Astronomy & Astrophysics manuscript no.

AA ESO
c 2021
June 14, 2021

How the nonlinear coupled oscillators modelization explains

the Blazhko effect, the synchronisation of layers, the mode
selection, the limit cycle and the red limit of the instability
strip.
C. Zalian1

Laboratoire Lagrange, Université Côte d’Azur , Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Parc Valrose, Bât. H. FIZEAU,
06108 Nice, France
arXiv:1610.03323v1 [astro-ph.SR] 7 Oct 2016

Received ...; accepted ...

ABSTRACT

Context. The Blazhko effect, in RR Lyrae type stars, is a century old mystery. Dozens of theory exists, but none have
been able to entirely reproduce the observational facts associated to this modulation phenomenon. Existing theory all
rely on the usual continuous modelization of the star.
Aims. We present a new paradigm which will not only explain the Blazhko effect, but at the same time, will give us
alternative explanations to the red limit of the instability strip, the synchronization of layers, the mode selection and
the existence of a limit cycle for radially pulsating stars.
Methods. We describe the RR Lyrae type pulsating stars as a system of coupled nonlinear oscillators. Considering a
spatial discretisation of the star, supposing a spherical symmetry, we develop the equation of motion and energy up to
the third order in the radial and adiabatic case. Then, we include the influence of the ionization region as a relaxation
oscillator by including elements from synchronisation theory.
Results. This discrete approach allows us to exploit existing results in the coupled nonlinear oscillator field. For instance,
the study of synchronicity leads to an explanation of the mode selection, the layers synchronisation, the limit cycle
and the red limit of the instability strip. But, most of all, the analogy with the Fermi-Pasta-Ulam (FPU) experiment
enables us to understand the Blazhko effect. The transfer of energy between different modes, as induced by solitons,
not only gives a plausible theory for lightcurve modulation, but also explains the asymmetry of sidelobes.
Key words. stars:oscillations (including pulsations) – stars:variables:RR Lyrae

1. Introduction magnetic field. The asymmetric structured spectrum ob-

RR Lyrae type stars are pulsating horizontal branch A-F
stars, with period ranging from 0.2 to 1.2 day. They are rela-
tively low-mass, metal poor Population-II stars with an av-
erage absolute magnitude of 0.75 and are commonly found
in globular clusters. Since their discovery at the end of the
nineteenth century, they have contributed to almost every
branch of astronomy, from chemical and dynamical proper-
ties of old stellar populations to distance measurements.
In 1907, Russian astronomer Sergey Nikolaevich
Blazhko observed an amplitude modulation of the periodic
pulsation of a RR Lyrae type star, RW Dra (Blazko 1907).
This phenomenon, now known as the Blazhko effect, has
been since observed in many others RRab, RRc and recently
in RRd type star. However, none of the dozens existing
models managed to describe fully the whys and wherefores
of this amplitude and period modulation. Amongst these,
three are consider as the most cogent : Shibahashi magnetic
model (Shibahashi 2000), Nowakowski & Dziembowski res-
onance mechanism (Nowakowski & Dziembowski 2001) and
Stothers’ convective model (Stothers 2006). Still, none are
entirely satisfactory. The magnetic oblique rotator mecha-
nism proposed by Shibahashi has been ruled out by Chadid
et al. (2004) due to the absence of the required 1kG strong
served in Blazhko stars (Chadid & Chapellier 2006) under-
mines the resonance models, based on a nonlinear resonant
coupling between the dominant radial mode, and nonradial
models. Finally, the model suggested by Stothers, based on
a periodic change in the turbulent convective properties of
the star, has also been dismissed by Molnár et al. (2012) due
to its incapability to explain strong modulation on short
time scale. Recently, the possibility of an unstable resonant
interaction between the fundamental and the ninth radial
overtone has been suggested as a new paradigm for the
Blazhko effect (Buchler & Kolláth (2011), Szabó (2014)).
In this paper, we present a new theory which, not only
explains the Blazhko effect, including the asymmetry of
sidelobes, but also covers other topics such as the synchro-
nisation of layers and the mode selection.
In the first part, we develop the nonlinear and discrete
equation of pulsation in the radial adiabatic case. Then,
we present the Fermi-Pasta-Ulam experiment and show the
similarities between the behaviour of the adiabatic layers
and the one of nonlinear coupled oscillators. This analogy
will bring a new theory for the Blazhko effect based on en-
ergy transfer, induced by solitons, between modes. Then,
we give a theoretical interpretation of sidelobes asymme-
Article number, page 1 of 12
 A&A proofs: manuscript no. AA

r0, L0 r1, L1 r2, L2 ri-1, Li-1 ri, Li rJ-1, LJ-1 rJ, LJ

2.2. Nonlinear development

P1/2 P3/2 Pi-1/2 PJ-1/2

We will develop this equation using the perturbation theory
V1/2 V3/2
...
Vi-1/2
...
VJ-1/2 up to the third-order. ri will be decompose in the following
T1/2 T3/2 Ti-1/2 TJ-1/2 way :
M1/2 M3/2 Mi-1/2 MJ-1/2

ri = ri,0 + δri,0 + 2 δri,1 + 3 δri,2 + o 3

(3)
Fig. 1. Spatial discretisation of the star : Pi−1/2 , Vi−1/2 , Ti−1/2 , Which can also be formulated as :
Mi−1/2 representing respectively the pressure, the specific vol-
ume and the temperature at the center of the layer, and ri , Li ,
ri = ri,0 +  δri,0 + δri,1 + 2 δri,2 + o 2



respectively, the distance to the center and the luminosity.
= r0 + δri (4)
try and show that our model is able to explain it. Finally, with δri = δri,0 + δri,1 + 2 δri,2 + o  . 2


we also present how this analogy can explain the period δP and δV are simply related in the adiabatic case :
doubling effect. The third part is dedicated to the ioniza-
tion region and its inclusion in our model. We begin with    
a modelization of this zone in terms of relaxation oscillator δP δρ
= Γ1,i−1/2 (5)
as suggested by the study of the lightcurve and radial ve- P i−1/2 ρ i−1/2
locity enveloppes of RR Lyrae stars presenting the Blazhko
effect. Then, we introduce the concept of synchronisation together with (1), we obtain the perturbed equation :
in nonlinear oscillators. By considering the influence of the
ionization layer on the adiabatic ones, first as a periodic ex-
citation, later on as a system of two coupled self sustained 2 
d2 (ri,0 + δri ) 4πri,0

Gmi 2Gmi δri δri
oscillators, we demonstrate the synchronisation of layers, as = − + 1 + 2 ×
dt2 2
ri,0 3
ri,0 DMi ri,0
suggested by Cox (1980), and also, the existence of three   
types of oscillations corresponding to today classification of δρi+1/2
Pi+1/2,0 1 + Γ1,i+1/2,0
RR Lyrae stars, namely : RRab, RRc and RRd. But most ρi+1/2,0
of all, it also gives a new theory for the red limit of the 
δρi−1/2

instability strip and the existence of a limit cycle. −Pi−1/2,0 1 + Γ1,i−1/2,0 (6)
ρi−1/2,0

The third-order approximation of the previous equation

2. A nonlinear and discrete modelization of gives :
pulsation
d2 δri ki−1/2 λi ki+1/2
2.1. Spatial discretisation =− δri−1 − δri − δri+1
dt 2 DMi DMi DMi

Considering the star as a sphere, we divide its volume into αi−1/2 2 Ai αi+1/2 2
+ δri−1 + δri2 + δr
J concentric zones of constant mass in time (see Figure 1). DMi DMi DMi i+1
The J + 1 interfaces, are characterised by the extrinsic vari- ci−1/2 ci+1/2

ables ri et Li (respectively the distance to the center and + δri δri−1 + δri+1 δri
the interior luminosity) and J layers, characterised by the DMi DMi

intrinsic variables Pi−1/2 , Vi−1/2 , Ti−1/2 , Mi−1/2 (respec- βi−1/2 3 Bi βi+1/2 3
+ 2 δri−1 + δri3 + δr
tively the pressure, the specific volume and the temperature DMi DMi DMi i+1
evaluated the centre of the layer).
ξi−1/2 2 ξi+1/2 2
For the moment, we will restrain our demonstration to + δri δri−1 + δri δri+1
DMi DMi
the adiabatic case. For each layer, the equation of movement 
is written : Ξi−1/2 2 Ξi+1/2 2
+ δr δri−1 + δr δri+1 (7)
DMi i DMi i

Where :
d2 ri Gmi 4πri2 Pi+1/2 − Pi−1/2
= + (1)
dt2 ri2 DMi
 
2 2 Γ1 P ρ
ki−1/2 = 16π (ri ri−1 ) (8)
M i−1/2
where mi ≡ Mr,i is the mass interior to interface i, and
where : 2Gmi DMi

λi = 3 − 8πri Pi+1/2 − Pi−1/2
ri
"    #
2 4 Γ1 P ρ Γ1 P ρ
1 − 16π ri + (9)
DMi ≡


Mi−1/2 + Mi+1/2 (2) M i−1/2 M i+1/2
2
Article number, page 2 of 12
 C. Zalian: Nonlinear coupled oscillators, Blazhko effect and synchronisation.

"  
P Γ1 ρ
αi±1/2 = − 16π 2 r+
2
r−
M i±1/2
#
P Γ1 ρ2
 
±64π 3 r+
2 4
r− (10)
M2 i±1/2

Gmi

Ai = 3 + 4 π Pi+1/2 − Pi−1/2
ri 4
"    #
2 3 P Γ1 ρ P Γ1 ρ Fig. 2. Spatial evolution of ki−1/2 and λi coefficients in CGS.
+ 48 π ri + (11)
M M The data comes from a MESA (Paxton et al. 2011) model of a
i+1/2 i−1/2
" # horizontal branch star with M = 0.7M and Z = 0.0001.
2 2
  
P Γ 1 ρ P Γ 1 ρ
+ 64 π 3 ri 6 −
M2 i+1/2 M2 i−1/2

P Γ1 ρ2
 
ci±1/2 = ∓ 128 π 3 r+
4 2
r−
M2 i±1/2
 
P Γ1 ρ
− 32 π 2 r+ r−
2
(12)
M i±1/2

 
16 2 2 P Γ1 ρ
βi±1/2 =− π r+ Fig. 3. Approximation of ki−1/2 coefficient by an decreasing
3 M i±1/2 exponential : 3.83 · 1027 e−15.2·r . The determination coefficient is
P Γ1 ρ2 equal to : R2 = 0.99. A log scale was used for the y axis.
 
3 4
± 64 π r+ r−
M2 i±1/2

P Γ1 ρ3
 
256 4 5 3 2 6
− π r+ r− + 2r+ r− (13)
3 M3 i±1/2
 
P Γ1 ρ
Ξi±1/2 = − 16 π 2 r−
2
"    # M i±1/2
Gmi 160 2 2 P Γ1 ρ P Γ1 ρ  2

Bi = − 4 5 + π ri + 3 3 2 P Γ 1ρ
ri 3 M i+1/2 M i−1/2
∓ 320 π r+ r−
" # M2 i±1/2
2 2
  
P Γ1 ρ P Γ1 ρ 256 4

P Γ1 ρ3

+ 192 π 3 ri 5 − 6 2 3 5


M2 M2 − π 8r+ r− + r+ r− (16)
i+1/2 i−1/2 3 M3 i±1/2
( " #
P Γ1 ρ3 P Γ1 ρ3
  
256 4 8
+ π 2ri +
3 M3 i+1/2 M3 i−1/2
"
3 3
  3 3
 #) The evolution of ki−1/2 and λi along the radius of the
5 P Γ1 ρ r P Γ1 ρ r star is given in figure 2. From 0.1R, starting from the cen-
+ri +
M3 i+1/2 M3 i−1/2 ter, to the beginning of the photosphere, the coefficients
(14) follow an exponential decrease, as described in figure 3.
The interpolation we have obtained can be considered as
accurate considering its determination coefficient which is
almost equal to one (see figure 3).
 
2 P Γ1 ρ
ξi±1/2 = − 32π r+ r−
M i±1/2 Equation (7) is similar to the one used to model cou-


P Γ1 ρ 2
 pled oscillators, where nonlinear terms have been included
± 64π 3 2 r+ r− 4
− r+4
r− up to the third order. In this form, no analytical solution
M2 i±1/2 can be found for these equations. Hence, to understand the
256 4

8 4 4

P Γ1 ρ 3
 behaviour of this type of system, a numerical resolution
7
+ π r+ r− + r+ r− is needed. In the next section, we will consider a simplified
3 3 M3 i±1/2 version of our model known as the Fermi-Pasta-Ulam α and
(15) β model, and we will see how it enables us to explain the
Blazhko effect.
Article number, page 3 of 12