rather than
biologically based. The social beliefs about males and females and not their actual
biological makeup determine how they are treated in society.

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6.Social Mobility

Social mobility is the movement, usually of individuals or groups, from one social position to
another within the social stratification system.

➢ The extent of social mobility in any society depends greatly on the type of
stratification system that exists; whether the society is 'open' or 'closed'.
➢ An 'open' society, based upon achieved statuses, allows its members to attain up ward
social mobility regardless of race, ethnicity, religion and gender.
➢ A “closed society,” is based upon ascribed statuses, does not allow movement up or
down the social strata.
➢ Vertical mobility refers to movement up or down in social hierarchy which results in a
change in social class.
➢ Vertical mobility normally involves intergenerational mobility – a change position
that takes place over two or more generations. Many people who toiled in the cane
fields in the Caribbean experienced this type of vertical mobility as their sons,
daughters and grandchildren became doctors, lawyers and engineers.
➢ Another type of vertical mobility is intragenerational mobility, a change in social
position of a person that takes place during his or her lifetime.
➢ When people experience changes in their jobs, but there is no corresponding change
in their social status, then they are said to be experiencing horizontal mobility. For
example, a person may make several horizontal career changes but does not
significantly alter his or her position in the social hierarchy.
➢ He may undergo a career change from an accountant to a lawyer which may be
important to him but this may result in little mobility as there would not be any
significant change in his privilege, power or wealth.

TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS

All stratification systems may be broadly subdivided into two main types:

➢ Closed
➢ Open.

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Closed System of Stratification

➢ A closed system is a rigid system with clearly demarcated boundaries.

➢ Social statuses are strictly defined and determine access to opportunities.
➢ Social position is ascribed at birth (ascribed status).
➢ There is no social mobility from one level to another.

Examples of Closed Stratification Systems

➢ Slavery
➢ Caste system
➢ Medieval/ Feudal/Estate society

(a)Slavery

➢ Slavery is a system where some human beings are treated as objects of property,
belonging either to another individual or to a social group, such as in the Caribbean
and North America.
➢ As an institution, slavery was reinforced by beliefs of racial inferiority of the enslaved
and justified by the legal system.
➢ The enslaved occupied the lowest strata of the society as their position was ascribed.
As an established official institution, slavery has been eradicated throughout the
world.
➢ The criteria was Race, Wealth and Skin Colour.

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(b)Caste System

➢ In a caste system of stratification, an example of which is traditional India, a person’s

position such as occupation and social relationships is determined at birth by ascribed
statuses such as skin colour.
➢ People who are born into the caste system spend their entire lives within their caste
with little or no chance of changing their position. In the caste system. each position is
defined in terms of purity or pollution relative to each other (Javaram 1987).
➢ In the caste system the most pure – Brahmins or priestly - is allocated the highest
status and are superior to all others in the hierarchy. The least pure - Panchamas or
‘untouchables' are inferior to all of the other castes and are at the base of the
hierarchy.
➢ The caste system is reinforced by the practice of endogamy - marrying within the
caste – and ritualistic religious values that emphasized practices which involved
avoiding contact with members of a lower caste. If a member failed to adhere to the
rituals and practices of his or her caste then he would reincarnate into an inferior
caste.
➢ Today, the Indian caste system has been outlawed, however it does exist informally.

India's Caste System

Brahmins→ Teachers and religious people

Kshatriya→Rulers, warriors and administrators

Viashia→Merchants, traders, farmers and craftsmen

Sudras→Manual workers, labourers and farmers

Panchamas(Untouchables)→Live apart from the rest of society; perform tasks considered

unclean and degrading: such as working with the dead- both animal and human. They include
undertakers, butchers and scavengers.

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(C) Feudal Society

➢ In feudal society the social group into which you determines your life chances
(quality of life , your rights as a citizen and survivability).
➢ In There is almost zero chance of moving up and down social ladder the poor remain
poor all their lives and are very vulnerable.
➢ In contrast the wealthier classes have more privileges, are less vulnerable and have
better life chances.
➢ Most people though remain in social class.
➢ The feudal system existed in Medieval Europe.
➢ During the Middle Ages the major estates were ranked according to their obligations
and rights. The aristocracy and landed gentry at the top, , the clergy (abbots and
bishops) in the middle and the merchants, artisans, peasants bottom of the social
hierarchy.

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Class System

➢ In a class system of stratification, achieved statuses as opposed to ascribed statuses

constitute the basis for the unequal distribution of resources.
➢ A class system is categorized by large groups of people who share similar economic
characteristics.

Open System of Stratification

➢ An open form of stratification is based primarily on economic criteria; particularly

income.
➢ Social position is achieved through one's efforts.
➢ The boundaries between classes are more flexible than with the closed system.
➢ There is opportunity for social mobility as individuals can move up or down the class
system, and therefore their status can improve or decline.
➢ Class membership depends, at least in part, on characteristics which the individual can
control.
➢ The class system in modern industrial society is the best example of an open system
of stratification.
➢ According to Giddens (2001, 282) there have been four basic types of stratification
systems in human history: slavery, caste, estate and class. The first three types are
closed stratification systems, whereas social class is an example of an open
stratification system.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

1.FUNCTIONALISM

Assumptions

➢ Social inequality is necessary and Contributes to the well-being of society.

➢ Stratification systems are fair people are placed in positions base on merit.
➢ Inequality of rewards exist because some roles are more demanding than others.
➢ All societies as some form division

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(a) Davis and Moore (1945)

➢ Sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore believed that stratification serves an
important function in society. In any society, a number of tasks must be
accomplished.
➢ Some tasks, such as cleaning streets or serving coffee in a restaurant, are relatively
simple. Other tasks, such as performing brain surgery or designing skyscrapers, are
complicated and require more intelligence and training than the simple tasks.
➢ Those who perform the difficult tasks are therefore entitled to more power, prestige,
and money. Davis and Moore believed that an unequal distribution of society’s
rewards is necessary to encourage people to take on the more complicated and
important work that required many years of training.
➢ According to Davis and Moore, a firefighter’s job is more important than, for
instance, a grocery store cashier’s. The cashier position does not require the same skill
and training level as firefighting.
➢ Without the incentive of higher pay and better benefits, why would someone be
willing to rush into burning buildings? If pay levels were the same, the firefighter
might as well work as a grocery store cashier. Davis and Moore believed that
rewarding more important work with higher levels of income, prestige, and power
encourages people to work harder and longer.
➢ Davis and Moore stated that, in most cases, the degree of skill required for a job
determines that job’s importance. They also stated that the more skill required for a
job, the fewer qualified people there would be to do that job. Certain jobs, such as
cleaning hallways or answering phones, do not require much skill. The employees
don’t need a college degree. Other work, like designing a highway system or
delivering a baby, requires immense skill.

Davis and Moore(Synopsis of Above)

➢ Some jobs are functionally more important than others.

➢ People are more motivated to perform difficult and demanding tasks if they are well
rewarded.
➢ Ensures that those who perform the best are rewarded.
➢ Reward who make sacrifices are rewarded.

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(b) Talcott Parsons

➢ People who meet societies success goals should be rewarded.

➢ Stratification comes from commonly held value that people accept.
➢ Those who hold leaderships skills and responsibilities should be rewarded. Since not
everyone possess these abilities.
➢ Social allow various groups to be integrated into society.

CRITICISMS OF FUNCTIONALSIM

➢ Sociologist Melvin Tumin took issue with Davis and Moore’s theory. He disagreed
with their assumption that the relative importance of a particular job can always be
measured by how much money or prestige is given to the people who performed those
jobs. That assumption made identifying important jobs difficult.
➢ Tumin countered the Davis-Moore thesis in “Some Principles of Stratification: A
Critical Analysis.” Tumin questioned what determined a job’s degree of importance.
➢ The Davis-Moore thesis does not explain, he argued, why a media personality with
little education, skill, or talent becomes famous and rich on a reality show or a
campaign trail.
➢ The thesis also does not explain inequalities in the education system or inequalities
due to race or gender.
➢ Tumin believed social stratification prevented qualified people from attempting to fill
roles. For example, an underprivileged youth has less chance of becoming a scientist,
no matter how smart she is, because of the relative lack of opportunity available to
her.
➢ The Davis-Moore thesis also does not explain why a basketball player earns millions
of dollars a year when a doctor who saves lives, a soldier who fights for others’ rights,
and a teacher who helps form the minds of tomorrow will likely not make millions
over the course of their careers.

Criticism of Functionalism(Synopsis of Above)

➢ Melvin Tumin argues it is not easy to establish which are functionally more important
➢ Functionalists tend to ignore the dysfunctions in stratification of society
➢ Some stratification systems serve to demotivate e.g. Apartheid and caste system

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 ➢ Davis and Moore’s meritocratic society does not reflect reality.

2.MARXISM

➢ Karl Marx based his conflict theory on the idea that modern society has only two
classes of people: The Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat. The Bourgeoisie are the
owners of the means of production, things such as the factories, businesses, and
equipment needed to produce wealth. The Proletariat are the workers.
➢ According to Marx, the bourgeoisie in capitalist societies exploit workers. The owners
pay them enough to afford food and a place to live, and the workers, who do not
realize they are being exploited, have a false consciousness, or a mistaken sense, that
they are well off. They think they can count on their capitalist bosses to do what was
best for them.
➢ Marx foresaw a workers’ revolution. As the rich grew richer, Marx hypothesized that
workers would develop a true class consciousness, or a sense of shared identity based
on their common experience of exploitation by the bourgeoisie. The workers would
unite and rise up in a global revolution.
➢ Once the dust settled after the revolution, the workers would then own the means of
production, and the world would become communist. No one stratum would control
the access to wealth. Everything would be owned equally by everyone.

Marxist Theory(Synopsis of Above)

➢ Marxists have two class model of society the ruling class and subject class.
➢ It’s a system of exploitation where capitalist gain at the expense of the working class
➢ The system continues to perpetuate itself because some groups have more advantage
over others
➢ Marx advocates a society where things are communally owned.

CRITICISMS OF MARXISM

➢ The class structure today is more complex than Bourgeoise-Proletariat. In most

Western Nations and increasingly in developing nations there is an extensive middle

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 class who have stocks and shares invested in Corporations run by what Marxists
would call the Bourgeoise.
➢ Classic Marxist theory is too economically deterministic. Marx argued that ‘economic
laws’ determined not only the shape of society but also the direction of history itself.
On reflection, however, it is clearly the case that other factors shape society and
history too.
➢ Different societies have responded differently to the global spread of Capitalism –
some have pushed neo-liberalism ,others have taken a social democratic line and used
the state as a buffer to protect citizens from the worst excesses of Capitalist
exploitation (Scandanavian countries),China has developed a form of autocratic-
capitalism and other countries (Cuba and more recently Venezuala) have rejected it in
favour of a Socialist dictatorship.
➢ The Communist Revolutions in Eastern Europe did not lead to greater equality and
freedom as Marx has predicted, therefore communism was not the answer to
capitalism.
➢ Max Weber took issue with Marx’s seemingly simplistic view of stratification. Weber
argued that owning property, such as factories or equipment, is only part of what
determines a person’s social class. Social class for Weber included power and
prestige, in addition to property or wealth. People who run corporations without
owning them still benefit from increased production and greater profits.

Criticisms of Marxism(Synopsis of Above)

➢ Working class is not homogeneous group.

➢ Economic factors are not only criteria for social stratification.
➢ Marxist do not acknowledge the existence of a middle class.

3.MAX WEBER

➢ Webber argues that social stratification is the product of economic power, political
power and status.

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Economic Social Class

➢ Weber expanded the ruling class to include managers, professionals and

administrators.
➢ Peoples skills, qualification and work experience may give them an advantage other
(class situation).
➢ People in the same class share the same chances of obtaining scarce resources of jobs,
income and property.

Weber’s Class Structure

➢ Propertied upper class

➢ White-collar professionals
➢ Petty bourgeoisie
➢ Manual working class

Status Situation

➢ One’s position based on the esteem given to certain criteria it can influence one’ life
chances.
➢ Some groups enjoy much prestige in the society while being only being paid modestly
e.g. University professors, whilst mason and plumbers do not.
➢ Status groups reflect how groups are stratified according to levels of prestige.

Party

➢ A party is a group with similar levels power of power. Weber defined power as being
able to influence others and override decisions. Such power does not have to be allied
with wealth.
➢ Politician will have the power to change laws and institute policy.

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Strengths of Weber’s Contribution

➢ Two class model is inadequate

➢ Economic explanation alone cannot by themselves explain stratification
➢ High economic power may not equate high status.
➢ The subjective views of one’s status can influence where class or social positions are
concerned.
➢ Economic power may or may not be independent of political power.

THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN THE CARIBBEAN

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION DURING SLAVERY (1640-1838)

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Plantation Society (1640-1838)

➢ Closed system based on Race, Class and colour

➢ Based on ascribed status.
➢ Known as Plantation society
➢ Race and class was linked
➢ No social mobility – static and oppressive.

Pyramid Showing Post- Slavery Society(1838-1938)

Post Slavery Society (1838 -1938)

➢ Indentured labourers were imported into Trinidad Jamaica and British Guiana these
immigrants fell at the bottom of the table.
➢ Blacks and Indians were firmly rooted at the bottom by 1917.
➢ Some blacks and educated Coloureds become a part of the Middle Class .
➢ Slight downward mobility for a few whites slip to the middle class however White
remain highest earners.

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1945 Social Pyramid

Post -World War II

➢ In the 1940 and 1950 more primary schools built close Universal primary education
achieved
➢ Not enough secondary schools moreover fees were expensive
➢ Many lower class families still made the effort to send children to secondary school
➢ Religious bodies acted as facilitators for those who could not afford it but showed
promise.

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Pyramid Representing 1950s and Later Independence

Post world war II

➢ The Black power movement began to agitate equality and social justice.
➢ Efforts were made to increase equality and the thrust in education resulted in the
emergence of black middle class. This contributed to changes in social stratification
ascriptive factors were beginning to erode.
➢ Constitutional developments universal adult suffrage later internal self-government.

Post-Independence

➢ By the 1940s and1950s local leaders began to agitate for self-government and
independence from Britain.
➢ These leaders promised to open up education further saying it was the right of all.
➢ Many Caribbean countries gain independence in the 1960s and 1970s.
➢ National governments sought the help of international lending agencies
➢ The tide was turned towards an open system
➢ Despite efforts to build schools secondary schools were in short supply common
entrance examinations were used to place the most able into the limited spaces

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IMPACT OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS ON CARIBBEAN SOCIETIES

1.Selwyn Ryan

Selwyn Ryan (1991) using Trinidad as an example believes that ascriptive values that
permeated Trinidad society no longer exist. This he believe his owing to several factors:

➢ Politics: The takeover by nationalist governments meant employment in government

and the public services for other persons apart from British expats . Policies became
more geared towards national development.
➢ Education: expansion education and of the public school system as helped social
mobility. This has created a new elite with a focus on meritocracy. These new elites
had displaced those who previously held the top position.
➢ The exit of expats and French Creoles and the inclusion technocrats in both public
and education created more employment for other underemployed groups.
➢ The National Joint Action Committee a black conscious party played a pivotal role in
getting the ruling PNM to integrate blacks into the commercial and industrial system.

In summary Ryan found that the male ,white dominated social order that once existed
had given way to a new order based on academic achievement and new wealth.

2. Talcott Parson/ Davis and Moore

➢ Social stratification and social Inequality is not at odds with Social Harmony.
➢ Social stratification and its resulting inequalities grow out of the needs of society.
➢ Davis and Moore(1945)pointed to the variety of tasks in societies today, some more
important than others which would need highly talented man-power who would earn
high rewards. Others who have less important task may earn less.

3. Derek Gordon: Class, status and social mobility In Jamaica(1987)

➢ Between 1943 and 1984 there was significant upward movement to the middle and
upper middle class.
➢ Jamaica has shifted from a narrow plantocratic society to more a dynamic capitalism.
➢ Between 1943-1984 the number of black persons in higher professional to managerial
position moved 20 to 42 percent

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 ➢ Owing to this Jamaica can be seen as a largely open capitalist society with movement
allowed in both class and status.
➢ However, Gordon’s research also showed that opportunities still remained unequal
➢ People with agricultural and domestic background or unskilled back grounds had
virtually no chance at the top of the middle stratum. 1000 persons only seven men or
four women from farming backgrounds would become managers
➢ Members of the elite use their privileges to ensure benefits for their own children .
Thus, their sons and daughter end up in the same position as their parents.

4.CLR James

➢ Caribbean Marxist CLR James posits that despite the social mobility of the Brown
and black Middle class none of these groups never gained economic assets or control
of capital.

5. Beckford, Levitt and Best

Theorist such as George Beckford, Lloyd Best and Kari Levitt (2001) continued to refer
Caribbean societies as plantation societies mainly because:

➢ Some racial groups such as whites and near-whites continue to be at the top.
➢ The bottom is dominated by Indians and blacks.
➢ Skin colour and hair texture still remain a dimension and while it is not official
remains pervasive.
➢ Things European and or foreign still are considered better.

6. Ishmael Baksh

➢ The education system showed the inequalities that were inherent in the stratification
system of Trinidad and Tobago. Ishmael Baksh (1986) in Education, and Equality of
Opportunity in Trinidad and Tobago states that true equality does not exist in Trinidad
since students of the lower classes are disproportionately assigned to junior secondary
schools and are more likely to be technically oriented.

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 ➢ These students are more likely to have lower educational and occupational goals. The
illusion of equality of educational opportunity means that education functions as
restricting social mobility for the lower classes (Baksh).

7. Lloyd Braithwaite(1953)

➢ With reference to Trinidad he noted stratification was based chiefly on colour and
race. He described the society as caste -like comprised of whites at the top and blacks
and others at the bottom.
➢ He argues that Trinidad showed many features of a plural society with different
cultural groups having their own institutions and beliefs.

Social Marginalisation or Social Exclusion

➢ This occurs when a significant proportion of the citizens because of poverty cannot
effectively participate in social life.
➢ These persons have been called the working poor and the under-class.
➢ They perform poorly in education which prevents them from getting into well-paying
jobs, this cause them to exist on the fringes of society.
➢ They exist in slums and poorly constructed dwellings and have limited choices.

Some Would Argue A More Realistic Look at Caribbean Social Stratification

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Social Marginalisation or Social Exclusion (Continued)

➢ The “working poor” those individuals are in employment but who’s wages cannot or
can barely afford the basic necessities. Their very basic wages means that their path
to social mobility remains blocked.
➢ The underclass consist of some elderly person (especially men) unemployed youth
,the disabled, unskilled and uneducated women. This not only speaks to poor life
chances but also social exclusion as well .
➢ The preceding portrays a more realistic view of post independent Caribbean society.

Social Stratification and Crime

➢ A continuing Impact that the marginalisation of the lower classes is having is the
escalation of violent crime, particularly among the young males in the underclass
(Jeniffer Mohammed p288). The attraction of lies in grasping at what another has ,
something that is desirable and valuable, and at the same time not getting caught. This
is the motivation for violent and non-violent crime
➢ Mohammad also posits that among the members of the lowest social class, where
there is extreme hunger ,hopelessness and destitution these persons have little to lose.
They form a ready pool of potential criminals easily manipulated by those of higher
social standing.
➢ Violent crime has become an everyday occurrence in territories such as Trinidad,
Jamaica and Guyana ,one of the root causes of this crime wave lie in the extreme
marginalization of the poorest sectors of the community whose plight are not
seriously taken up by national governments.

Gender and Stratification

➢ Jamaican females have twice the unemployment rate despite the fact that they have
qualifications.
➢ Women tend to be concentrated in the narrow range of occupation middle
management and service industries whereas men are employed over a wider range of
areas.
➢ Women earn less than men and are paid less for same job.

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 ➢ Education has brought improvements as they are now employed in higher status jobs
➢ The possibility of maternity is one reason why men may not sponsor women to carry
heavier leadership roles. Thus some believe a Glass ceiling exist where women are
concerned.

NOTES I DID NOT WANT TO LEAVE OUT

Social Stratification

This term refers to the classification or categorization of people into groups, with specific
commonalities. Such groupings may include: economic status, prestige, culture, race,
religion, age, gender or any other characteristic.

Social Stratification exists in every known human society. This classification system may be
informed by the values of the society. Particularistic values, tend to create closed
stratification systems. Whilst universal values create a more transient or open stratification
system.

Social Mobility is the change in the social status of an individual. The term social , relates to
any aspect of life affected by peer to peer relations and interactions. Mobility is indicative of
movement. Thus the concept of social mobility addresses the issue of movement of an
individual within the social stratification system.

In the Caribbean social stratification is unique, since individual members may hold multiple
stations within the same social strata. What does this mean? Let take for example a young
professional Afro-Caribbean woman. Most Caribbean territories are characterized by
stratification structure that is rooted in a synthesized universalistic and particularistic value
system.

Under the universalistic/meritocratic value system, this individual's rank may be different to
her ranking under the particularistic/traditional value system. Further, the individual's
placement in both instances can be mutually exclusive.

Social Stratification

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Functionalists would consider the following issues in theorizing about the phenomenon of
social stratification:

1. What is the function of social stratification?

* To maintain social order

* To ensure that all roles are filled

* Roles are filled by those best suited to efficiently execute them.

2. What are the functions of a class system?

* To classify and rank roles according to merit and importance

* To encourage individuals to invest time and effort in education, and skills acquisition for
the functionally more important roles.

3. Why is social stratification necessary?

- To ensure that society continues to exist.

Altogether, Davis and Moore contend that:

Social inequality is an unconsciously evolved device by which societies insure that the most
important positions are filled by the most qualified persons. Hence every society, no matter
how simple or complex, must differentiate persons in terms of both prestige and esteem, and
must therefore possess a certain amount of institutionalized inequality. (Mc-Graw-Hill, 1980)

Criticisms:

1. Anthropologists contend that social stratification or institutionalized inequality is not

necessarily inevitable, nor universal. Instead they suggest that some hunting /gathering
societies do not appear to have structured inequality.

2. Tumin presents the following arguments in opposition to Davis and Moore’s

postulations:

• Academics have difficulty in defining positions as more or less important.

• There are several essential/functionally important jobs that are not prestigious.

• Any form of social inequality, has the tendency to discriminate against persons in lower
ranks of the strata.

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• Individuals in lower stratas have fewer opportunities in comparison to those from higher
stratas to realize/develop their talents.

• Some members of the upper strata may be so positioned simply by virtue of

birth/ascription and not necessarily due to merit.

Caribbean Stratification

Overview

The Caribbean stratification system has been influenced by its history of Colonialism,
Plantation Slavery and Indentureship. Although, most of these territories are currently
politically independent nation-states, the legacy of their history have continued to impact
upon their individual social structure.

Caribbean Theories of Stratification

Plantation Society –

This theory of Caribbean society, though based on the original plantation model of, can be
applied to contemporary Caribbean societies.

• Upper Class/caste/ruling elites (traditionally white) – own wealth, means of production

and political power

• Intermediate Class/caste (mulatto/browns) – usually educated, own some wealth, (desire

but) lack political power

• Working Class/caste ( blacks) – slaves, uneducated, lack wealth and political power.

Academics contend that the Upper Class on the contemporary Caribbean continues to be
whites. These either descents of the old planter class aristocracy (eg. The Beke of Martinique
–descents of French planters – own most of the islands supermarkets, hotels, land,
transportation, control import prices,) continue to own and control a significant proportion of
the territory’s wealth, and as such wield great economic, social and political power. The non-

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white populations continue to be situated at the lower end of the social strata. They constitute
the public servants and unskilled workers in the society.

Plural Society

• Smith argues that most societies in the Caribbean are plural societies where there exists
significant cultural diversity and race antagonism

• Various ethnic groups have their own socio-economic institutions but not their own
political system

• It is the cultural and race diversity that causes the discord between the cultural groups.

• Social inequality exists between ethnic groups. These inequalities are transient depending
on the social actor. Factors of colour, religion, culture, economic background, education all
influence positioning within the social strata.

Creole Society

• Is described as a hybrid/syncretic/new society.

• The stratification system is informed by an ascriptive-particularistic value system

(Braithwaite)

• Ryan contends however that the ascriptive-particularistic value system that informed the
pre-independence era, gave way to meritocracy in the post-independence era. Some elements
of the ascriptive value system continue to exist.

Closed/quasi caste stratas ----------- Flexible/Open class based stratas

Colonialism ------------------------- Self-Governance

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Plural Society

Many of the societies which have problems of multicultural governance are former multi-
ethnic colonies. A theory of such colonial and post-colonial societies draws particularly on
the work of J.S.Furnivall and M.G.Smith.

According to Furnivall different ethnic groups in a plural society meet only in the market
place. This market place however lacks the characteristics which Durkheim envisaged in his
concept of organic solidarity. It lacks the shared values which organic solidarity requires and
involves brutal conflict and exploitation. The sense of solidarity on which morality depends is
to be found within the different ethnic groups when they go home from the market place.
Within these groups there is intense solidarity and moral unity.

Furnivall worked in Burma but wrote about Java drawing on the work of the Dutch economic
theorist, Boeke. Boeke writes that in the economy of Netherlands India “there is a
materialism, rationalism and individualism and a concentration on economic ends far more
complete and absolute than in homogeneous Western lands” As he sees it this is a capitalism
quite different from that which grew slowly over hundreds of years and maintained its moral
roots. M.G..Smith wrote originally about Grenada but his theory of the plural society has
been widely used in the analysis of colonial and post-colonial societies in the Caribbean.
Smith is aware of the general sociological theory of Talcott Parsons and its assumption of
four mutually supportive institutions. In the Caribbean, however he argues that there are
several co-existing ethnic groups each of which has a nearly complete set of social
institutions. Setting his argument within the context of a review of social anthropological
theories used in studying the Caribbean, he sees the various ethnic groups as having their own
family systems, there own productive economies, their own languages and religion but not
their own political system. In the political sphere they are all controlled by one dominant
segment... To put this in more concrete terms Blacks are descended from Slaves, Indians
from indentured labourers. The groups have remained distinct and have their own institutions.
They exist however politically under the domination of an outside power. Thus the defining
feature of a plural society is seen as this process of the domination of all ethnic groups by the
colonial power. New problems arise when the colonial power withdraws.

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Whereas Furnivall sees the different ethnic groups as bound together by the economic fact of
the market place, Smith sees them as bound together by a political institution, the colonial
state.

One crucial institution in the Caribbean was the slave plantation. The history of plantations is
traced by Max Weber in his General Economic History to the manor. But the Caribbean slave
plantation comes into existence when capitalism directs horticultural production to the
market. Similar developments occur in mining. M.G Smith’s theory has to take account of
this. In fact he sees the plantation as one form of political institution.

M.G.Smith collaborated with the South African, Leo Kuper in producing a series of essays on
Africa and also turned his attention to the United States in his book Corporations and Society,
The case of South Africa is of special interest calling for an analysis of a society based upon
rural labour migrating to the gold mines. The United States has developed as neither
homogeneous nor plural but heterogeneous.

Smith has to deal with the question of social class. This is easy enough for he has only to say
that each group has its own internal class structure. He does, however, have to compare his
own theory to that of Marx. He cannot accept that group formation occurs between those
having the same or different relations to the means of production, nor that “in the social
production of the means of life men enter into circumstances which are independent of their
will” For Smith the culture of ethnic groups in a plural society is not simply determined in
this way. The plural segments in colonial society operate according to a different dynamic
which it is the purpose of Plural Society theory to explain.

Rex has attempted to set out a theory of the plural society which does justice to Marxian and
other theories as well as those of Smith. This involves first of all recognizing that such
societies go though several phases of development, pre-colonial, colonial and post colonial.
In the colonial phase relations to the means of production are important, even though they are
more varied than Marxist categories suggest involving such structures as the encomienda in
Spanish America. At the same time however groups have a relationship to each other
reminiscent of the mediaeval estate system in Europe different groups having the cultures,
rights and privileges which attach to their function. In the post-colonial phase there would be
according to this theory a number of developments. One would be the subordination of
peasants to the large estates or latitudinal, a second would be the replacement of the former
colonial power by a group able to take over its powers, a third would be a change in which

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new primarily economic centres replaced the colonial power, and so far as resistance and
struggle within the new system is concerned

Fanonism laying emphasis upon the national struggle would take precedence over class
struggle.

The application of plural society theory to capitalist societies based upon mining produces a
different set of problems. There rural agricultural reserves are expected to provide social
back-up so that males of working age can live in segregated compounds or locations and be
intensively exploited. This is a situation very much like that described by Furnivall.

References.

Boeke J, .H. “De Economische Theorie der Dualistiche Saamleving” quoted by Furnivall
Op.cit p452.

Durkheim, E., (1933), The Division of Labour in Society, Free Press, Glencoe Illinois

Furnivall, J. S., (1939) Netherlands India, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,

Rex, J., (1981), “A Working Paradigm for Race Relations Research” Ethnic and Racial
Studies, Vol 4 No 1 pp1-25

Smith, M, G., (1965), The Plural Society in the British West Indies, University of California
Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles.

Smith, M.G., (1964), Corporations and Society, Duckworth, London,

Smith, M., G., and Kuper, L., (1969), Pluralism in Africa, University of California Press
Berkeley and Los Angeles.

Weber, M., (1961) General Economic History, Collier Books, New York.

How to answer essay questions

The student should be able to satisfactorily explain and identify the theorists who advocate
and critique the following:

• Functionalism - views on Society (Social Order, Social Mobility and Stratification),

Institutions (Family, Religion, Education)

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• Marxist - views on Society (Social Order and Stratification), Institutions (Family,
Religion, Education)

• Interpretivism - views on Society (Social Order and Stratification), Institutions

(Family, Religion, Education)

• Feminism

• Plantation Society Theory

• Plural Society

• Creole Society Theory

• Methods of Research - Positivism, Interpretivism

Become familiar with current statistics (where available) on issues relating to

• Become familiar with approximately three Caribbean countries, with regards to:
Social mobility and Social Stratification

• Religious affiliation and historical development/recent developments

• Changes in Family structure eg, delayed marriage rates, divorce rates etc.

• Changes in Education policy and its effects on the contemporary populations

Questions

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CAPE 2003 - Unit 1 Module 3

1. Account for the substantial upward mobility of women and growing marginalization of
men in the Caribbean. (25 marks)

2. It is evident that women are seeing quite a profound increase in social mobility in
Caribbean Society, Discuss the major factors that have influenced patterns of social mobility
for women in any NAMED Caribbean society. [25 marks]

3. Discuss the factors that have caused the Caribbean to move from a “relatively closed
society” to a “relatively opened society”. [25 marks]

4. Discuss changes in the system of social stratification in a named Caribbean country after
World War II. (25 marks)

CAPE 2004 - Unit 1 - M3

5. During slavery and colonialism, status in Caribbean society was largely ascribed. Explain
why status determination is based more on achievement and less ascription in contemporary
Caribbean society. (25 marks)

CAPE 2004 - U1 M3

6. Evaluate on the view that, without social stratification and social mobility, society would
collapse. Provide examples or illustrations from the Caribbean to support your answer. (25
marks)

7. Assess the limitations of applying the plantation society model as proposed by Beckford to
an understanding of the cultural development of Caribbean society? (25marks)

CAPE 2006 - U1 M3

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8. "One of the defining features of modern societies is social equality among their members."
Provide arguments for OR against this statement (25 marks)

CAPE 2006 - U1 M3

9. Analyze the influence of Social Class on stratification in the Caribbean today. (25 marks)

CAPE 2011 - U1 M3

10. "The education system in the Caribbean perpetuates gender inequality in the society."

Examine this statement with reference to the role of the education system in perpetuating
gender inequality in a named Caribbean society. ( 25 marks)

CAPE 2011 - U1 M3

11. Colour, ethnicity and gender are MAJOR factors that have influenced the stratification
system in Caribbean societies

Examine TWO of the MAJOR factors mentioned above as they relate to the stratification
system in a named Caribbean Society. (25 marks)

12. Examine the relevance of social class as a factor in the study of social stratification in the
Caribbean. Support your response with reference to any study in the Caribbean. (25 marks)
CAPE 2008 U1 M3

13. Examine the extent to which academic achievement levels in the contemporary
Caribbean are directly related to social class OR gender. Support your response with
reference to any study of education in the Caribbean. (25 marks) CAPE 2008 U1 M3

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