Gaseous Fuels: Application and Installation Guide

APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE
GASEOUS FUELS
G3600 • G3500
G3400 • G3300
Contents
Gaseous Fuels........................................................................... 1
Fuel Properties ............................................................................. 2
Hydrocarbons .......................................................................... 2
Standard Condition of a Gas .................................................. 3
Specific Gravity & Density ...................................................... 4
Specific Gravity (Relative to Air)........................................ 4
Density................................................................................. 4
Properties of Gas Mixtures ..................................................... 4
Moles and Molecular Weight ................................................. 5
Heat Value................................................................................ 5
Fuel Characteristics...................................................................... 8
Stoichiometry .......................................................................... 8
Methane Number .................................................................... 9
Impact of Fuel Quality on Engine Performance....................... 11
LHV, Air Required for Combustion & Engine Power .......... 11
Relative Power Capability & Wobbe Index.......................... 12
Relative Power Capability ................................................ 12
Wobbe Index ..................................................................... 13
Fuel System Sizing & Fuel Metering.................................... 14
Methane Number, Detonation & Engine Power ................ 14
Detonation and Pre-ignition............................................. 14
Fuel Usage Guides............................................................ 17
Contaminants ............................................................................. 19
Maximum Contaminants and Conditions......................... 19
Sulfur Compounds ................................................................ 20
Halide Compounds................................................................ 23
Ammonia Compounds.......................................................... 26
Water ...................................................................................... 27
Silicon..................................................................................... 27
Silicon Crystals ................................................................. 28
Silicon Containing Gases ................................................. 28
Corrosive Gas Guidelines ..................................................... 31
Useful Conversions.................................................................... 33
Common Fuels ........................................................................... 34
Natural Gas (Pipeline) ........................................................... 34
Field Gas ................................................................................ 34
Fuel Treatment.................................................................. 34
Reference Material ..................................................................... 36
Media Numbers ..................................................................... 36
Definitions .............................................................................. 37
Table A: Physical Properties of Gases (English Units) ....... 38
Table B: Physical Properties of Gases (Metric Units) ......... 39
Table C: Constituents of Gas by Volume............................. 40
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes
Gaseous Fuels for Cat® engines listed on the cover of this section.
Additional engine systems, components and dynamics are addressed in
other sections of this Application and Installation Guide.
Engine-specific information and data are available from a variety of
sources. Refer to the Introduction section of this guide for additional
references.
Systems and components described in this guide may not be available or
applicable for every engine.
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

Discretion is recommended when distributing. Materials and specifications
are subject to change without notice.
CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, ‘‘Caterpillar Yellow,’’ the ‘‘Power

Edge’’ trade dress as well as corporate and product identity used herein, are
trademarks of Caterpillar and may not be used without permission.
Gaseous Fuels Application and Installation Guide
Gaseous Fuels
Most internal combustion engines today use fuels that are based on
hydrocarbon compounds derived from petroleum. The most commonly
seen hydrocarbon fuels are those used in automotive and aerospace
applications that typically exist in a liquid state until they are burned (i.e.,
gasoline, diesel fuel and kerosene). Another class of hydrocarbon fuels
exists in gaseous form under normal conditions. The most common
examples of these gaseous fuels are natural gas, propane and butane.
While the most commonly seen examples of gaseous hydrocarbon fuels
come from petroleum, such gases may also be obtained from other less
typical sources. Hydrocarbon gases are a naturally occurring byproduct of
landfills and organic digester processes. They may also be manufactured
through the conversion of carbon-bearing materials such as coal or wood.
Each of these gaseous hydrocarbon fuels has unique characteristics that
affect their performance as an internal combustion engine fuel. This guide
provides an understanding of what gaseous fuels are and how they behave
when used as fuel for an engine.
SECTION CONTENTS
Fuel Properties .................... 2 Contaminants .................... 19

 Hydrocarbons  Sulfur Compounds
 Standard Condition of a Gas  Halide Compounds
 Specific Gravity & Density  Ammonia Compounds
 Properties of Gas Mixtures  Water
 Moles & Molecular Weight  Silicon
 Heat Value  Corrosive Gas Guidelines
Fuel Characteristics ............. 8  Useful Conversions
 Stoichiometry Common Fuels................... 33
 Methane Number  Natural Gas (Pipeline)
Impact of Fuel Quality on  Field Gas
Engine Performance .......... 11 Reference Material ............ 35
 LHV, Air Required for  Media Numbers
Combustion & Engine  Definitions
Power
 Table A - Physical
 Relative Power Capability & Properties of Gas (English)
Wobbe Index
 Table B - Physical Properties
 Fuel System Sizing & Fuel of Gas (Metric)
Metering
 Table C --- Constituents of
 Methane Number, Gas by Volume
Detonation & Engine Power
©2011 Caterpillar
All rights reserved. Page 1
Application and Installation Guide Gaseous Fuels
Fuel Properties
different hydrocarbon compounds
Hydrocarbons
in the series are sometimes called
Hydrocarbons are grouped into
‘‘hydrocarbon fractions’’.
three classifications according to
their molecular structure. Once the chains become long
enough they can different shapes.
 Paraffins - CnH2n+2
Some keep the ‘‘straight chain’’
 Napthenes - CnH2n shape shown above and some form
 Aromatics - CnH2n-6 branches. These different versions
of the same molecule are known as
The hydrocarbon gases used as
isomers, the name for chemical
engine fuels are almost exclusively
compounds that have the same
paraffins (also known as alkanes).
formula but different molecular
This family of compounds has
structures. The straight chain
molecules formed as a chain of
version of these compounds is
carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms
termed ‘‘normal’’ and is often
attached at the remaining bond sites.
shown with a prefix of ‘‘n-‘‘ or ‘‘nor-
The series begins with methane
‘‘. The branched versions may be
(CH4), with each succeeding member
indicated by the prefixes ‘‘iso-‘‘ or
adding another carbon (C) atom
‘‘neo-‘‘, with the difference between
along with the corresponding
them being where in the molecule
number of hydrogen (H) atoms.
the branch is found.
Shown graphically, the first four
members of the paraffin series look As the number of atoms in the
like this. molecule increases, the mass of
the molecule increases. Such larger
hydrocarbon fractions are said to
be ‘‘heavier’’. The increased size of
each successive molecule brings
with it changes to the characteristic
Methane (CH4) Ethane (C2H6)
properties that define the behavior
of each. The shape of the molecule
alters these properties as well, such
that the various isomers of a given
fraction will also have somewhat
different characteristic properties.
Propane (C3H8) Butane (C4H10) Tables A & B on Pages 38 & 39
compare the physical properties of
Note the similarity in how each the paraffin series hydrocarbon
additional set of carbon and fractions most typically found in
hydrogen atoms is added to the gaseous fuels, along with some
chain. Because of the way in which other non-hydrocarbon compounds
the shorter chains appear as if they that are also common in fuel gas.
are portions of the longer ones, the
©2011 Caterpillar
Page 2 All rights reserved.
Standard Condition of a Gas that the measurement takes into

When dealing with gaseous fuels account the ambient barometric
it’s important to be able to gauge pressure. A reference measurement
the amount of gas present in a that does not account for this
given sample. The number of atoms atmospheric pressure is termed
in each molecule and the number of ‘‘gauge’’ and is indicated by a small
molecules present determines the letter ‘‘g’’. Similarly, the units of
mass of the sample, but it can be volume carry a special tag when
difficult to weigh a gas sample to they are measured at these
determine its mass. Volume is a reference conditions. Cubic feet
more practical measurement of a measured at standard conditions are
gas sample, but the volume considered ‘‘standard cubic feet’’ and
occupied by a given amount of a are often abbreviated ‘‘SCF’’. Cubic
gas is dependent upon its meters measured at normal
temperature and pressure. Higher conditions are termed ‘‘normal cubic
temperatures and lower pressures meters’’ and are often indicated as
3
each tend to cause a gas to occupy ‘‘Nm ’’. Other abbreviations or
a greater amount of space (higher reference conditions do sometimes
volume). To allow for consistent get used, so it is important to know
comparisons of gas samples, the terminology and references used
reference conditions of temperature on each job. The abbreviations and
and pressure have been conditions noted above are the
established, termed ‘‘standard’’ or references used throughout this
‘‘normal’’ conditions depending on guide.
the source. The definitions for Converting Reference Conditions
‘‘standard’’ and ‘‘normal’’ used in Because gas measurements are
Caterpillar published rarely made when the ambient
documentation are as follows: temperature and pressure match
Standard Conditions the reference conditions described
Typically used with English units above, it is important to be able to
of measure, standard conditions are convert measurements from one set
defined as 14.696 psia of conditions to another. This is
(101.31 kPaa) and 60°F (15.55°C). done using the Ideal Gas Law, a
chemistry principle that summarizes
Normal Conditions the relationships among
Typically used with metric units, temperature, pressure, volume and
normal conditions are defined as amount of gas present into a single
101.31 kPaa (14.696 psia) and simple equation. Because we’re
0°C (32°F). comparing a single sample under
Note in each case that the pressure ‘‘before’’ and ‘‘after’’ conditions the
units of pounds per square inch equation is simplified even further
(‘‘psi’’) or kilopascals (‘‘kPa’’) are to:
followed by a small letter ‘‘a’’. The Temp2 x Press1
‘‘a’’ stands for ‘‘absolute’’, indicating Vol.2 = Vol.1 x
Temp1 x Press2
©2011 Caterpillar
IMPORTANT: This equation only These types of conversions are

works when the measurements for done commonly to give information
temperature and pressure are about gases in terms of reference
expressed on an absolute scale. For conditions.
pressure, the measurements must
Specific Gravity & Density
account for atmospheric pressure
and would appear as ‘‘psia’’ or Specific Gravity (Relative to Air)
‘‘kPaa’’. For temperature, units must Specific gravity is the ratio of the
be used that measure temperature molecular weight of a gas to the
relative to absolute zero. The molecular weight of air. It is useful
temperature scales that do this are for converting between units of
Rankine (R) and Kelvin (K). mass and volume. Specific gravity
Temperatures in Fahrenheit or values of common gases can be
Celsius are easily converted to found in a variety of engineering
Rankine or Kelvin using the reference books. A table of gas
following relationships: properties is included in this guide
in Table A on Page 38.
R = °F + 460
K = °C + 273 Density
Multiplying the specific gravity of
As an example of how these
a gas by the density of air at a given
equations and conversions are used,
set of conditions (temperature and
consider a gas flow measured at
pressure) yields the density of the
255 cubic meters per hour. If the
gas at the same conditions.
conditions at the time of
measurement were 152 kPaa Example
pressure and 35°C temperature, we Given the following values,
can convert the flow rate to normal calculate the density of methane at
conditions in this way: normal conditions.
(0+273K) x (152kPa) Specific gravity of methane = 0.5539
Vol.2 = 255m3hr x
(35+273K) x (101.3 kPa) Density of air at normal
conditions (0°C, 101.31 kPa) = 1.290 kg/Nm3
Vol.2 = 339 Nm3hr (Density of methane at Normal conditions = specific
gravity of methane) x (density of air at Normal
The same measurement conditions)
expressed in English units would 0.5539 x 1.290 kg/Nm3 = 0.7145 kg/Nm3
have a flow rate of 150 cubic feet
per minute at 95°F and 22 psia. This Properties of Gas Mixtures
flow rate can be converted to Most natural gas engine fuels are
standard conditions thus: a mixture of hydrocarbons and inert
gases. The properties of each
(60+460R) x (22 psia)
Vol.2 = 150ft3min x component must be weighted when
(95+460R) x (14.696 psia)
determining the properties of the
Vol.2 = 210 scfm mix. This weighting is done on a
volume basis. For example, to find
©2011 Caterpillar
the specific gravity of a mixture that that make up a gas sample. Mole
is 80% methane, 15% ethane and fraction amounts are equivalent to
5% carbon dioxide, you would volume percent values divided by
multiply the properties of each gas 100. All of the mole fractions for
by its volume % or ‘‘mole fraction’’ substances in a given gas mixture
from Table A on Page 38. added together will equal 1, just as
all of the volume percent
measurements added together will
Specific equal 100%.
Gas Formula
Gravity
The molecular weight of a
Methane CH4 0.5539
substance gives the relationship
Ethane C 2H 6 1.0382
between the number of molecules
Carbon Dioxide C7H16 1.5196
in a sample and the mass of that
sample. Given equal amounts of
Specific Gravity of the fuel mixture = two substances, a sample of a
(0.8 x 0.5539) + (0.15x1.0382) + (0.05 x 1.5196) = 0.6748 substance with a molecular weight
Moles and Molecular Weight of 12 will have twice as much mass
as an equal-sized sample of another
A mole is a measure of the number
substance with a molecular weight
of molecules of a substance, which
of 6. This, together with the Ideal
is a useful way to measure how
Gas Law described above, means
much of that substance is present
the molecular weight gives us the
when the volume it occupies is
tool to convert directly from volume
dependent upon the temperature
measurement to mass
and pressure at the time of the
measurement for any ideal gas.
measurement. It provides a
reference quantity to use as a Heat Value
starting point for discussions Combustion is the combination of
involving measured amounts of the fuel gas with oxygen to release
chemical substances, such as the heat energy. Since the amount of
amounts of each hydrocarbon energy released is directly tied to
fraction that make up a gaseous fuel how much power the engine can
mixture. produce, it is important to know the
It is a useful property that one potential of each fuel gas to release
mole of any ideal gas occupies heat during combustion. This
essentially the same volume as one potential is known as the heat value
mole of any other ideal gas under (or calorific value) of the gas, and it
the same temperature and pressure is defined as the amount of thermal
conditions. This makes it very simple energy released during complete
to go from ‘‘how much’’ of a combustion of the gas. It can be
substance is present (in moles) to measured using a calorimeter, a
how much we can measure (in device that measures the heat
volume). In fact, the term ‘‘mole released during a chemical reaction
fraction’’ is commonly used for the (such as combustion).
proportionate measure of the parts
©2011 Caterpillar
Given that combustion of combustion with two moles of

hydrocarbons involves the oxygen (64 kg or 64 lb), it will form
combination of hydrogen and two moles of water (36 kg or 36 lb)
oxygen, one consistent byproduct and one mole of CO2 (44 kg or 44
of the reaction is water. lb). Therefore, for each unit mass of
Furthermore, given the high CH4 burned:
temperatures of the typical 36/16 = 2.25 kg (lb) of water are
combustion reaction, the water formed per kg (lb) of CH4.
produced during combustion comes
To determine the amount of water
out in a gaseous state. This change
formed per SCM (SCF) of CH4
of state from a liquid to a gas
burned, divide 2.25 kg (lb) by the
consumes heat energy (known as
specific volume (m3/kg or ft3/lb) of
the latent heat of vaporization),
gas at standard conditions of
meaning a portion of the theoretical
temperature and pressure. Methane
energy release of combustion is not
is:
available to the engine for use in
producing mechanical power. Thus 1 kg = 1.4738 SCM
for gaseous fuels, we document two (1 lb = 23.61 SCF)
heat values:
 The higher heat value (HHV), Therefore:
which is the total theoretical 2.25
energy potential of the gas = 1.526 kg H2O
1.4738 SCM CH4
 The lower heat value (LHV),
which is the higher heat value 2.25
minus the latent heat of = 0.09529 lb H2O
23.61 SCF CH4
vaporization of the water in
1.526 kg H2O (0.09529 lb H2O) is
the exhaust.
the amount of water formed per
An examination of the combustion SCM (SCF) of methane burned.
equation using pure methane (CH4),
The difference between high and
the main constituent of natural gas,
low heat value for CH4 is the heat
will illustrate this point further. The
required to convert 1.526 kg/SCM
equation for combustion of
(0.09529 lb/SCF) of water to vapor at
methane is:
standard conditions. The latent heat
CH4 + 2O2 = 2H2O + CO2 of vaporization per kg (lb) of water
at 15.55°C (60°F) from the steam
To determine the amount of water tables is 2.4653 MJ/SCM (1059.9
formed during combustion, first Btu/SCF). Therefore, the difference
identify the molecular weight of between HHV and LHV of CH4 is:
each gas. 3.763 MJ/SCM (0.09529 x 1059.9 =
CH4 2O2 2H2O CO2 101 Btu/SCF).
+ = +
16 64 36 44 Note that Tables A & B (Page 38
When one mole of methane (16 kg & 39) reflect this difference in HHV
or 16 lb) is combined during and LHV for CH4.
©2011 Caterpillar
As stated previously, the amount (0.09529 lb/SCF) of water and the

of water formed depends on the propane forms 3.0937 kg/SCM
hydrocarbons being burned. As a (0.1931 lb/SCF) of water.
comparison, consider the To pursue this one step further,
combustion products of propane the amount of heat lost to the
(C3H8). engine in converting this water to
C3H8 5O2 3CO2 4H2O vapor at 15.55°C (60°F) for propane
+ = +
44 160 132 72 is:
The amount of water formed per Energy lost per SCM (SCF) C3H8
kg (lb) of propane burned is: burned is 7.6 MJ/SCM C3H8 (0.1931 x
72/44 = 1.6363 kg (lb) H 2 O/kg (lb) C 3 H 8 1059.9 = 204 Btu/SCF C3H8)
And the amount of water formed Examination of Tables A & B
per SCM (SCF) of propane burned (Page 38 & 39) will confirm that this
is: is the difference between HHV and
1.636 kg H 2 O/kg C 3 H 8 = 3.0937 kg H 2 O LHV for propane.
1.636 kg H2O/kg As stated earlier, the heat energy
3.0937 kg H2O lost to the vaporization of water is
C3H8 =
0.5288 SCM/kg C3H8 SCM C3H8 lost to the engine for producing
power as well. For this reason, LHV
1.636 lb H2O/lb C3H8 0.1931 lb H2O is the fuel property used when
= determining the power-producing
8.471 SCF/lb C3H8 SCF C3H8
When burning one SCM (SCF) potential of a gas when used as
each of methane and propane, the engine fuel.
methane forms 1.526 kg/SCM
©2011 Caterpillar
Fuel Characteristics
While discussing the makeup and air will be needed to completely
structure of gaseous fuels in the burn a given amount of gas; this is
previous sections, references were important information when setting
made to characteristic properties up an engine to use gas as fuel.
that vary among different gases. By the previous equation, one
Understanding the properties of volume of methane requires two
each gas is very important to being times that volume of oxygen to
able to properly prepare an engine burn completely. Knowing that air is
to use a particular gas as fuel. only 21% oxygen, we can work our
way to the proportionate amount of
Stoichiometry
air this way:
Stoichiometry (pronounced ‘‘stoy-
kee-ah-muh-tree’’) simply refers to 2
= 9.53
the relative quantities of elements in 0.21
a molecule or the relative amounts Thus, it takes 9.53 volumes of air
of reactants and products in a to completely burn one volume of
chemical reaction. We use it in methane. This ratio of volumes,
regard to the amounts of fuel and 9.53:1, is a characteristic of methane
air involved in the chemical reaction known as its stoichiometric air/fuel
that is combustion. Stoichiometric ratio. The stoichiometric
combustion takes place when the combustion equations for the rest of
fuel and air are in the correct the hydrocarbon fuel fractions
proportions so that there is no balance differently, so the
oxygen or fuel remaining when stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for each
combustion is finished. This will be different. These air/fuel
proportion is found by balancing ratios are shown in Tables A & B
the chemical equation for on Page 38 & 39.
combustion, which is different for Most gaseous fuels don’t exist as
each gas. a single compound but instead as a
The stoichiometric combustion mixture of several compounds. A
equation for methane looks like this: typical pipeline quality natural gas
will be predominantly methane, but
will also contain much smaller
CH4 + 2O2 = 2H2O + CO2 amounts of other hydrocarbon
fractions and other compounds like
This equation tells us that nitrogen or carbon dioxide. The
methane and oxygen combine to amount of air required to burn such
form water and carbon dioxide. It a gas mixture will be determined by
also tells us that it takes two oxygen a summing the amount required for
molecules to convert each methane each component of the mixture
molecule. We can use this weighted for the percentage each
information to determine how much represents in the overall mixture.
©2011 Caterpillar
Such a weighted sum might look involved is the ability of the fuel gas
like this: to resist detonation, an uncontrolled
Gas Stoichiometric burning of the gas in the engine. Left
Percent
Constituent Air/Fuel Ratio unchecked, detonation has the
Methane
90% 9.53 potential to cause significant engine
CH4 damage. For this reason, having a
Ethane measure of this detonation
5% 16.67
C2H6
Propane
resistance property provides a
3% 23.83 valuable tool for assessing the
C3H8
Carbon suitability of a gas to use as engine
Dioxide 2% 0.00 fuel.
CO2
Caterpillar's earliest attempt at a
To find the weighted sum for this
detonation resistance scale was
mixture, the percentages and
using the octane rating method, a
air/fuel ratios are multiplied and
tool long established for use with
summed like this:
gasoline engines. The octane rating
CH 4 : 0.90 x 9.53 = 8.58 method uses a special test engine
C 2 H 6 : 0.05 x 16.67 = 0.83 with variable compression ratio to
C 3 H 8 : 0.03 x 23.82 = 0.71 establish the critical compression
ratio for a fuel, the compression
CO 2 : 0.02 x 0.0 = 0.00
ratio at which detonation occurs.
Total m 3 (ft 3 ) Unknown fuels are tested in this
Air Required = 10.12 engine and their results are
Thus, the stoichiometric air/fuel compared to a baseline set of
ratio for this gas mixture is 10.12:1, results for blends of iso-octane and
meaning 10.12 volumes of air are n-heptane. The octane rating
required to completely burn one number represents the percent of
volume of this gas. This weighted iso-octane in the baseline blend.
sum technique is useful in The problem with using the octane
determining ‘‘mixed gas’’ value for rating is that octane is not an
several of the characteristic gas effective reference point for natural
properties. gas. Natural gas typically contains a
high percentage of methane, the
Methane Number smallest, lightest paraffin fraction.
Cat engines can operated on Octane is a much heavier paraffin
gaseous fuel from a wide range of series molecule with very different
sources, ranging from raw field gas combustion properties, including
to processed pipeline natural gas to the fact that it tends to exist as a
gas from landfill/digester processes. liquid under normal conditions -
However, the combustion qualities good for gasoline engines, but not
of gas from these sources varies a so good for natural gas engines.
great deal, affecting engine settings
To use the octane rating for gas
such as ignition timing or even
engines, each hydrocarbon fraction
limiting the power which the engine
(methane, ethane, propane, and so
may produce. The key property
©2011 Caterpillar
on) must be tested to establish its research and testing on a wide

octane rating number. These values range of fuels from field gas to
are then used to compute a landfill gas.
weighted average octane rating for Calculating the methane number
each gas mixture being evaluated. requires a set of complicated
This approach has two significant computations; therefore, Caterpillar
drawbacks. First, it assumes a linear developed a computer program to
contribution by each fraction to the perform these calculations and allow
overall average result. In fact, the field determination of the methane
heavier fractions tend to have more number. This program makes it a
impact than the lighter ones on the simple task to enter the gas
behavior of the mixed gas. composition values and have the
Secondly, the octane rating system computer deliver a full report of the
provides no way to take into expected properties of the gas,
account the beneficial effects of including not only the methane
inert gases like carbon dioxide or number but also the higher and
nitrogen. In certain blends, these lower heat values, the specific
gases can help to cool combustion, gravity, the stoichiometric air/fuel
allowing a small improvement in ratio, and other properties, such as
resistance to detonation. The octane the Wobbe Index. Methane numbers
rating method was acceptable when of some individual component gases
used with processed ‘‘pipeline- are:
quality’’ natural gas, but it
Methane (CH4) 100
usefulness was limited when
applied to the broad range of gas Ethane (C2H6) 46.6
compositions found at the well. Propane (C3H8) 33
These applications needed a more Butane (commercial) 15
reliable rating method.
n-Butane (C4H10) 10
The methane number rating
method was first developed in After calculating the methane
Austria in the mid-1960s. Instead of number and knowing the
octane, it uses methane as the aftercooler water temperature (or
reference for establishing resistance air-to-air aftercooling temperature)
to detonation. The methane number available, the engine rating can be
scale sets a value of 100 for pure determined from the fuel usage
methane and uses hydrogen, with a guides published by Caterpillar. The
value of 0, as the reference for a guides show engine power and
very fast-burning gas prone to timing for specified ranges of
detonation. Caterpillar adopted this methane number for each
method in the 1980s, continuing to aftercooler water temperature.
refine the system through extensive
©2011 Caterpillar
Impact of Fuel Quality on Engine Performance

(abbreviated ‘‘NA’’). An NA engine
LHV, Air Required for will be sensitive to any factors that
Combustion & Engine Power restrict airflow, and one such factor
An engine is a conversion device. is the altitude and ambient
It takes in the chemical energy temperature of the installation
stored in the fuel, releases that where the engine is in use.
energy as heat during combustion, Increased altitude or ambient air
and then converts the heat energy temperature causes the air to
into mechanical work. Part of the become less dense, making it more
engine’s job, then, is to make difficult for the engine to draw in
certain enough fuel gets into the enough air to support combustion.
cylinder to enable it to reach its full The fuel gas makeup comes into
rated power output. But, as we play in that the amount of air
learned earlier, combustion requires required to support combustion is
fuel and air, so getting enough air determined by the air requirements
into the cylinder is just as important of the fuel as shown by the
as getting enough fuel. stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
The path the air takes, from first Adding a turbocharger to an
entering the air cleaner until it engine is an effective way to offset
reaches the cylinder, poses a this breathing problem. The
restriction to flow of the air. This is turbocharger forces air into the
characteristic of the design of the engine, allowing it to overcome the
engine, so it is a property that varies effects of decreased ambient air
from engine model to engine density. But, pumping up the
model. Also characteristic of the pressure of the inlet air to increase
engine design is whether or not it the density also pumps up the
has a device that helps to push air temperature of that air, and higher
into the cylinder to increase the temperatures mean decreased air
power-producing potential of the density. For this reason, many
engine. Such devices are known as turbocharger installations also
superchargers, with the type most include an intercooler or aftercooler,
commonly seen on large engines a heat exchanger designed to cool
being called turbochargers since the the inlet air, allowing it to become
power used to pump the air into the more dense. The turbocharged-
engine comes from a turbine placed aftercooled (‘‘TA’’) engine design
in the engine exhaust stream. gives greatly expanded breathing
The most basic engine air inlet ability to the engine, supporting the
design uses no supercharger; it production of power.
relies only on the vacuum drawn by The fuel system has a similar role
the piston moving down in the in enabling the engine to produce
cylinder to pull air in. This design is rated power. It also poses a
known as ‘‘naturally aspirated’’ restriction to the flow of fuel into
©2011 Caterpillar
the engine and so is critical in the production capability of the engine.

design of the engine. It is also To determine relative power
affected by the inlet pressure of the capability for a fuel, start by
fuel supply much like the air system calculating the LHV of the fuel-air
is impacted by the site altitude and mixture.
ambient temperature. But, unlike Fuel composition:
the air system, the fuel system may
CH4 = 55%
also be impacted by the LHV of the
fuel gas. Too high an energy CO2 = 35%
content may cause the fuel system N2 = 10%
to be unable to mix air and fuel in The LHV for this mixture,
the proper ratios, resulting in poor calculated using the weighted sum
combustion and reduced power. To method described earlier, is 501
low an LHV results in starving the Btu/SCF (19.69 MJ/Nm3). The
engine for the fuel energy necessary stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for this
to produce power. fuel is 5.24:1, also determined by
Relative Power Capability & the weighted sum method. To
determine the LHV of the fuel-air
Wobbe Index mixture, we must divide the fuel
Two calculated properties of a fuel
content of one volume of fuel by the
gas were created to help in sizing
total volume of a stoichiometric air-
up the concerns over air system and
fuel blend, which is the sum of 1
fuel system restriction on power
plus the stoichiometric ratio. This
production. The relative power
gives:
capability documents the combined
impact of the air system and fuel 501
= 80.29 Btu/SCF
quality on the ability to get fuel 1 + 5.24
energy into the cylinder. Wobbe
Index serves as a tool to help gauge 19.69
= 3.16 MJ/Nm3
whether the fuel system will be able 1 + 5.24
to flow enough fuel to put fuel The LHV of the reference fuel-air
energy into the cylinder. mixture is calculated in the same
Relative Power Capability way, using the LHV and air/fuel ratio
The relative power capability of a information for the pipeline quality
fuel gas is a ratio of the LHV of the natural gas used in rating
fuel-air mixture for the engine development:
installation relative to the LHV of the 905
= 86.6 Btu/SCF
fuel-air mixture used to develop the 1 + 9.45
engine power rating. If the fuel-air
mixture contains less energy than 35.64
the reference fuel-air mixture, the = 3.41 MJ/Nm3
1 + 9.45
relative power capability drops The Relative Power Capability
below 100%, representing the (RPC) is the ratio of the two.
theoretical restriction on power
©2011 Caterpillar
RPC = 3.16/3.14 = 0.93, or using that would burn the low energy fuel
the values in English units: used in the previous example.
RPC = 80.29/86.6 = 0.93 Ambient/altitude derate factor =
So the stoichiometric air-fuel 0.92 (found on Altitude Derate Table
mixture of this fuel would deliver to provided with the Technical Data
the engine only 93% of the energy Sheet)
that would be contained in a same Relative Power Capability factor =
volume of a stoichiometric mixture 0.93
of pipeline natural gas. Total Air System Derate
This factor is particularly = (1 - 0.92) + (1 - 0.93)
important when determining the
=0.8 + 0.7
rating of a naturally aspirated (NA)
engine. Without a turbocharger, the =0.15
engine does not have the means to The total derate = 15%
increase the density of the incoming The total derate factor may be
air-fuel mixture, and the fuel RPC found multiplying the two factors
factor will dictate the engine rating. together:
Even a turbocharged engine has (0.92)(0.93) = 0.85
its limits. While the turbocharger
and aftercooler help to compensate The site rating is limited by the air
for decreased air density at high site system capacity (site conditions and
altitudes and ambient temperatures, RPC) to:
their ability to do so has limits too. 809 bkW x 0.85 = 688 bkW
Once the turbocharger’s Wobbe Index
contribution reaches its limit, the TA Changes in the fuel composition
engine is subject to the same RPC affect not only the energy content of
limits that we've shown for the NA the fuel, but its specific gravity (SG)
engine. Additionally, the decline in as well. The impact of the LHV
air density delivered to the cylinders changes is clear; less energy in the
creates a second source of derate fuel means potentially less energy
that must be taken into account. delivered to the cylinder. The
To determine the limits of the air impact of the specific gravity is
system on a TA engine, the altitude important in the same manner. The
ambient derate factor (provided specific gravity of the fuel is the
with the engine Technical Data property that determines how well it
Sheet) and the fuel RPC must be can turn corners and squeeze
considered together. These derates through tight spaces in the fuel
are cumulative. system. A higher specific gravity
For example, consider a G3516LE fuel gas will have more difficulty
engine rated at 809 bkW @ traveling through a given fuel
1200 rpm in a location at system than will a fuel gas with a
2000 meters altitude and lower specific gravity. More
30°C (86°F) ambient temperature restriction to flow through the fuel
©2011 Caterpillar
system means potentially less fuel establish the air/fuel ratio

energy flowing into the cylinder and characteristic for the carburetor.
thus less power. This flow capability Such fuel system changes should
of a fuel gas is measured using the be considered when the standard
Wobbe Index. engine fuel system cannot be made
The Wobbe Index takes these two to work with a given fuel gas.
critical properties of the fuel --- LHV
and SG --- and puts them together to Gas Heating Values
create a direct measure of fuel
55.0 ---94.3 MJ/Nm3
energy flowing through the fuel High Energy Gas
(1400 ---2400 Btu/SCF)
system. The LHV is a measure of 31.4 ---55.0 MJ/Nm3
Natural Gas
how much energy is in the gas. (800 ---1400 Btu/SCF)
Flow of a gas through the fuel Low Energy 23.6 ---31.4 MJ/Nm3
system is proportional to 1 divided Natural Gas (600 ---800 Btu/SCF)
17.7 ---25.5 MJ/Nm3
by the square root of SG. Putting Biogas
(450 ---650 Btu/SCF)
them together, the flow of energy 15.7 ---23.6 MJ/Nm3
through the fuel system is Landfill Gas
(400 ---600 Btu/SCF)
proportional to LHV divided by the Table 1
square root of SG. This is the
definition of the Wobbe Index.
Methane Number,
Fuel System Sizing & Fuel Detonation
Metering & Engine Power
The fuel system on any engine Earlier we discussed the creation
must be capable of delivering a fuel of a rating scale based on the
flow rate that enables the engine to detonation-resistant characteristics
achieve its full rated power. As of methane and hydrogen. This
shown in the discussions on Methane Number scale serves as a
Relative Power Capability and basis for rating fuel mixtures on
Wobbe Index, its ability to do so is their relative ability to resist
dependent upon the fuel LHV and detonation. To understand how this
SG, making it a challenge for a information is used, we start with
single design to successfully adapt an understanding of detonation
to the broad range of gases that itself.
may be used as engine fuel. Detonation and Pre-ignition
Fortunately, certain fuel system Detonation and pre-ignition are
designs can be adapted relatively two forms of abnormal combustion
easily to enable them to work with that involve uncontrolled burning of
different gases. As an example, the fuel-air mixture in the cylinder.
consider the broad fuel gas Pre-ignition is the term used to
categories described in Table 1. A describe premature ignition of the
carbureted fuel system can often be fuel-air mixture before the spark
adapted to different fuel LHV ranges plug has fired. Detonation describes
by changing the internal parts that the scenario where the fuel-air
©2011 Caterpillar
mixture is ignited at the proper time The following descriptions

by the spark plug and a second illustrate normal combustion and
ignition event takes place in the detonation.
unburned fuel-air mixture before Normal combustion
the normal combustion sequence Burning of the fuel-air mixture is
can go to completion. Both events started by the spark plug. The flame
are potentially damaging to the front progresses uniformly across
engine due to their potential to the combustion chamber until the
produce localized high entire fuel-air charge is burned.
temperatures and sharp rises in Heat released by combustion
pressure. produces a rise in pressure that
Pre-ignition is typically a result of pushes the piston down in the
a ‘‘hot spot’’ in the combustion cylinder, producing useful work at
chamber. Such hot spots may occur the crankshaft. Refer to Figure 1.
at sharp edges on the engine parts
(such as valves or spark plugs) if
they get too hot, or from carbon
deposits in the combustion
chamber. If these hot spots cannot
cool between combustion cycles,
they can get hot enough to serve as
an ignition source themselves and
will light the fuel-air charge before
the spark plug gets the chance.
Detonation is the result of a more
complex set of circumstances,
involving the combined influence of
fuel quality, engine design, engine
set-up, site construction, ambient
conditions, and engine loading. If
enough of these inputs stray from Figure 1
their proper ranges during engine
operation, combustion that begins Detonation
normally can suddenly see a portion The advancing flame front
of the unburned gas self-ignite compresses the unburned fuel-air
before it has been met by the mixture, pushing its temperature
primary flame front. The flame beyond the auto-ignition point. The
fronts from these two combustion unburned portion of the mixture
sources will eventually collide, self-ignites, creating a sharp rise in
creating a sharp metallic ‘‘ping’’ pressure and localized high
sound that is the audible evidence temperatures. Refer to Figure 2.
of detonation. Detonation is the
event often called ‘‘knocking’’ in
your car’s gasoline engine.
©2011 Caterpillar
in temperature rise in the end

gas beyond the auto-ignition
threshold.
 Low fuel MN: Fuel gas does
not have sufficient resistance
to detonation. The fuel auto-
ignition temperature is low
compared to the standard
fuel resulting in auto-ignition
under normal combustion
pressure rise conditions.
This short list of direct causes can
grow to an extremely lengthy list of
root causes if we were to look at all
of the design and environmental
factors that can result in one of
Figure 2 these conditions.
Focusing just on engine attributes
As described earlier, detonation that directly play into detonation
results from one of several factors sensitivity, four design issues come
being out of range either at the start to the forefront.
of, or during, the combustion
 Compression Ratio
sequence. The basic driver for
detonation is the temperature of the  Ignition Timing
unburned gas, or ‘‘end gas’’, before  Aftercooler Temperature
it is ignited by the flame front.
 Power Rating.
Because of this, the list of direct
causes for detonation can be pretty As we examine these attributes,
well defined (although the root you should begin to notice how
causes for those conditions can several of the factors are directly
sometimes be more difficult to related to one another.
establish). Direct causes of
detonation include: Compression Ratio
The compression ratio of the
 Fuel-air charge temperature
engine and the fuel MN go hand-in-
too high: High starting
hand when searching for the proper
temperature of the fuel-air
engine for a given fuel. High
mixture results in
compression ratios tend to increase
temperature rise in the end
in-cylinder pressures, making
gas beyond the auto-ignition
factors sensitive to the pressure rise
threshold.
critical with regard to detonation.
 Fuel-air charge pressure too Low MN fuels burn faster than
high: High starting pressure higher MN fuels, creating steeper
of the fuel-air mixture results pressure rise rates that are not well
©2011 Caterpillar
matched to high compression temperatures reducing the cooling

ratios. In general, low MN fuels capabilities of the radiator.
require low compression ratio
engines. Power Rating
Engine power output is the most
Ignition Timing challenging to see how it
Ignition timing is also directly tied contributes to detonation because it
to fuel MN and pressure rise rate. involves the movement of the
Achieving peak combustion piston. Normal operation of the
pressure at the proper time in the engine uses the pressure rise in the
piston’s movement in the cylinder cylinder to push the piston and
requires that the spark plug fire at a eventually drive the load attached to
precise moment in advance of that the crankshaft. If the driven load on
point. The timing of that ‘‘spark the crankshaft becomes too great it
advance’’ depends heavily on the restricts the movement of the
burning rate of the fuel, which is piston. With the piston movement
closely related to the fuel’s MN. restricted, the pressure rise in the
Lower MN fuels require the use of cylinder gets steeper, eventually
less spark timing advance. resulting in detonation.
Aftercooler Temperature Fuel Usage Guides

To successfully use fuels that are
The aftercooler serves as the final more prone to detonation, cylinder
control over the starting temperatures and pressures must
temperature of fuel-air charge. be limited to the fuel’s capabilities
Because this plays directly into the and ignition timing must be
risk of detonation, any design or optimized. To match fuel capability
installation issues that can with engine characteristics,
compromise the aftercooler's ability Caterpillar publishes a Fuel Usage
to achieve the appropriate Guide with each engine’s technical
temperature in the inlet charge are data sheet. The Fuel Usage Guide is
critical detonation risk factors. The a table that lists a range of fuel
aftercooler can fail to provide methane number values and
adequate cooling of the inlet air by provides the required engine derate
not being large enough to handle factor and recommended engine
the heat removal demand placed on timing for each. The derate factor,
it or by being fed aftercooler water when multiplied by the standard
at too high a temperature. High engine rating in the technical data,
aftercooler water temperatures can tells the maximum power that the
stem from improper selection of the engine should run on a fuel with the
aftercooler water thermostat set MN shown. The ignition timing is
point, or an inadequately sized the recommended spark advance
radiator, or by high ambient air setting for that fuel.
©2011 Caterpillar
Example of Fuel Usage Guide
Figure 3
An example of a fuel usage guide 23 degrees BTDC (‘‘before top dead

is shown in Figure 3. This example center’’). If the fuel MN dropped to
guide suggests that with a fuel gas 40, however, the rating would need
of MN=46, this engine could operate to be dropped to 90% of the
at the full published rating (derate published rating (derate factor = 0.9)
factor = 1.0), and the recommended and the ignition timing should be
timing would be set to 22 degrees BTDC.
©2011 Caterpillar
Contaminants
Contaminants may be introduced limited to protect the engine from
into the engine as chemical damage. Table 2 below gives an over-
compounds carried in the fuel or air. view of the general limits for fuel
These contaminants may cause contaminants and conditions. The sec-
damage to the engine through tions that follow describe the potential
corrosion, abrasion, or formation of adverse effects of specific contaminants
deposits. The amount of each and may include more detailed limits
allowed to enter the engine must be for specific engine models.
Maximum Contaminants and Conditions

(Unless otherwise noted, Contaminant and Condition limits apply to fuel and
combustion air. See footnote 1 below.)
Table 2
©2011 Caterpillar
result in higher levels of

Sulfur Compounds
condensation in the aftercooler.
Sulfur compounds are formed
For these engines, a stainless steel
during the decomposition of
aftercooler core is recommended
organic waste. The primary
when the fuel sulfur content is above
compound of concern is hydrogen
0.14 ug H2S/Btu or 3 ppm of H2S @
sulfide (H2S), although any
900 Btu/Scf. For all models, the gas
compound containing sulfur
should be treated as corrosive when
should be considered when
sulfur content is above 0.45 ug
comparing sulfur intake to engine
H2S/Btu or 10 ppm @ 900 Btu/Scf. as
limits.
shown in Figure 4.
Table 3 provides a list of typical
sulfur compounds. Special measures can be taken to
make an engine more tolerant to
Table 4 provides a summary of
sulfur and other corrosive
the sulfur tolerance limits for
compounds contained in the fuel.
different gas engine models.
These measures are outlined in the
Because the amount of fuel
Corrosive Gas guidelines discussion
consumed by the engine varies
later in this section. When these
with fuel heat value, these limits
guidelines are followed, the fuel
are indexed to lower heat value
sulfur level can be increased,
(LHV) for gas streams with LHV
depending on the fuel lower heating
lower than typical pipeline natural
value (LHV). The maximum level of
gas (about 900 Btu/scf), as shown
sulfur compounds, in terms of ppm
in Figure 4.
vs. LHV.
Sulfur compounds which
When determinining the sulfur level
condense out of the fuel gas are
in a fuel, the number of sulfur atoms
highly corrosive and will quickly
must be considered. As an estimate,
damage and fail bright metal
this can be done by counting the
engine components.
sulfur atoms in a compound.
Condensation of the air fuel
Constituents with two sulfur
mixture in the aftercooler will lead
elements, such as carbon disulfide
to failure of the aftercooler core.
(CS2), should be counted at twice
Even more significant, sulfur
their ppm level.
compounds dissolved in the
engine oil from blow-by gas will For example, 20 ppm H2S and
corrode the oil cooler, bronze and 15 ppm CS2 are equivalent to 50 ppm
brass bushings and bearings and sulfur compounds:
any internal engine components 1 x 20 ppm (H2S) + 2 x 15 ppm (CS2) = 50 ppm
containing copper. Refer to Table 3 for the number of
Even trace amounts of sulfur can sulfur elements in a variety of sulfur
significantly damage engine compounds.
components. The high manifold
pressures of high performance
engines, like the G3500B, C, and E,
©2011 Caterpillar
Maximum Level of Sulfur Compounds
Figure 4
©2011 Caterpillar
Typical Sulfur Compounds

Chemical Sulfur Atoms
Compound Name
Formula in compound
Carbon Disulfide CS2 2
Carbonyl Sulfide COS 1
Dimethyl Disulfide C2H6S2 2
Dimethyl Sulfide C2H6S 1
Ethyl Mercaptan (Ethanethiol) C2H6S 1
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S 1
i-propyl Mercaptan (Propanethiol) C3H8S 1
Methyl Ethyl Sulfide C3H8S 1
Methyl Mercaptan (Methanethiol) CH4S 1
n-propyl Mercaptan (Propanethiol) C3H8S 1
Table 3
H2S Limits @900+Btu/scf LHV

Standard Special
Series Aspiration Notes
Hardware Hardware
All H2S values are ppm
G3300 NA LPG 0-50 N/A
G3300 TA LPG 0-10 10-50
G3300 TA HPG 0-10 10-50
G3400 NA LPG 0-50 N/A
G3400 TA LPG 0-10 0-50
G3400 TA HPG 0-50 N/A
G3500 NA LPG 0-50 N/A
G3500A TA LPG 0-10 10-50
G3500A TA HPG 0-50 N/A
G3500BULB TA Petro 0-50
G3500B TA Genset 0-3 4-20
G3500C TA Genset 0-3 4-20
G3500E TA Genset 0-3 4-20
G3600 TA ALL 0-10 10-1300
Table 4
©2011 Caterpillar
Halide Compounds landfill until the landfill gas is

Landfill gas may contain collected. Once gas is drawn from
halogenated hydrocarbons, which the field, the hydrocarbons are
contain chlorine, fluorine, bromine evaporated into the moving gas
or some combination of the three. stream until they are depleted.
The most common halogenated Measurements from producing
hydrocarbons are referred to as landfills indicate the volatile
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) and hydrocarbons drop to 10 - 25% from
have been widely used in the their original levels after one or two
refrigerant industry. Refrigerant 12, years of gas production.
the most common refrigerant, has Note: The standard engine config-
the chemical name dichlorodifluoro- uration cannot tolerate any halides;
methane (CCl2F2) and the trade they can cause serious damage to
name Freon-12. Refrigerant 11 and the engine. However, special fuel
22 are also similarly composed and system configurations were
have been widely used. Paint developed for landfill applications
thinners, degreasers, aerosol cans, that provide some protection from
refrigerators, and air conditioners halides.
are all sources for CFC’s and other Table 5 provides acceptable
hydrocarbons. Very few of the halide levels for the special
halogenated hydrocarbons are configurations. These special
formed from the decomposition of configurations have a halide limit of
plastics and other petroleum-based 20 µg/Btu (19 mg/MJ) of halides as
materials. CI.
When the CFC’s are burned within The level of halides is given in
the engine, chlorine and fluorine are mass divided by the fuel energy
released during the combustion content, or micrograms of chlorine
process, then react with water, and and fluorine per low heating value
finally form hydrochloric acid (HCl) of the gas. This is the total amount
and hydrofluoric acid (HF). Both of chlorine and fluorine present in
these acids are very corrosive to all the various compounds that may
internal engine components. carry halides. See Figure 5 for the
Excessive levels of HCl or HF acid maximum acceptable level.
result in accelerated piston ring,
cylinder liner, exhaust valve stem, Note: If this level is exceeded at any
and valve guide wear. time through the lifetime of the
project, serious damage may occur
These hydrocarbons are heavier to the engine.
molecules than the methane and
CO2. They tend to remain in the
©2011 Caterpillar
Figure 5
When determining the halide level for each of the two element
in a fuel, the number of CL, F and Br constituents.
atoms must be considered. As an Typical halide compounds are
estimate, this can be done by shown in Table 5.
counting these atoms in a compound.
For example, 10 ppm C2H3Cl and
Constituents with one chlorine
20 ppm CCl2F2 are equivalent to
element, such as vinyl chloride
90 ppm halide compounds:
(C2H3Cl), should be counted once,
while constituents with two chlorine 1 x 10 ppm C2H3Cl + 4 x 20 ppm CCl2F2 = 90
and two fluorine elements, such as ppm
dichlorodifloromethane (CCl2F2), Refer to Table 5 for the number of
should be counted four times, twice chlorine elements in a variety of
halide compounds.
©2011 Caterpillar
Typical Halide Compounds

Chemical Cl, F & Br
Compound Name
Formula Atoms In Compound
1,1,1-Trichloroethane C2H3Cl3 3
1,1,1-Trichloropropane C3H5Cl3 3
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane C2H2Cl4 4
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane C2H2Cl4 4
1,1,2-Trichloroethane C2H3Cl3 3
1,1-Dichloroethane C2H4Cl2 2
1,1-Dichloroethene C2H2Cl2 2
1,2-Dichloroethane C2H4Cl2 2
1,2-Dichloropropane C3H6Cl2 2
1,2,3-Trichloropropane C3H5Cl3 3
2-Chloroethylvinylether (Chloroethoxyethanol) C4H9ClO2 1
Bromodichloromethane CHBrCl2 3
Bromofluorobenzene C6H4BrF 2
Bromoform (Tribromomethane) CHBr3 3
Bromomethane (Methyl Bromide) CH3Br 1
Carbon Tetrachloride CCl4 4
Chlorobenzene (Phenyl Chloride) C6H5Cl 1
Chlorodifluoromethane (Freon-22) CHClF2 3
Chloroethane (Ethyl Chloride) C2H5Cl 1
Chloroform (Trichloromethane) CHCl3 3
Chloromethane (Methyl Chloride) CH3Cl 1
Chloropropane (n-Propyl Chloride) C3H7Cl 1
Chlorotoluene (Benzyl Chloride) C7H7Cl 1
cis-1,3-Dichloropropane C3H6Cl2 2
Dibromochloromethane CHBr2Cl 3
Dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon-12) CCl2F2 4
Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride) CH2Cl2 2
Pentachloroethane C2HCl5 5
Tetrachloroethene (Tetrachloroethylene) C2Cl4 4
Total 1,2-Dichloroethenes C2H2Cl2 2
cis-1,2-Dichloroethene
trans-1,2-Dichloroethene
Total Dichlorobenzenes C6H4Cl2 2
o-Dichlorobenzene
m-Dichlorobenzene
p-Dichlorobenzene
Total Trichlorobenzene C6H3Cl3 3
1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene
Trans-1,3-Dichloropropane C3H6Cl2 2
Trichloroethene (Trichloroethylene) C2HCl3 3
Trichlorofluoromethane (Freon-11) CCl3F 4
Vinyl Chloride (Chloroethene) C2H3Cl 1
Table 5
©2011 Caterpillar
Chlorinated hydrocarbon and If the chlorine, fluorine or

chlorofluorocarbon gases are in bromine level exceeds the
relatively low concentrations within maximum shown in Figure 5, fuel
landfill gas; however, their affect treatment is required. Chlorine
can be great. The most widely used and fluorine are water soluble and
test to determine gas concentration are frequently carried into the
is the EPA624 test for volatile engine by water vapor. Removing
hydrocarbons. This EPA water the water vapor by drying the fuel
standards test has been adapted for will reduce halogen levels. For
measuring gases. The EPA624 test more information, see the section
is acceptable for determining the on fuel system design in this
chlorine level provided the manual.
minimum threshold of detectability
is 5 ppmv. This test has shown Ammonia Compounds
variability from laboratory to Natural gas fuel may contain
laboratory. nitrogen compounds, that when
hydrogen is present, can combine
Caterpillar has developed a
to form base compounds. The two
laboratory test for measuring the
compounds of concern are
levels of halogens within a sample
Ammonia (NH3) and Acrylonitrile
of landfill gas. The sample,
(C3H3N) that can easily be converted
including the halogenated organic
into ammonia in gaseous fuels.
compounds, is oxidized in a CO2 and
O2 atmosphere. The hydrogen Note: The standard engine
halide by-product of the pyrolysis is configuration cannot tolerate
measured electrically using ammonia; it can cause serious
microcoulometric titration. The damage to the engine. However,
accuracy of this equipment is special fuel system configurations
±0.002%, not including inaccuracy were developed for landfill
introduced at the sample applications that provide some
withdrawing and depositing. protection from ammonia. These
Caterpillar recommends the follow special configurations have an
laboratory for halogen and ammonia limit of 2.96 µg/Btu
hydrogen sulfide testing: (2.81 mg/MJ) of NH3.
Core Laboratories- Houston
Attention: Gas Analysis Chemist
6310 Rothway Drive
Houston, TX 77040
(713)690-4444 phone
(713)690-5646 fax
©2011 Caterpillar
Figure 6
The maximum level of nitrogen potential as engine fuel. Water

compounds in terms of ppm vs. vapor can combine with organic
LHV is given in Figure 6. compounds or carbon dioxide form
When determining the ammonia acids that can be very corrosive to
level in a fuel, ammonia (NH3) and the gas handling equipment as well
acrylonitrile (C3H3N) should both be as to the engine.
counted only once. Condensation of water is not
For example, 50 ppm NH3 and permitted in the engine and should
10 ppm C3H3N are equivalent to be avoided at all points in the fuel
60 ppm ammonia compounds: delivery system. If the risk of
condensation is too great, the fuel
1 x 50 ppm (NH3) + 1 x 10 ppm (C3H3N) = 60
must be treated to reduce its water
ppm
content.
Any fuel in region ‘‘C’’ of Figure 6 Silicon

must be treated to remove the Silicon, the second most abundant
excess Ammonia. element on the earth, is commonly
found in sand, quartz, flint, granite,
Water glass, clay, and mica. If ingested
Water can be damaging to the into an engine, microscopic pieces
engine in any form - liquid or vapor. of these compounds can cause
Water vapor is a very common abrasive wear leading to significant
constituent in gases and should be damage. Gaseous compounds
taken into account whenever containing silicon are man made
evaluating a gas stream for its and can form deposits in the
©2011 Caterpillar
combustion chamber and exhaust Lubrication section of this guide for

system of an engine. Both types of further information.
silicon ingestion are discussed Silicon Containing Gases
below. The more difficult silicon to deal
Silicon Crystals with enters the engine in gaseous
Depending upon the landfill cover compounds containing silicon. The
material, the climate, and the most common class of gaseous
velocity of the gas within the fill, silicon compounds known to exist
significant levels of microscopic in landfills and in landfill gas are
silicon crystals can be carried with siloxanes.
the gas. Generally, this silicon is Siloxanes are organic compounds
less than one micron in size. The composed of silicon, oxygen, and
particles are generally too small to methyl groups with structural units
cause significant abrasive wear of - (CH3)2SiO-, and molecular
within the engine. However, if the weights typically in the range of
silicon particles are in high enough 150 to 600. Solubility decreases as
density, they can combine with the molecular weight increases.
other elements, including elements Siloxanes may be volatile or non-
found in oil additives, in the volatile. In the US, they are not
combustion process and form larger regulated by the environmental
particles. These larger particles can protection agency (EPA) as a
result in abrasive wear of the volatile organic compound (VOC)
exhaust valve face and valve seat. because siloxanes have been shown
The compound silicon particles can not to contribute to the formation of
also form indentations on the ground level ozone. Siloxanes are
exhaust valve face and seat if they common components in products
become trapped between those such as shampoos, cosmetics,
surfaces during valve closure. These detergents, pharmaceuticals, ink,
indentations or pitting of the valve lubricants and adhesives. A solid
face and seat may result in eventual antiperspirant may contain 50%
leakage or guttering of the valve. siloxanes. Siloxanes are found
Engine oil should be analyzed for wherever consumer waste and
silicon. sewage sludge are discharged.
Filtration is recommended to During combustion, the siloxane
control the silicon. Filters with 100% molecules break down, freeing the
effectiveness of particles silicon and oxygen molecules to an
---6
1.0 micron (1 micron equal 10 unstable monatomic state. They can
meters) and larger are then form a deposit by combining
recommended. Even with this with various other elements that
filtration equipment, significant may be present in the cylinder
amounts of silicon can still enter the during combustion. X-ray diffraction
engine. The silicon will be detected of deposits shows a mostly
in the oil analysis results. See amorphous composition of silica
(SiO2) and silicates. The elemental
©2011 Caterpillar
composition of a deposit has a high equipment located in the exhaust

level of silicon plus elements stream.
commonly found in oil additives The maximum amount of silicon
and wear metals from the engine, permitted in the gas for standard
such as calcium, sodium, sulfur, engines is shown in Table 2. For
zinc, iron, copper, and others. low energy fuel engines, the limits
Deposits caused by siloxanes will are 0.56 mg Si/MJ (0.60 µg Si/Btu). If
tend to be white to tan or gray in the silicon level in the gas exceeds
color, granular or flaky in nature, this amount, serious damage to the
and can become thick. The deposits engine may occur. Silicon levels
are extremely hard and cannot be may vary throughout the lifetime of
easily removed by chemical or the landfill project. Testing is
physical means. recommended at the beginning of
Deposits can appear in the the project and subsequently at 6-
combustion chamber, exhaust month intervals until the silicon
manifold, turbine, exhaust stack, level is stabilized. After the silicon
and even catalyst equipment. In the level stabilizes, testing is
combustion chamber, deposits can recommended if any deposits
on the valve faces. This will lead to accumulate in the exhaust or
excessive valve recession due to the combustion chamber.
grinding action of the silica on the Testing for silicon compounds
valve and valve seat. Deposits may requires specialized equipment.
also lead to valve guttering. This The following section describes the
occurs when a portion of thick procedure to determine the level of
deposit on the valve face chips silicon in landfill gas.
away. This leaves a path for the
Collection of gas samples for trace
combustion gases to pass through
silicon analysis must be done with
when the valve is closed; creating a
great care due to the common
torch effect that literally melts a part
presence of silicon in the
of the valve. It has been shown that
environment. The sample should be
guttering occurrences on engines
taken immediately before the gas
with deposits can be decreased by
delivery to the engine. Chilled
loading the engine slowly over a
Methanol Adsorption is
20 to 30 minute period. This allows
recommended for gas sampling. In
time for the temperature of the
this process, a fixed amount of gas
deposits to increase; changing their
is passed through the adsorption
consistency to plastic from brittle.
agent, usually methanol (CH3OH) or
Deposits on the turbine can cause
a similar hydrocarbon. The exposed
bearing failure due to imbalance
methanol should then be analyzed
and can cause turbine wheel
by gas chromatography and mass
erosion due to buildup between the
spectrometry for the total amount of
wheel and housing. Deposits may
siloxane compounds. The total
also mask catalyst or heat recovery
content of silicon in the sample
should be determined by Liquid
©2011 Caterpillar
Chromatograph with Inductively siloxane that may be present in a

Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission gas stream. However, refrigeration
Spectroscopy. of the gas will reduce the level of
Caterpillar has developed gas siloxanes in the gas. For the most
sampling equipment for siloxane common siloxanes, D4 and D5,
and halogen measurements. This kit reduction of the gas temperature
is available through Bio-Engineering from 43.3°C (110°F) to 4.4°C (40°F)
Services (see address below). It may should result in an approximate
be used to accurately collect and 95% reduction in siloxane level. A
meter gas for the Chilled Methanol limited number of sites have
Adsorption technique. The kit employed refrigeration as a means
contains three containers of to control siloxanes and this
methanol and a system to pass a technique appears to be effective.
fixed amount of gas through the Passing the gas through a solvent
methanol. The exposed methanol is (methanol, kerosene, toluene, etc.)
then sent to a laboratory for testing. will cause the siloxane molecules to
This kit will also gather gas in a bag adsorb to the solvent. A counterflow
for halogen and hydrogen sulfide gas-liquid adsorption bed can be
content tests. used to significantly reduce the
Caterpillar recommends the level of siloxane as well as chlorine
following laboratories for siloxane and fluorine in the gas. However,
testing. installation and operation of such a
system is usually cost prohibitive.
Bio-Engineering Services
Contact Caterpillar for additional
36 Virginia Street
details and supplier
Southport, PR8 6RU England
recommendations for this type
44 (0) 1704 539094 phone
system.
44 (0) 1704 501660 fax
No additional fuel treatment
Jet-Care International Inc. methods exist at this time to reduce
3 Saddle Road siloxane in gaseous fuels.
Cedar Knoll, NJ 07927-1902 On G3500 engines, a water wash,
(201)-292-9597 phone or water injection into the engine,
(201)-292-3030 fax has been shown to reduce siloxane
caused buildups. Water is sprayed
If the total silicon level in the into the intake. The added water
sample exceeds the limit shown in vaporizes in the combustion
Table 2, gas treatment is required. process, cleaning deposits from the
Conventional filtering systems will combustion chamber. Water
not remove siloxane from the injection has been used to clean
landfill gas. Siloxanes are solvent existing buildups and has been
soluble but are only water soluble used to control additional buildups.
to a limited extent. It is for this Injection rates vary from 4 to
reason that drying the gas of water 16 liters (1 to 4 gallons) of water per
will only remove a portion of the hour of engine operation. A spray
©2011 Caterpillar
mist of water is injected cooling systems will maintain

downstream of the turbocharger. outlet temperatures 110°C
The water must be the product of (230°F) range. Engines with
reverse osmosis cleaning. Raw outlet control cooling systems
water will lead to severe deposits of may require additional
calcium throughout the engine. external controls to maintain
Caution must be used if water 110°C (230°F) outlet
injection is used to clean existing temperatures. Elevating
buildups. Pieces of a deposit may coolant temperatures may not
break loose, guttering valves and be an option and all engine
damaging the turbochargers. Use models, such as the G33/3400.
low water injection rates until Contact Caterpillar before
deposits are removed. The factory applying such changes.
can provide further guidelines  Maintain the temperature of
regarding water-wash. The the oil in the sump high
following company designs and enough to prevent water from
sells water injection systems: condensing in the oil.
Bio-Engineering Services Maintaining the jacket water
36 Virginia Street outlet temperature at a
Southport, PR8 6RU England minimum of 93°C (200°F) will
44 (0) 1704 539094 phone normally accomplish this.
44 (0) 1704 501660 fax Elevating oil temperatures
may not be an option and all
Corrosive Gas Guidelines engine models, such as the
The following modifications to the G33/3400. Contact Caterpillar
operating and maintenance practices before applying such
and engine hardware will changes.
significantly increase its tolerance to  Where it is possible to start
corrosive elements introduced in the the engine on sweet gas,
fuel. bring the engine up to
 Maintain the coolant outlet operating temperature on
temperature at 110°C (230°F). sweet gas, then switch to sour
Temperature rise across the gas; reverse the procedure
engine should be no more when shutting the engine
than 8.3°C (15°F), and a 5.6°C down.
(10°F) rise is desirable. Water  Establish an oil analysis
and sulfur oxides are formed program to assure oil change
during combustion and will periods are not extended
condense on cylinder walls at beyond safe limits and that
low temperature. The higher other problems are not
jacket water temperature will overlooked. Cat Dealers are
minimize the amount of capable of establishing and
condensation. Engines conducting such programs.
equipped with inlet control
©2011 Caterpillar
 Use a gas engine oil designed

for landfill applications. These
oils include a specialized
additive package suitable for
corrosive gas applications.
See the Cat Fluids service
publications listed in the
reference material to this
section for more information
on Caterpillar’s oil
recommendations.
 There is no known oil additive
that can protect the internal
bright metal engine
components from H2S attack.
Positive crankcase ventilation
has proven to reduce the H2S
attack of internal engine
components. The ventilation
system should positively
remove the fumes from the
crankcase and allow filtered
air to enter the crankcase to
dilute the levels of H2S.
Guidelines for crankcase
ventilation systems are
provided in the Crankcase
Ventilation section of the
Application and Installation
Guide.
 When using an engine
configuration which mixes air
and fuel prior to the
aftercooler, a stainless steel
aftercooler core must be
used.
©2011 Caterpillar
Useful Conversions
To determine the amount of a To convert µg/L to ppmv:
particular atom contained in a ppmv = (µg/L) (23.67)/(MW)
compound, such as Cl from a
Where:
particular Cl bearing compound,
ppmv = part per million volume
% Cl = (MW of Cl)(number Cl atoms in
compound)(100)/(MW of compound) 1 mole of gas contains 22.4 liters at
µg Cl/L= (concentration of compound 0°C, 101.3 kPa
µg/L)(% Cl)/100 1 mole of gas contains 23.67 liters at
The same procedure can be used 15.5°C, 101.3 kPa
for other atoms and compounds. MW (molecular weight):
To show the level of one fluorine =19
contaminant as another, such as µg chlorine =35.5
F as µg Cl, (for use with Total bromine =79.9
Halogen levels): iodine =126.9
sulfur =32
µg F as Cl = (µg F/L)(MW of Cl)/(MW of F) hydrogen =1
To convert µg/Btu to µg/L:
1 ft3 = 28.3 L
(µg/Btu)(LHV Btu/scf)/(28.3 L/scf)=µg/L
1 m3 = 35.31 ft3
©2011 Caterpillar
Common Fuels
through the gas distribution
Natural Gas (Pipeline)
pipelines, the wet ends are removed
By definition, natural gas is any
to provide what we often refer to as
gas that occurs organically within
dry pipeline gas.
the earth and often is associated
with oil reserves and/or oil The composition of natural gas as
production. In this Application & it leaves the wellhead varies from
Installation Guide, natural gas is one area, or gas field, to another. In
assumed to have certain properties. each instance, it is a mixture of
In this guide, natural gas is clean, gases composed mostly of methane
dry, pipeline quality gas or treated (CH4) with varying percentages of
field gas. Treated field gas is a gas ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8),
that has been treated to remove the butane (C4H10), and usually small
following elements. amounts of helium (He), carbon
dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2), and in
 Particulate Matter
some fields hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
 Water Table 6 illustrates the variation in
 Inert gases such as Carbon composition of natural gases from
Dioxide (CO2) and Nitrogen different fields, including an
(N2) analysis of a typical dry pipeline
 Heavier Hydrocarbons gas.
Removal of these elements from Note that the quality of field gas is
field gas provides a consistent, high never constant. Field gases will vary
quality gas with at least a 905 BTU not only from site to site, but also
value and an 80MN (Methane from minute to minute on a single
Number). This is the gas typically well or field. Because engine fuel-air
associated with household heating mixing systems are typically
and cooking and purchased from a designed for a specific input fuel,
utility. This is also the BTU value larger variations can have
gas used in all Cat natural gas detrimental effects on the engine.
engine technical data and rating Any application fuel gas source that
sheets. has an unacceptable amount of
liquids or heavy hydrocarbons, or
Field Gas that exhibits notable swings in fuel
Natural gas in its original state is composition may be a candidate for
often referred to as field gas, fuel treatment.
wellhead gas, or wet gas. In the gas Fuel Treatment
industry, the designation wet or dry The presence of water, heavy
does not refer to the presence or hydrocarbons or contaminants
absence of water, but to the doesn't necessarily render a gas
presence or absence of liquid stream unusable as engine fuel.
hydrocarbons such as butane, There are many gas treatment
pentane, etc. Before being marketed
©2011 Caterpillar
methods available that can remedy hydrocarbons in a gas stream is

one or more of these issues - at a often inversely proportional to the
cost. Some, such as coalescers and pressure of the stream. Higher
scrubbers to remove excess water, pressures can make simpler, less
are relatively inexpensive and expensive solutions possible. The
simple to implement. Others for proper choice in each case will
addressing certain contaminant depend upon the economics of the
compounds can be very involved project to determine if the fuel
and expensive. The challenge of treatment technique required is
reducing the content of heavy worth the investment.
Natural Gas Analysis - Percent by Volume

Example A Example B Example C Example D
(Field Gas) (Field Gas) (Field Gas) (Dry, Pipeline)
Methane, CH4 75.23 76.00 89.78 92.20
Ethane, C2H6 12.56 6.40 4.61 5.50
Propane, C3H8 7.11 3.50 2.04 0.30
Butane, C4H10 3.38 0.67 0.89 ------
Pentane, C5H12 0.69 0.30 0.26 ------
Hexane, C6H14 0.40 ------ 0.21 ------
Heptane, C7H16 ------ ------ ------ ------
Nitrogen, N2 0.43 12.33 2.13 1.60
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.20 0.40 ------ 0.40
Others ------ 0.40 0.08 ------
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
HHV (High heat value) Btu/SCF 1,323.00 1,005.00 1,092.00 1,038.00
LHV (Low heat value) Btu/SCF 1,202.00 909.00 986.00 936.00
Methane Number 44.20 65.00 67.90 83.50
Table 6
©2011 Caterpillar
Reference Material
The following information is
provided as an additional reference
to subjects discussed in this
manual.
Media Numbers
LEBW5336: Gaseous Fuel
Systems
LEKQ7260: Low Energy Fuels
LEKQ7742: Detonation and
Preignition
LEKQ6378: Caterpillar Methane
Number Program
LEKQ9085: G3600 Engine Basics
SENR6517: Troubleshooting -
G3500 Air/Fuel Ratio Control
Engines with Electro
SEBU6400: Caterpillar Gas Engine
Lubricant, Fuel, and Coolant
Recommendations
Internal Combustion Engine
Fundamentals: Heywood, John
B., New York, 1988.
©2011 Caterpillar
Definitions
BACT = Best Available Control Technology
Bar = 14.5 psi
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure
bhp-hr = Base Horsepower per Hour
Btu/SCF British Thermal Units per Standard Cubic Foot
C3H3N = Acrylonitrile
CH2O = Formaldehyde
CH4 = Methane
CO = Carbon Monoxide
CO2 = Carbon Dioxide
DWC = Dry To Wet Conversion
DST = Detonation Sensitive Timing
EIS = Electronic Ignition System
EPA = Environmental Protection Agency (USA)
H2O = Water
H2S = Hydrogen Sulfide
HAP = Hazardous Air Pollutants
Lambda = Air/Fuel Ratio
LHV = Lower Heating Level
m3 = Meters Cubed = 35.3147 ft3 at equal temperatures
mg = Milligrams
mg/Nm3 = Milligrams per Normal Meter Cubed
MJ/Nm3 = Mega Joules per Normal Meter Cubed
Mole = Molecular Weight
MW = Molecular Weight = sum of atomic weights of all atoms in the molecule
N2 = Nitrogen
NH3 = Amonia
Nm3 = Normal Cubic Meters = 1 m3 @ 0°C and 101.3 kPaa (1013 mbar)
NMHC = Non Methane Hydrocarbons
NMNEHC = Non Methane, Non Ethane Hydrocarbons
NO = Nitric oxide
NO2 = Nitrogen dioxide
NOX = Oxides of Nitrogen
O2 = Oxygen
O3 = Ozone
ppm = Parts Per Million
ppmv = Parts Per Million By Volume
ppmvd = Parts Per Million By Volume Dry
PSD = Prevention of Significant Deterioration
SCF = Standard Cubic Feet = 1 ft3 @ 60°F and 14.696 psia (760 mm Hg)
SCR = Selective Catalytic Reduction
SiO2 Silica
SO2 = Sulfur Dioxide
SOX = Sulfur Oxide
Theoretically Complete Combustion - The objective of stoichiometric
Stoichiometric/
combustion is to achieve complete fuel burn, with no oxygen fuel left
Stoichiometric =
over, after combustion.
THC = Total Hydrocarbon
©2011 Caterpillar
Table A: Physical Properties of Gases (English Units)
Gas Density, 60°F, 14.696 psia Heat Value: At 60°F

Btu/SCF Btu/SCF Air Required Flammability Limits
Boiling
Specific SCF Vapor at Vapor at Btu/lb Btu/gal For Volume Percent
Point at SCF lb/gal
Gas Formula Gravity Gas/gal 14.696 14.696 Liquid Liquid Stoichiometric In Air Mixture
14.696 Gas/lb Liquid
(Air = 1) Liquid psia psia (LHV) (LHV) Combustion
psia Lower Higher
(LHV) (HHV) (cu ft/cu ft)
Methane CH4 ---258.72 0.5539 23.6541 59.135 2.5000 909.40 1,010.0 21,511.0 53,778 9.53 5.00 15.00
Ethane C2H6 ---127.46 1.0382 12.6200 37.476 2.9696 1,618.70 1,769.6 20,429.0 60,666 16.67 2.90 13.00
Propane C3H8 ---43.73 1.5226 8.6505 36.375 4.2268 2,314.90 2,516.1 19,922.0 84,206 23.82 2.00 9.50
iButane C4H10 +10.78 2.0068 6.5291 30.639 4.6927 3,000.40 3,251.9 19,590.0 91,930 30.97 1.80 8.50
nButane C4H10 +31.08 2.0068 6.5291 30.639 4.8691 3,010.80 3,262.3 19,658.0 95,717 30.97 1.50 9.00
iPentane C5H12 +82.09 2.4912 5.2596 27.380 5.2058 3,699.00 4,000.9 19,456.0 101,284 38.11 1.30 8.00
nPentane C5H12 +96.89 2.4912 5.2596 27.673 5.2614 3,703.90 4,008.9 19,481.0 102,497 38.11 1.40 8.30
Hexane C6H14 +155.70 2.9755 4.4035 24.379 5.5363 4,403.90 4,755.9 19,393.0 107,365 45.26 1.10 7.70
Heptane C7H16 +209.17 3.4598 3.7872 21.725 5.7364 5,100.30 5,502.5 19,315.0 110,799 52.41 1.00 7.00
Octane C8H18 +258.17 3.9441 3.3220 19.575 5.8926 5,796.20 6,248.9 19,256.0 113,468 59.55 0.80 6.50
Carbon Monoxide CO ---313.60 0.9670 13.5500 - - 320.50 320.5 4,342.2 - 2.39 12.50 74.20
Carbon Dioxide CO2 ---109.24 1.5196 8.6229 58.807 6.8199 - - - - - - -
Hydrogen H ---422.90 0.0696 188.6790 - - 273.93 342.2 51,566.0 - 2.39 4.00 74.20
Hydrogen Sulphide H2S ---76.49 1.1767 11.1351 74.401 6.6817 586.80 637.1 6,534.0 43,658 7.20 4.30 45.50
Oxygen O2 ---297.32 1.1048 11.8593 112.930 9.5221 - - - - - - -
Nitrogen N2 ---320.44 0.9672 13.5465 91.413 6.7481 - - - - - - -
Air –317.81 1.0000 13.1026 95.557 7.2930 - - - - - - -
©2011 Caterpillar
Table B: Physical Properties of Gases (Metric Units)
Gas Density, 0°C, 101.31 kPa Heat Value: At 0°C

Air Flammability Limits
3 3
Boiling Pt Specific 3 3 MJ/Nm MJ/Nm MJ/kg MJ/L Required Volume Percent
Nm Nm Gas/L kg/L
Gas Formula at 101.3 Gravity Vapor Vapor Liquid Liquid For In Air Mixture
` Gas/kg Liquid Liquid
kPa (Air = 1) (LHV) (HHV) (LHV) (LHV) Combustio
n (Vol/Vol) Lower Higher
Methane CH4 ---161.51 0.5539 1.3997 0.4190* 0.2994* 35.746 39.700 50.034 14.980* 9.53 5.00 15.00
Ethane C2H6 ---88.59 1.0382 0.7468 0.2656 0.3556 63.626 69.558 47.516 16.897 16.67 2.90 13.00
Propane C3H8 ---42.07 1.5226 0.5119 0.2578 0.5062 90.992 98.900 46.579 23.578 23.82 2.00 9.50
iButane C4H10 ---11.79 2.0068 0.3864 0.2171 0.5619 117.937 127.823 45.571 25.606 30.97 1.80 8.50
nButane C4H10 ---0.51 2.0068 0.3864 0.2253 0.5831 118.346 128.231 45.729 26.665 30.97 1.50 9.00
iPentane C5H12 +27.83 2.4912 0.3112 0.1940 0.6234 145.397 157.264 45.248 28.208 38.11 1.30 8.00
nPentane C5H12 +36.05 2.4912 0.3112 0.1961 0.6301 145.589 157.578 45.307 28.548 38.11 1.40 8.30
Hexane C6H14 +68.72 2.9755 0.2606 0.1728 0.6630 173.104 186.940 45.111 29.909 45.26 1.10 7.70
Heptane C7H16 +98.37 3.4598 0.2241 0.1539 0.6869 200.478 216.287 44.927 30.860 52.41 1.00 7.00
Octane C8H18 +125.65 3.9441 0.1966 0.1387 0.7056 227.831 245.626 44.792 31.605 59.55 0.80 6.50
Carbon Monoxide CO +156.44 0.9670 0.8018 + + 12.598 12.598 10.101 + 2.39 12.50 74.20
Carbon Dioxide CO2 +42.91 1.5196 0.5103 0.4167 0.8167 0 0 0 0 + + +
Hydrogen H +217.17 0.0696 11.1651 + + 10.766 13.451 120.203 + 2.39 4.00 74.20
Hydrogen Sulphide H2S ---60.27 1.1767 0.6589 0.5272 0.8001 23.065 25.043 15.198 12.160 7.20 4.30 45.50
Oxygen O2 ---182.95 1.1048 0.7018 0.8002 1.1403 0 0 0 0 + + +
Nitrogen N2 ---195.80 0.9672 0.8016 0.6478 0.8081 0 0 0 0 + + +
Air ---194.34 1.0000 0.7754 0.6771 0.8733 0 0 0 0 + + +
*Approximate Value
©2011 Caterpillar
Table C: Constituents of Gas by Volume
Constituents of Gas by Volume - Percent

Btu/SCF MJ/Nm3 Btu/SCF
LHV LHV of
Vol Air/ Methane
H2 CO CH4 C 2H 6 O2 CO2 N2 @60°F @0°C Correct
Vol Gas Number
14.696 101.31 Mixture
psi kPa (LHV)
Producer Gas
Anthracite Coal 20.0 25.0 - - 0.5 5.0 49.5 135 1.05 65.85 53.30
Bituminous Coal 10.0 23.0 3.0 0.5 0.5 5.0 58.0 136 1.12 64.25 66.70
Coke 10.0 29.0 - - 0.5 4.5 56.0 120 4.74 0.90 63.15 60.30
Illuminating Gas
Blue Water Gas 50.0 43.3 0.5 - - 3.0 3.2 280 2.27 85.63 5.20
Carbureted Water
40.0 19.0 25.0 8.5 0.5 3.0 4.0 526 4.97 88.10 2.60
Gas
Coal Gas 46.0 6.0 40.0 5.0 0.5 0.5 2.0 584 5.74 86.64 5.20
Oil Gas 32.0 - 48.0 16.5 0.5 - 3.0 772 7.66 89.14 -1.50
By-Product Gas
Coke Oven Gas 53.0 6.0 35.0 2.0 - 2.0 2.0 513 5.02 85.21 12.70
Blast Furnace
5.2 26.8 1.6 - 0.2 8.2 58.0 115 0.90 60.50 76.70
Gas
©2011 Caterpillar
LEBW4977-05 ©2011 Caterpillar Printed in U.S.A.
All rights reserved.

Gaseous Fuels: Application and Installation Guide

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APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE

Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, ‘‘Caterpillar Yellow,’’ the ‘‘Power

Fuel Properties .................... 2 Contaminants .................... 19

Standard Condition of a Gas that the measurement takes into

IMPORTANT: This equation only These types of conversions are

Given that combustion of combustion with two moles of

As stated previously, the amount (0.09529 lb/SCF) of water and the

on) must be tested to establish its research and testing on a wide

Impact of Fuel Quality on Engine Performance

the engine and so is critical in the production capability of the engine.

system means potentially less fuel establish the air/fuel ratio

mixture is ignited at the proper time The following descriptions

in temperature rise in the end

matched to high compression temperatures reducing the cooling

Aftercooler Temperature Fuel Usage Guides

Example of Fuel Usage Guide

An example of a fuel usage guide 23 degrees BTDC (‘‘before top dead

Maximum Contaminants and Conditions

result in higher levels of

Maximum Level of Sulfur Compounds

Typical Sulfur Compounds

H2S Limits @900+Btu/scf LHV

Halide Compounds landfill until the landfill gas is

Typical Halide Compounds

Chlorinated hydrocarbon and If the chlorine, fluorine or

The maximum level of nitrogen potential as engine fuel. Water

Any fuel in region ‘‘C’’ of Figure 6 Silicon

combustion chamber and exhaust Lubrication section of this guide for

composition of a deposit has a high equipment located in the exhaust

Chromatograph with Inductively siloxane that may be present in a

mist of water is injected cooling systems will maintain

 Use a gas engine oil designed

methods available that can remedy hydrocarbons in a gas stream is

Natural Gas Analysis - Percent by Volume

Table A: Physical Properties of Gases (English Units)

Gas Density, 60°F, 14.696 psia Heat Value: At 60°F

Carbon Dioxide CO2 ---109.24 1.5196 8.6229 58.807 6.8199 - - - - - - -

Oxygen O2 ---297.32 1.1048 11.8593 112.930 9.5221 - - - - - - -

Nitrogen N2 ---320.44 0.9672 13.5465 91.413 6.7481 - - - - - - -

Air –317.81 1.0000 13.1026 95.557 7.2930 - - - - - - -

Table B: Physical Properties of Gases (Metric Units)

Gas Density, 0°C, 101.31 kPa Heat Value: At 0°C

Carbon Dioxide CO2 +42.91 1.5196 0.5103 0.4167 0.8167 0 0 0 0 + + +

Oxygen O2 ---182.95 1.1048 0.7018 0.8002 1.1403 0 0 0 0 + + +

Nitrogen N2 ---195.80 0.9672 0.8016 0.6478 0.8081 0 0 0 0 + + +

Air ---194.34 1.0000 0.7754 0.6771 0.8733 0 0 0 0 + + +

Table C: Constituents of Gas by Volume

Constituents of Gas by Volume - Percent

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