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Photon
I INTRODUCTION
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Electromagnetic Waves
Photon, particle of light energy, or energy that is generated by moving electric charges. Energy
generated by moving charges is called electromagnetic radiation. Visible light is one kind of
electromagnetic radiation. Other kinds of radiation include radio waves, infrared waves, and X rays. All
such radiation sometimes behaves like a wave and sometimes behaves like a particle. Scientists use
the concept of a photon to describe the effects of radiation when it behaves like a particle. (See Wave
Motion)
Most photons are invisible to humans. Humans only see photons with energy levels that fall within a
certain range. We describe these visible photons as visible light. Invisible photons include radio and
television signals, photons that heat food in microwave ovens, the ultraviolet light that causes
sunburn, and the X rays doctors use to view a person’s bones.
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The photon is an elementary particle, or a particle that cannot be split into anything smaller. It carries
the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature, between particles. The
electromagnetic force occurs between charged particles or between magnetic materials and charged
particles. Electrically charged particles attract or repel each other by exchanging photons back and
forth.
II CHARACTERISTICS
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared
light, visible light, ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays. Visible light,
which makes up only a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum, is the
only electromagnetic radiation that humans can perceive with their eyes.
Photons are particles with no electrical charge and no mass, but they do have energy and momentum,
a property that allows photons to affect other particles when they collide with them. Photons travel at
the speed of light, which is about 300,000 km/sec (about 186,000 mi/sec). Only objects without mass
can travel at the speed of light. Objects with mass must travel at slower speeds, and nothing can
travel at speeds faster than the speed of light.
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Reserved.
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays, or high energy photons, are emitted from the nucleus of an
atom when it undergoes radioactive decay. The energy of the gamma ray
accounts for the difference in energy between the original nucleus and the
decay products. Gamma rays typically can have about the same energy as a
high energy X ray. Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic gamma-ray
energy.
The energy of a photon is equal to the product of a constant number called Planck’s constant
multiplied by the frequency, or number of vibrations per second, of the photon. Scientists write the
equation for a photon’s energy as E=hv, where h is Planck’s Constant and v is the frequency. Photons
with high frequencies, such as X rays, carry more energy than do photons with low frequencies, such
as radio waves. Photons that are visible to the human eye have energy levels around one electron volt
(eV) and frequencies from 1014 to 1015 Hz (hertz or cycles per second). The number 1014 is a 1
followed by 14 zeros. The frequency of visible photons corresponds to the color of their light. Photons
of violet light have the highest frequencies of visible light, while photons of red light have the lowest
frequencies. Gamma rays, the highest-energy photons of all, have energies in the 1 GeV range (109
eV) and frequencies higher than 1018 Hz. Gamma rays are only produced in special experimental
devices called particle accelerators and in outer space.
Although momentum is usually considered a property of objects with mass, photons also have
momentum. Momentum determines the amount of force, or pressure, that an object exerts when it
hits a surface. In classical physics, or physics that deals with the behavior of objects we encounter in
everyday life, momentum is equal to the product of the mass of an object multiplied by its velocity
(the combination of its speed and direction). While photons do not have mass, scientists have found
that they exert extremely small amounts of pressure when they strike surfaces. Scientists have
redefined momentum to include the force exerted by photons, called light pressure or radiation
pressure.
III HISTORY
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Max Planck
In a radical departure from classical ideas, theoretical physicist Max Planck
proposed that energy travels in discrete packets called quanta. Prior to
Planck’s work with black body radiation, energy was thought to be
continuous, but this theory left many phenomena unexplained. While working
out the mathematics for the radiation phenomena he had observed, Planck
realized that quantized energy could explain the behavior of light. His
revolutionary work laid the foundation for much of modern physics.
Philosophers from as far back in history as the Greeks of the 5th century BC have thought about the
nature of light. In the 1600s, scientists began to argue over whether light is made of particles or
waves. In the 1860s, British physicist James Clerk Maxwell discovered electromagnetic waves, waves
of electromagnetic energy that travel at the speed of light. He determined that light is made of these
waves, and his theory seemed to settle the wave versus particle issue. His conclusion that light is
made of waves is still valid. However, in 1900 German physicist Max Planck renewed the argument
that light could also act like particles, and these particles became known as photons. He developed the
idea of photons to explain why substances, when heated to higher and higher temperatures, would
glow with light of different colors. The wave theory could not explain why the colors changed with
temperature changes.
Culver Pictures
Albert Einstein
In 1905 German-born American physicist Albert Einstein published his first
paper outlining the theory of relativity. It was ignored by most of the
scientific community. In 1916 he published his second major paper on
relativity, which altered mankind’s fundamental concepts of space and time.
Most scientists did not pay attention to Planck’s theory until 1905, when German-born American
physicist Albert Einstein used the idea of photons to explain an interaction he had studied called the
photoelectric effect. In this interaction, light shining on the surface of a metal causes the metal to emit
electrons. Electrons escape the metal by absorbing energy from the light. Einstein showed that light
behaves as particles in this situation. If the light behaved like waves, each electron could absorb many
light waves and gain more and more energy. He found, however, that a more intense beam of light,
with more light waves, did not give each electron more energy. Instead, more light caused the metal
to release more electrons, each of which had the same amount of energy. Each electron had to be
absorbing a small piece of the light beam, or a particle of light, and all these pieces had the same
amount of energy. A beam of light with a higher frequency contained pieces of light with more energy,
so when electrons absorbed these particles, they too had more energy. This could only be explained
using the photon view of radiation, in which each electron absorbs a single photon and gains enough
energy to escape the metal.
Today scientists believe that light behaves both as a wave and as a particle. Scientists detect photons
as discrete particles, and photons interact with matter as particles. However, light travels in the form
of waves. Some experiments reveal the wave properties of light; for example, in diffraction, light
spreads out from a small opening in waves, much like waves of water would behave. Other
experiments, such as Einstein’s study of the photoelectric effect, reveal light’s particle properties.
Contributed By:
Cindy Schwarz
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