Surfaces over which materials are • Increased surface area

exchanged from one area to another • Thin layers

• Good blood supply

List the features of effective • Ventilation to maintain diffusion

What are exchange surfaces?
exchange surfaces gradient

The surface area of an organism Provides the area needed for

divided by its volume
exchange and overcomes the
limitations of the SA:V ratio of larger
As size increases..
Why do exchange surfaces organisms

What is surface area to volume have increased surface area?

• Surface area increases

ratio (SA:V)?
• Volume increases, more quickly • e.g. root hair cells in plants, and
than surface area
villi in the small intestine
• Surface area to volume ratio
decreases These mean the distances
substances have to diffuse are
• Single-celled organisms have low short, making the process fast and
metabolic activity, so oxygen Why do exchange surfaces efficient

Why is diffusion alone enough demands are carbon dioxide have thin layers?
to supply single-celled production of the cell are relatively
• e.g. alveoli in the lungs, and villi of
organisms? low
the small intestine
• They have a large surface area to
volume ratio (SA:V)
• The steeper the concentration
gradient, the faster diffusion takes
• Small SA:V ratio
place

• Distance is too far for effective • Having a good blood supply

diffusion to take place
ensures substances are constantly
• Diffusion is too slow for the delivered to and removed from the
Why do multicellular organisms oxygen and nutrients to diffuse Why do exchange surfaces
exchange surface

require specialised exchange across the whole organism

have good blood supply?
• This maintains a steep
surfaces? • Surface area is no longer large concentration gradient for
enough to supply the needs of the diffusion

larger volume

• e.g. the alveoli of the lungs, the

• Multicellular organisms are also gills of a fish, and the villi of the
metabolically active small intestine
 • For gases, a ventilation system • Incomplete rings of strong, flexible
helps maintain concentration cartilage, which stop the trachea
gradients and makes the process Describe the function of from collapsing

Why do exchange surfaces more efficient

• Rings are incomplete so that food
cartilage supporting the
have ventilation? • e.g. the alveoli, and gills of a fish can move easily down the
trachea
where ventilation means a flow of oesophagus behind the trachea
water carrying dissolved gases

Describe mammals • Relatively big; small SA:V ratio and Describe the lining of the • Lined with a ciliated epithelium
large volume of cells
trachea and its branches with goblet cells between and
• High metabolic rate because they below the epithelial cells

are active and maintain their body • Goblet cells secrete mucus onto
temperature
the lining of the trachea

• Therefore need lots of O2 for • Cilia beat and move the mucus
cellular respiration and produce along with anything trapped, away
CO2 which needs to be removed from the lungs

• Most of it goes into the throat, is

swallowed and digested

• Cigarette smoke stops these cilia

beating
• Large surface area with good
blood supply which warms the air Similar to the trachea, with the same
to body temperature
supporting rings of cartilage, but
they are smaller. Cartilage rings are
Describe the features of the • Hairy lining which secretes mucus
to trap dust and bacteria
Describe the bronchi complete here
nasal cavity
• Moist surfaces which increase
humidity of incoming air, reducing
evaporation from the exchange
surfaces
The main airway, supported by
incomplete rings of cartilage, which
carries warm moist air down from
What is the trachea? the nasal cavity into the chest
 • Smaller bronchioles (diameter 1. 300-500 million alveoli per adult
>1mm) have no cartilage rings
lung. Alveolar surface area for
• Walls contain smooth muscle; gases exchange in the 2 lungs
contracts: the bronchioles combined is 20-75m2

constrict (close), relaxes: they Describe these adaptations of 2. Both alveoli and the surrounding
Describe the bronchioles dilate (open)
the alveoli for effective gas capillaries are only 1 epithelial
• This changes amount of air exchange: cell thick, so the diffusion
reaching the lungs
distance is very short

• Lined with a thin layer of flattened 1. Large surface area 3. Surrounded by a network of 280
epithelium making some gas 2. Thin layers million capillaries. Constant flow
exchange possible 3. Good blood supply of blood maintains a steep
4. Good ventilation concentration grades for CO2
What are alveoli? Tiny air sacs which are the main gas and O2

exchange surfaces of the body

4. breathing moves air in and out of
• Unique to mammalian lungs
the alveoli, helping to maintain
• Each has a diameter of steep diffusion gradients
200-300μm and consists of:

• Thin layer of flattened epithelial A thin layer a solution of water, salts

cells, along with some collagen and lung surfactant

and elastic fibres (composed of

elastin) • O2 dissolves in the water before
What is the inner surface of the diffusing into the blood, but water
alveoli covered in? can also evaporate into the air in
the alveoli

• They allow the alveoli to stretch as • Several of the adaptations of the

air in drawn in
human gas exchange system are
• When they return to their resting to reduce this loss of water
What if the function of elastic size, they help squeeze the air out

tissues in the alveoli? Chemical mixture containing

• This is known as the elastic recoil phospholipids and both
of the lungs hydrophobic and hydrophilic
What is lung surfactant? proteins, which coats the surfaces of
the alveoli and prevents them
collapsing after every breath
 • Rib cage: Provides a semi-rigid • Peak flow meter; device that
case within which pressure can be measure the rate at which air can
lowered with respect to the air be expelled from the lungs

Describe the following outside it

• Vitalographs; more sophisticated
1. Rib cage • Diaphragm: Broad, domed sheet Describe 3 ways of measuring peak flow meter, produces graph
2. Diaphragm
of muscle, the floor of the thorax
the capacity of the lungs of amount of air breathed out and
• External & Internal Intercostal how quickly. Volume of air is called
3. External & Internal muscles found between the ribs
forced expiratory volume in 1
intercostal muscles • Pleural membranes: line the second

4. Pleural membranes thorax, surround the lungs

• Spirometer
5. Pleural cavity • Pleural cavity: Usually filled with a
thin layer of lubricating fluid so the 1. Subject should wear a nose clip
membranes slide easily over each to ensure no O2 escapes from
other as you breathe the system and no additional air
How does a spirometer work?
is added

• Diaphragm contracts to move 2. Subject breathes through the

What happens in inspiration down and become flatter - this mouth piece

(inhaling)? displaces the digestive system 3. As the subject inhales, O2 is

organ downwards
drawn from the air chamber
• External intercostal muscles which therefore descends

contract to raise the ribs

4. As the subject exhales, the air
• Volume of chest cavity increases
chamber rises again

• Pressure in the chest cavity drops 5. Air returning to the air chamber
below the atmospheric pressure
passes through the canister of
• Air is moved into the lungs soda lime which absorbs CO2

6. Movements of the air chamber

• Diaphragm relaxes and is pushed are recorded by a data logger or
up by the displaced organs on a revolving drum
underneath

What is expiration (exhaling)? • External intercostal muscles

relaxed and rises falls; internal
intercostal muscles can contract
to help push air out more forcefully
(only happens during exercise, or
coughing and sneezing)

• Volume of chest cavity decreases

• Pressure in the lungs increases

and rises above pressure in the
surrounding atmosphere

• Air is moved out of the lungs

 1. Tidal volume: Volume of air that
moves into and out of the lungs
with each resting breath. About
500cm3, which uses 15% of the
vital capacity of the lungs
2. Vital capacity: Volume of air that
can be breathed in when the
Define the following strongest possible exhalation is
followed by the deepest possible
intake of breath
volume in the air chamber
3. Inspiratory reserve volume:
Maximum volume of air you can
breathe in over and above a
normal inhalation
calculated? between the last peak from the
4. Expiratory reserve volume: Extra
amount of air you can force out
of your lungs over and above the
normal tidal volume of air you
breathe out
5. Residual volume: Volume of air
that is left in your lungs when
you have exhaled as hard as
possible. This can’t be measured
directly
increase? lungs and so O2 uptake during
6. Total lung capacity: The sum of
the vi
The number of breaths taken per
minute
What is breathing rate?
tidal volume x breathing rate (per
minute)
What is ventilation rate?
• As CO2 is removed, the total
decreases
• the volume of O2 absorbed is
How is oxygen uptake shown by the difference in height
first peak during normal breathing
• Divide this volume by time taken in
order to calculate the rate of
oxygen uptake
Tidal volume of air moved in and out
of the lungs with each breath can
What happens when the increase from 15%- 50%. Breathing
oxygen demands of the body rate also increases. Ventilation of the
gaseous exchange can be increased
to meet demands of tissues
• Very active during parts of their life
cycles
• Land-dwelling animals with
relatively high O2 requirements
• Tough exoskeleton through which
Describe insects little or no gaseous change
• Don’t usually have blood pigments
that can carry O2
• Gas exchange system delivers O2
directly to the cells and removes
CO2 in the same way
 Small openings along the thorax and • Minute tubes of diameter
abdomen of an insect that open and 0.6-0.8μm

close to control amount of air • Each tracheal is a single elongated

moving in and out of the gas cell with no chitin lining, so they
exchange system, and water loss are freely permeable to gases

What are spiracles? from the exchange surfaces

• Spread through ought the tissues
• Spiracles can be opened or closed of the insect, running between
by sphincters
individual cells

What are tracheoles?

• Spiracle sprinters are kept closed • Where most of gas exchange
as much as possible to minimise takes place between air and the
water loss respiring cells

• Vast number gives very large

• Largest tubes of insect respiratory surface area for GA

system

• O2 dissolves on moisture on the

• Up to 1mm in diameter
walls of tracheoles and diffuses
• Carry air into the body
into surrounding cells
• Run both into and along the body
of the insect
Fluid found at the ends of the
What are the tracheae?
• Tubes are lined by spirals of chitin, tracheoles in insects that helps to
which keep the open if they are control the surface area available for
bent or pressed
gas exchange and water loss.

What is tracheal fluid?

• Chitin is relatively impermeable to
gases, so little gas exchange takes • Gas exchange occurs between the
place in the trachea air in the tracheole and tracheal
fluid
 1. Insects don’t transport O2 in Mechanical ventilation of the
blood
tracheal system:

2. They have an air-filled tracheal • Air is actively pumped into the

system that supplies air directly system by muscular pumping
How does gas exchange take to all the respiring tissues
movements of the thorax/
place in insects? 3. Air enters the system via pores abdomen

called spiracles
• Movements change the volume of
4. Air passes through the body in a body and this changes pressure in
series of tubes called tracheae
How do larger insects increase tracheae and tracheoles

5. These divide into smaller tubes • Air is drawn into the trachea and
the level of gas exchange to
called tracheoles
tracheoles, or forced out, as the
6. The end of the tracheoles open
supply the extra oxygen they pressure changes

into tracheal fluid

need?
7. Gas exchange occurs between Collapsible enlarged tracheae or air
the air in the tracheole and the sacs which act as air reservoirs:

tracheal fluid • Used to increase the amount of air

moved through the gas exchange
• e.g when the insect is flying
system

• A lactic acid build up in the tissues • Usually inflate and deflated by the
results in water moving out of the ventilating movements of the
What happens when oxygen tracheoles by osmosis

demands build up? thorax and abdomen

• This exposes more surface area
for gas exchange • Water is 1000 times denser than
air

What are the extra difficulties • Water is 100 times more viscous
fish respiratory systems have than air

to overcome? • Water has a much lower oxygen

content than air

• e.g. trout and cod

• Relatively big, active animals that

live almost exclusively in water

• Active so have a high O2 demand

Describe bony fish • Their SA:V ratio means that

diffusion is not enough to supply
inner cells with O2 they need

• Scaly outer covering doesn’t allow

gas exchange
 The gaseous change organs of fish, • Floor of buccal cavity is lowered

comprised of gill plates, gill • Increases volume of buccal cavity

filaments and gill lamellae.

• Pressure in the cavity drops and
water moves in

• They have the large surface area, • Opercular valve shuts, opercular
good blood supply, and thin layers What happens when the mouth cavity containing gills expands

What are gills? needed for successful gas is opened? • This lowers pressure in opercular
exchange
cavity containing gills

• Contained in a gill cavity and are • Floor of buccal cavity starts to

covered by protective operculum, move up, increasing pressure
which is also active in maintaining there so water moves from buccal
a flow of water over the gills cavity over the gills

• Efferent blood vessel carries the • Operculum opens and sides of

blood leaving the gills in the opercular cavity move inwards

opposite direction to the incoming • Pressure in opercular cavity

water, maintaining a steep increases

How are the gills adapted for What happens when the mouth
concentration gradient
• Water is forced over the gills and
successful gas exchange? closes?
• Each gill consists of 2 rows of gill out of the operculum

filaments (primary lamellae) • Floor of buccal cavity is steadily

attached to a gill arch. Their rich moved up, maintaining a flow of
blood supply and large surface water over the gills
area, are the main site of gas
exchange in the fish
Tips of adjacent gill filaments
overlap

• Gill filaments are very thin, and

their surface is folded into many • Increases resistance to the flow of
secondary lamellae (gill plates) and water over the gill surfaces and
need a flow of water to keep them slows down movement of water

apart, exposing the large surface • More time for gas exchange to
area needed for gas exchange What are 2 other adaptations take place

of gills that ensure most

Countercurrent flow (water moving
effective gas exchange occurs over the gills and the blood in the gill
in water? filaments flow in opposite directions)

• Steeper concentration gradients

maintained than parallel system

• Concentration gradient maintained

all along gill

• Bony fish remove 80% (CC),

Cartilaginous fish remove 50% (P)