Index

THE EFFECTS OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RELATIONS ON ARCHITECTURE:
A CASE STUDY FRANK GEHRY
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
OF
THE MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
BY
DİLEK YÜCESAN
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE
IN
THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
JANUARY 2004
Approval of the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences
Prof. Dr. Canan Özgen

Director
I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of
Master of Architecture.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Selahattin Önür

Head of Department
This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully
adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Architecture.
Prof. Dr. Jale N. Erzen

Supervisor
Examining Committee Members:
Prof. Dr. Jale N. Erzen
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Aydan Balamir
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nur Çağlar
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdi Güzer
Inst. Dr. Namık Günay Erkal

ii
ABSTRACT
THE EFFECTS OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RELATIONS ON

ARCHITECTURE: A CASE STUDY FRANK GEHRY
Yücesan, Dilek
M.Arch, Department of Architecture
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Jale N. Erzen
January 2004, 151 pages
This thesis is an inquiry into the debates about the relationships

between architecture, painting, and sculpture. The survey focused on
the twentieth century, during which the disciplines of art and
architecture resumed a close relationship, taking into consideration the
historical context.
The interaction emerged with Beaux-Arts Schools, Arts and Crafts, Art
Nouveau movements until 1900s, and continued with Deutscher
Werkbund, Bauhaus and De Stijl during the early twentieth century;
and, focused on Minimalist Art, which emerged in the 1960s in
America with the concept of “architectural sculpture”.
iii
One of the architects who was influenced by the Minimalist artworks
was Frank Gehry. His method of combining art with architecture was
taken as the motive to choose Gehry’s work as the case study. His
striking forms contribute to the development of a final product as a
large-scale urban sculpture and a style that is collectively referred to as
“sculptural architecture”.
How does Frank Gehry’s architecture approach to the condition of art?

This question underwent examination in order to shed light on the
dialogue between art and architecture, as well as the professional
relationships between creators in these fields. At this point, the
discussion turned to the issue of collaboration through which artists and
architects find the opportunity to design together. Examining the
influence of artists on Frank Gehry, it is observed that, interactions
with art affected him when he was developing his characteristic style
and such collaboration enriched the final product and increased the
potentials of independent disciplines.
Key Words: Architecture, Painting, Sculpture, Minimalist Art,

Architecture of Frank Gehry, Interaction, Collaboration.
iv
ÖZ
DİSİPLİNLERARASI İLİŞKİLERİN MİMARLIK ÜZERİNDEKİ

ETKİLERİ: FRANK GEHRY ÖRNEĞİ ÜZERİNDEN BİR
ÇALIŞMA
Yücesan, Dilek
Yüksek Lisans, Mimarlık Bölümü
Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Jale N. Erzen
Ocak 2004, 151 sayfa
Bu tez, mimarlık, resim, ve heykel sanatları arasındaki ilişkiyi,

birbirleri ile bağlantıları doğrultusunda ele alan görüşler üzerine bir
çalışmadır. Araştırma, konunun tarihi bağlamı da göz önünde
bulundurularak, yirminci yüzyılda yeniden birbirleri ile yakın bir ilişki
kuran, sanat ve mimarlık disiplinleri konusundaki tartışmalar üzerinde
yoğunlaşmıştır.
1900lere kadar Beaux-Arts Okulları, Arts and Crafts, Art Nouveau gibi
hareketlerle ortaya çıkan etkileşim, yirminci yüzyılın başında
Deutscher Werkbund, Bauhaus ve De Stijl grupları ile devam etmiş ve
v
bu konu üzerine temel tartışmalar, 1960’larda Amerika’da doğmuş olan
ve “mimari heykel” kavramını ortaya çıkartan Minimal Sanat akımı
üzerine yoğunlaşmıştır.
Bahsedilen sanat eserlerinden etkilenen mimarlar arasında Frank Gehry

de yer almaktadır. Frank Gehry’nin çalışmalarının, bu tezin üzerinde
çalıştığı örnekler olması, mimarın, sanatı ve mimarlığı bütünleştiren bir
yaratma metodunu keşfetmiş ve uyguluyor olmasından
kaynaklanmaktadır. Gehry’nin etkileyici formları, ürünlerinin, büyük
ölçekli birer kentsel heykele dönüşmelerinde katkıda bulunmakta ve
mimarın stili, “heykelsi mimarlık” olarak nitelendirilmektedir.
Frank Gehry’nin mimarlığı, sanat eseri olma durumuna nasıl

yaklaşmaktadır? Bu soruya, sanat ve mimarlık arasındaki diyaloğa ışık
tutulması ve bu iki dalın yaratıcıları arasındaki profesyonel ilişkinin
açığa çıkartılması ile cevap verilmek hedeflenmektedir. Bu aşamada
konu, sanatçıların ve mimarların birlikte tasarım yapma imkanı
bulabildikleri işbirliklerine gelmektedir. Frank Gehry’nin sanatçılardan
etkilenmesinin incelenmesinden sonra görülmüştür ki, karakteristik
mimarisinin oluşumunda, mimarinin sanatla olan etkileşiminin payı
büyüktür ve takım çalışmaları, ortaya çıkan ürünü zenginleştirmekte ve
disiplinlerin ayrı ayrı sahip oldukları potansiyelleri yükseltmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Mimarlık, Resim, Heykel, Minimal Sanat, Frank

Gehry’nin Mimarlığı, Etkileşim, İşbirliği.
vi
To Hayat, Erol, and İpek Yücesan
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Jale N.

Erzen for her guidance and support throughout my thesis study. Her
faith in me was the greatest motivation that I could ever have in this
period of time.
Also I would like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Aydan Balamir, Assoc.
Prof. Dr. Nur Çağlar, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdi Güzer, Inst. Dr. Namık
Günay Erkal and Christopher Wilson for their precious suggestions and
comments.
And finally, I would like to extend my deepest appreciation to my

loving family Hayat, Erol and İpek Yücesan, to Görkem Süzal for his
invaluable and cordial help, and to my dear friends. Without their
patience and support, this thesis could not have been completed.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………..iii
ÖZ……………………………………………………………………...v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………….viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………...ix
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………….…..xi
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………1
2. IN SEARCH OF A DIALOGUE BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE

AND THE VISUAL ARTS………………………………………..7
2.1. The Historical Context of the Relationship Between the
Arts..…………………………………………………………..10
2.1.1. Architecture, Painting and Sculpture In Relation to Each
Other as Branches of Knowledge…………………………10
2.1.2. Architecture, Painting and Sculpture In the Environment:
The Classical Italian Model……………………………….13
2.2. 20th Century Debates on the Relationship Between the
Arts……………………………………………………………34
ix
2.2.1. Bauhaus and De Stijl: Avant-Garde Movements Uniting
Art and Architecture………………………………………40
2.2.1.1. The Bauhaus School, 1919-1928………………...40
2.2.1.2. De Stijl, 1917-1930………………………………44
2.2.2. Minimalist Art: The Changing Definition of Sculpture and
the Emerging Architectonic Qualities…………………………46
2.2.2.1. Spatial and Formal Practices of Minimalist
Art…………………………………………………………..53
2.2.2.2. Discussions on the Concepts of “Sculptural” and
“Architectural” as they Relate to Spatial Experience ……...62
3. IN SEARCH OF A DIALOGUE BETWEEN ARCHITECTS AND

ARTISTS…………………………………………………............72
3.1. Frank Gehry and the Art of Architecture……………………..72
3.2. Case Study: Guggenheim Bilbao Museum…………………...82
3.3. Influence of Visual Arts on Frank Gehry’s Work…………..100
3.3.1. Interaction with Painting………………………………103
3.3.2. Interaction with Sculpture……………………………..110
3.4. Frank Gehry’s Collaboration with Artists…………………...116
3.4.1. Collaboration with Painters……………………………122
3.4.2. Collaboration with Choreographers…………………...125
3.4.3. Collaboration with Sculptors………………………….127
4. CONCLUSION: THE ARCHITECTURE OF INTERACTION.139
REFERENCES……………………………………………………...145
x
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES
2.1.Francis Bacon’s Diagram, early 17th Century………………….. 11
2.2.Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert’s Diagram,

18thCentury………………………………..…………………………11
2.3. Santa Maria Novella Cathedral, Florence, c.1279-c.1470, exterior.

Source:http://www.firenze.net(November4,2003)….……………………….14
2. 4. Santa Maria Novella Cathedral, interior.

Source:http://www.firenze.net(November4,2003)………………………………15
2. 5. Santa Maria Novella Cathedral, interior.

Source:http://www.firenze.net(November4,2003)……………..……………..15
2. 6. Duomo, Siena, c.1250-c.1400, exterior.

Source:http://www.degeneratepress.com/postmodernlove/web_images/siena_duom
o_ceiling.jpg (November 5,2003)…………………….………………...…16
2. 7. Duomo, Siena, interior.

Source: www.bearquest.com/ siena/siena2.htm (November 5, 2004) ………....17
2. 8. Duomo, Siena, ceiling.

Source:http://home.iae.nl/users/jvdl/italia/foto/siena/duomo_detail_siena.jpg(Nove
mber 5, 2003)…………………………………………………………..18
xi
2. 9. Duomo, Siena, detail from the head sculptures, interior.
Source:www.bearquest.com/siena/siena2.htm(November5,2003)……………18
2. 10. Duomo, Siena, stained glass windows, interior.

Source:www.bearquest.com/siena/siena2.htm(November5,2003)……………18
2. 11. Duomo, Siena, detail from the façade.

Source: www. ariafonte.com./photo (November 5,2003)…………….. …….18
2. 12. Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, c.1299-1500s, exterior.

Source: http://www.mega.it/min/pavecch.(November 4, 2003)………………19
2. 13. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, courtyard.

Source:http://www.firenze.net/cuts/img27521.jpg(November4,2003)………...20
2. 14. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, room.

Source:http://www.firenze.net/cuts/img27521.jpg(November4,2003)………...20
2. 15. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, room.

Source:http://www.firenze.net/cuts/img27521.jpg(November4,2003)………....21
2. 16. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, hall.

Source:http://www.arca.net/dbimg/comune500b.jpg(November4,2003)…….…21
2. 17. Loggia Della Signoria, Florence, c.1376-c.1381, exterior.

Source:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/ARTH200/Women/logg
iadeilanzi.jpg(November5,2003)…………………………………………22
2. 18. Loggia Della Signoria, exterior.

Source:www.waf.it/guided/6.htm(November5,2003)……………………….23
2. 19. Loggia Della Signoria, interior.
Source:http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/ARTH200/Women/logg
iadeilanzi.jpg(November5,2003)………………………………………….23
xii
2. 20. Medici Chapel, Florence, c.1520-c. 1534, exterior.
Source: http://www.mike-reed.com/images (November 5,2003)……...............24
2. 21. Medici Chapel, interior.

Source: http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/hy309/pics/mchapel.jpgü
(November5,2003)…………………………………...............................25
2. 22. Medici Chapel, interior, detail.

Source:http://www.ktb.net/~bewier/Medici7.jpg(November5,2003) ……........26
2. 23. Medici Chapel, sketches of the statues.

Source:http://www.art.net/~rebecca/NotesMich1.gif(November5,2003)……...26
2. 24. Medici Chapel, interior, detail.

Source:http://www.mikereed.com/images(November5,2003)…… ………......26
2. 25. Piazza St Peter’s, Vatikan, Roma, c 1546-1590.

Source:http://www.cs.utah.edu/~bigler/pictures/europe2002/italy/st%20peter's%20
basilica_thumb.jpg (November 5, 2003) ……………………………….….27
2. 26. Piazza St Peter’s.

Source: http://home.clara.net/ianlloyd/holiday/italy/images/st-peters-
squarerome.jpg(November 5,2003)……………………………………….27
2. 27. Piazza St Peter’s, detail from the colonnade.

Source:http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/images/h6/h6_pope_1.jpg
(November5,2003)………………………………………….…………..27
2. 28. S Agnese Church, Piazza Navona, Rome c. 1653-c.1655,

exterior.
Source:http://www.culturageneral.net/arquitectura/arquitec/jpg/santagne.jpg
(November5,2003)…………………………………………...................29
2. 29. The façade of St Agnese with Bernini’s sculpture “The Four

Rivers Fountain”.
xiii
Source:http://www.generativeart.com/abst2000/soddu/Image39.jpg
(November5,2003)………………………………………………............30
2. 30. St Agnese, interior.

Source:http://hanser.ceat.okstate.edu/St.%20Agnese.htm(November5,2003)……
………………………………...........................................................…31
2. 31. Fountain of Trevi, Rome, c 1730-1740.

Source:http://www.du.edu/intl/images/fontanaditrevi1.jpg(November5,2003)……
………….......................................................................................……31
2. 32. The Fountain of Trevi, detail.

Source:http://www.8ung.at/photomaze/lpics/trevi.jpg(November5,2003)…….…32
2. 33. 14" x 21-1/2" Beaux-Arts print, 1869.

Source:http://www.bartleby.com/65/ec/Ecoledes.html(November9,2003)……..35
2. 34. 14" x 21-1/2" Beaux-Arts print, 1870.

Source:http://www.bartleby.com/65/ec/Ecoledes.html(November9,2003)……..35
2. 35. John Ruskin (1819-1900) and William Morris (1834-1896).

Source:http://images.google.com.tr/images?hl=tr&lr=&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-
8&q=ruskin+and+morris(November9,2003)..............................................…36
2. 36. Victor Horta, interior.

Source:http://www.nga.gov/feature/nouveau/teach/large/slide_11.jpg
(November9,2003)………………………………....................................37
2. 37. The Art School Building in Weimar, 1904-11.

Source:http://images.google.com.tr/imgres?imgurl=www.bauhaus.de/bauhaus1919(
November9,2003)……………………...............................................…..39
xiv
2. 38. Henry van de Velde interior design.
Source :http://images.google.com.tr/imgres?imgurl=www.designboom.com(Nove
mber9,2003)….............................................................................………39
2. 39. Henry van de Velde furniture design.

Source :http://images.google.com.tr/imgres?imgurl=skolenettet.no/kunstweb/bruksf
orm/bilder(November9,2003)……………............................................…..39
2. 40. Henry van de Velde ceramic design.

Source :www.tafelkultur.de/keramik.html(November9,2003)………………...39
2. 41. Poster for Bauhaus Exhibition, 1925.

Source :http://perso.wanadoo.fr/olga.bluteau/ORCULTURE/Bauhaus.jpg
(November9,2003)………………............................................................42
2. 42. Bauhaus Building at Weimar.

Source :http://www.tuharburg.de/b/kuehn/bauhaus.jpg(November9,2003)…….43
2. 43. Bauhaus School interior design.

Source :www.tuharburg.de/b/kuehn/wg2.html(November9,2003).....................43
2. 44. Shroeder House by Geerit Rietvelt, 1924.

Source:http://www.dside.yucom.be/pag43_084.htm(November13,2003)………45
2. 45. Sketch of the interior of Shroeder House.

2. 46. Furniture design by De Stijl.

2. 47. Furniture design by De Stijl.

xv
Source:http://www.dside.yucom.be/pag43_084.htm(November13,2003)……..46
2. 48. Richard Serra, Clara-Clara, 1983, Paris.

Source:http://www.dside.yucom.be/pag43_084.htm(November13,2003)…….48
2. 49. Robert Morris, Labyrinth, 1999.

Source :http://www.mocalyon.org/Pages/expo/morris/Morris_fr.html
(November13,2003)..............................................................................................51
2. 50. Dan Graham, Pavillion/Sculpture for Argonne.

Source:http://www.diacenter.org/exhibs/graham/graham.html(November13,2003)..
..................................................................…………………………….52
2. 51. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, German Pavillion.

Source: http://home.t-online.de/home/michael.rasche/mies05.jpg
(November13,2003) …............................................................................52
2. 52. Donald Judd, Aluminum, 8x8x8 1975.

Source:http://www.dside.yucom.be/pag43_084..............................................54
2. 53. Richard Serra, Running Arcs, 1970.

Source: Krauss, Rosalind, Richard Serra Weight and Measure, New York: The
Museum of Modern Art, 1992, p 83……………………………………….54
2. 54, 2. 55. Michael Heizer, Double Negative, 1969-1970, 240,000-ton

displacement in rhyolite and sandstone in Mormon Mesa, Nevada,
1,500 x 50 x 30 ft., The Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles.
Source:http://undertow.arch.gatech.edu/homepages/gt7267a/Serra&Zumthor/sld02
0.htm(November15,2003)………………………………………………...55
2. 56. Rosalind Krauss, “Klein Diagram”.

Source:http://undertow.arch.gatech.edu/homepages/gt7267a/Serra&Zumthor/sld02
0.htm(November15,2003)…………………………………………….....57
xvi
2. 57. Robert Morris, Mirrored Cubes.
Source : Morris, Robert, The Mind/Body Problem, New York,:The Solomon R.
Guggenheim Foundation, 1994, p 269……………………….....................58
2. 58. Robert Morris, Mirror Installations.

Source : Morris, Robert, The Mind/Body Problem, New York,:The Solomon R.
Guggenheim Foundation, 1994, p 270…………………………………….58
2. 59. Richard Serra, Delineator.

Source: Krauss, Rosalind, Richard Serra Sculpture, New York: The Museum of
Modern Art, 1986, p 110………………………………………………...59
2. 60. Richard Serra, Twins.

Source: Krauss, Rosalind, Richard Serra Weight and Measure, New York: The
Museum of Modern Art, 1992, p38…………………………………..........59
2. 61. Richard Serra, Circuit.

Source: Krauss, Rosalind, Richard Serra Sculpture, New York: The Museum of
Modern Art, 1986, p 29 ……………………………………………….…60
2. 62. Richard Serra, Torqued Ellipses.

Source: http://www.guggenheimbilbao.es/ingles/exposiciones/serra/contenido.htm
(November 22, 2003)………………………………………………….…60
2. 63. Table of comparison of architecture and sculpture……………63
2. 64. Blolo Bla, African sculpture.

Source: http://www.vub.ac.be/BIBLIO/nieuwenhuysen/african-art/african-art-
collection-statues.htm (March 14, 2003)…………………….......................65
2. 65. Donald Judd, Untitled.

Source:http://hirshhorn.si.edu/collection/gallery/judd.html(December10,2002)…
………………………………..........................................………….…65
2. 66. “Klein Group” Diagram with examples.

Source: Diagram by Dilek Yücesan………………………………………..67
xvii
3. 1. Sketch for Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, by Frank Gehry, 1991.
Source: Bechtler, Cristina, ed. Kurt W. Forster Frank O Gehry. Art and
ArchitectureinDiscussion.Verlag:Cantz,1999,p37.…………………............73
3. 2. Frank Gehry’s study model.

Source:http://www.designarchitecture.com/view_article.cfm?aid=228&return=artic
les.cfm(November25,2003)………………………...............................….76
3. 3. Frank Gehry’s study model.

Source:http://www.designarchitecture.com/view_article.cfm?aid=228&return=artic
les.cfm(November25,2003)……………………………........................…76
3. 4. Frank Gehry in “Il Corso del Coltello”.

Architecture in Discussion. Verlag: Cantz, 1999, p 116.……………………..77
3.5. Commercial for Machintosh with Frank Gehry with the catchword:
“Think different”.
Source: Friedman, Mildred. Architecture and Process. Gehry Talks. New York:
Universe Publishing, 2002.……………………………………………….77
3. 6. Fish Gallery, Guggenheim Bilbao Museum.

Architecture in Discussion. Verlag: Cantz, 1999, p 126.…..............................78
3. 7. Le Corbusier, Plan Voisin, 1925.

Source :http://architecture.about.com(,April 25,2003) ….…………………...79
3. 8. Le Corbusier, Plan Voisin, 1925.

Source :http://architecture.about.com(April25,2003)………………….......…79
3. 9. Le Corbusier, Notre-Dame-du-Haut Chapel in Ronchamp, 1956.

Source :Source :http://architecture.about.com(April25,2003)………………...79
xviii
3. 10. Frank Gehry, Entrance Hall for the DG Bank Headquarters in
Berlin Pariser Platz, 1999.
Source: Degel, Kirsten and Kjeld Kjeldsen eds. The Architect’s Studio. Lousiana:
Lousiana Museum of Modern Art, 1998, p 23. …………………………….81
3. 11. Entrance Hall for the DG Bank Headquarters in Berlin Pariser

Platz, interior.
Universe Publishing, 2002, p 205.………………………………………...81
3. 12. Frank Gehry, Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, river façade, 1991-

1997.
Source: Photograph by Dilek Yücesan ………….………………….……..82
3. 13. Sketch by Dilek Yücesan, the bridge with the steel-skeleton

tower in the front.
Source: Sketch by Dilek Yücesan ……………………………....………...83
3. 14. Guggenheim Museum, north elevation.

Source: Photograph by Dilek Yücesan………...................................……..84
3. 15. Guggenheim Museum, south elevation.

Source: Photograph by Dilek Yücesan…….........................................……84
3. 16. Guggenheim Museum, tower.

3. 17. Guggenheim Museum, administration building.

3. 18. Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, atrium.

Universe Publishing, 2002, p 152.………...................................................86
3.19. Sketch by Dilek Yücesan, the atrium.

Source: Sketch by Dilek Yücesan ………………………………………..87
xix
3. 20. Sketch by Dilek Yücesan, the atrium.
Source: Sketch by Dilek Yücesan……………………………….………..87
3. 21. Sketch by Dilek Yücesan, Snake, Richard Serra, Fish Gallery,

Guggenheim Bilbao Museum.
Source: Sketch by Dilek Yücesan ………………………………………..88
3. 22. Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, atrium.

Universe Publishing, 2002, p 153…….......................................................88

Source: Sketch by Dilek Yücesan……………………………….………..89

Source: Sketch by Dilek Yücesan………………………………………...89
3. 25. Torqued Ellipses, Installation at the Fish Gallery, Guggenheim

Bilbao Museum.
Source: http://www.guggenheim-
bilbao.es/ingles/exposiciones/serra/contenido.htm(November25,2003)............92
3. 26. Sketch by Dilek Yücesan, German Pavillion, Ludwig Mies van

der Rohe, Barcelona, 1929.
Source: Sketch by Dilek Yücesan ………………........................………..96
3. 27. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, German Pavillion, Barcelona, 1929.
Source: Photograph by Dilek Yücesan …………………....................…….97
3. 28. Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, north elevation.

Source: Photograph by Dilek Yücesan ……………………………………97
3.29. Frank Gehry, Santa Monica House, exterior, 1987.

Source:http://www.kmtspace.com/gehryOne.htm(December2,2003)............…..101
xx
3. 30. Frank Gehry, Santa Monica House, kitchen, 1987.
Source:http://www.kmtspace.com/gehryOne.htm(December2,2003)………..101
3. 31. Frank Gehry, Frederick R. Weisman Museum, 1990-1993.

Source: http://www.weisman.umn.edu/gehry/17.htm (December2,2003)......…104
3. 32. Picasso, Portrait of Daniel Henry Kahnweil, 1912.

Source:http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc/projects/comm544/library/styles
/AnalyticCubism.html(April 3,2003) …………………………………….104
3. 33. Frank Gehry, The Familian House, model, 1978.

Source: http://www.kmtspace.com/gehryOne.htm (August 5, 2003)…............106
3. 34. Paul Cezanne, Mont Saint Victoire.

Source: http://www.artworld.co.kr/artist/picasso/analytical/vollard.htm (April 3,
2003)…………….................................................................................107
3. 35. Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase.

ArchitectureinDiscussion.Verlag:Cantz,1999,p33……………………….…108
3. 36. Frank Gehry, Telluride Residence, Telluride, Colorado, 1995 -.

Universe Publishing, 2002, p 182.……………………………………….108
3. 37. Donald Judd, Lever.

Source:Bechtler, Cristina, ed. Kurt W. Forster Frank O Gehry. Art and Architecture
in Discussion. Verlag: Cantz, 1999, p 111....………………........................112
3. 38. Frank Gehry, Frederick R. Weisman Museum, 1990-1993.

Source:http://www.weisman.umn.edu/gehry/17.htm(December2,2003)……...113
3. 39. Ellsworth Kelly, Untitled, Stainless steel, Sand-blasted, 1986.

xxi
Source:www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/baltimore/baltimore2.html(December2,2003)
……………………………………………………………………….113
3. 40. Frank Gehry, Team Disney Administration Building, 1987-1996.

Universe Publishing, 2002, p 71.................................................................115
3. 41 Claes Oldenburg, Balancing Tools.

Source:http://www.oldenburgvanbruggen.com/lsp.html(December12,2003)……
….......................................................................................................115
3. 42. Richard Serra, Torqued Ellipses.

Source:http://www.guggenheimbilbao.es/ingles/exposiciones/serra/contenido.htm
(November25,2003)............…………………………………………...115
3. 43. Lewis Residence, Sketch by Frank Gehry, 1985-1995.

Architecture in Discussion. Verlag: Cantz, 1999,p 47……………………...120
3. 44. Lewis Residence, Plans.

Universe Publishing, 2002, p 101.………………………………………120
3. 45. Lewis Residence, Model.

Universe Publishing, 2002, p109………………………………………..121
3. 46. Ron Davis and Frank Gehry, Ron Davis House, 1972.
Source: http://www.salon.com/people/bc/1999/10/05/gehry/davis.jpg (December
12, 2003) .............................................................................................122
3. 47. Ron Davis, Twin Wave, 1978.

Source:http://www.abstractart.com/RonDavis/a_art/af_prints/ty3r_twin_wave.html
(December 12,2003)…………………………………………………..124
xxii
3. 48. Ron Davis House, interior.
Source: http://www.architetturaamica.it/Biblioteca/recens/Gehry.html (December
12,2003)................................................................................................124
3. 49. Frank Gehry, Available Light, Stage Design, 1983.

Source: Friedman, Mildred. “Fast food” in The Architecture of Frank Gehry, New
York: Rizzioli, 1986, p 103……………………………………………..126
3. 50. Frank Gehry and Richard Serra, Connections,.

Source: Friedman, Mildred. “Fast food” in The Architecture of Frank Gehry, New
York: Rizzioli, 1986, p 195. ………………………………………….…128
3. 51. Frank Gehry and Richard Serra, Millennium Bridge model, 1996.
Architecture in Discussion. Verlag: Cantz, 1999, p 115.…………………....130
3. 52. Millennium Bridge model.

Architecture in Discussion. Verlag: Cantz, 1999, p 114.…...........................131
3. 53. Claes Oldenburg, Coosje Van Bruggen, Bottle, 1982.

Source: http://www.oldenburgvanbruggen.com/lsp.htm (December 12, 2003)
…………………………………………………………………….…133
3. 54. Frank Gehry, Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen,Camp

Good Times, Santa Monica Mountains, Malibu, California, 1984-1985.
ArchitectureinDiscussion.Verlag:Cantz,1999,p99…………………….……134
3. 55. Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen, Torn notebook, 1993.
Source: http://www.oldenburgvanbruggen.com/lsp.htm (December 12, 2003)
…………………………………………………………………….…136
3. 56. Chiat/Day Building, plan.

Universe Publishing, 2002, p 59.................................................................137
xxiii
3. 57. Claes Oldenburg designing the interior of the binocular.
UniversePublishing,2002,p43…...……………………………………….137
3. 58. Chiat/Day Building, exterior.

Source: http://www.arcspace.com/calif/build/chiat.htm (December 12,
2003)………………………….........................................................…137
xxiv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Today, architecture, painting and sculpture are the three independent

branches of art. However, throughout history it is possible to observe
the different periods during which the bond between them gained
strength or loosened. The relationship that resumed in the twentieth
century is the main concern of this thesis.
Departing from my cognition of architecture as the art of creating

space1; the objective of this work was stated as discovering the
relationship of this discipline with other branches of art, and
questioning the consequences of the interactions between them in the
contemporary era.
The modern period, which is accepted as having commenced with the

social and technological revolutions of the late eighteenth century, has
witnessed radical changes in lifestyles. Changes took place in science
1
Even though it is not possible to define architecture in a single way, this description presents the
author’s standpoint in this survey. Here, architecture was taken as a discipline, which deals with the
aesthetics of space, and due to the fact that it was accepted as a branch of art, the link between
architecture and related arts gained importance.
1
and technology, in the methods of production, consumption,
reproduction, and in the status of art and architecture.
During the enlightenment, the disciplines started to grow apart

according to the emergent needs of the new society. Therefore, art and
architecture, which were collected under the common definition of “art”
in Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque periods, separated
from each other in the nineteenth century.
The spaces of everyday life were transformed due to the contemporary

needs of modern man. Architecture was in search of adapting itself to
the new materials, techniques and modes of production. For instance, it
is possible to witness the changes in the words of William Morris, from
his publication News From Nowhere in 1891, when he mentions that he
was dreaming about a new life, which accepts and adapts itself to
technological and industrial developments as well as surviving without
being so dependent on machine technology.2 Meanwhile, the condition
of art has changed in the bourgeois society, which gained power after
the industrial revolution. In the nineteenth century, painting, sculpture
and architecture were not accepted only as media for recording and
demonstrating religious and ritualistic occasions but were further seen
as objects of art made for art’s sake that could also be experienced
aesthetically.3 This condition led to the rejection of art by the avant-
garde. Sublating art into the praxis of life was the main concern, which
later caused the birth of Dada, Bauhaus, pop art and minimal art
2
Frampton, Kenneth. “News From Nowhere: England 1836-1924”, in Modern Architecture a
Critical History, New York: Oxford University Press, 1980, p 45.
3
Burger, Peter, “The Negation of the Autonomy of Art by the Avant-Garde”, in Theory of the
Avant-Garde, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986, p 40-54.
2
movements, which completely changed the conception of art in modern
society. In the beginning of the twentieth century, architecture, like art,
was in search of a new structure with which it could re-build itself due
to the recent needs of the age. It had to be built according to an
infrastructural system, on a large scale, had to be critical of traditional
works and, had to establish its own model. By criticizing their existing
formations, art and architecture came together on the issue of creating a
liberated social life, free from conventional systems. The rebellion
caused the establishment of the concept of the “new” in the two
disciplines. As a result, architecture and art resumed a close, but this
time an interdisciplinary, relationship.
Thus, the aim of this thesis could be defined as searching for a common
ground on which art and architecture can be discussed with reference
to, and in exchange with, each other. In order to study the interaction of
these two separate disciplines in modern times and to examine the new
language in architecture in relation to art, Frank Gehry’s architecture
was selected as the case study. However, with the aim of examining
architecture, painting and sculpture in direct relation to the
contemporary era, it will be suitable to start from the background of
this relationship.
The second chapter will incorporate a limited historical perspective.

The historical context will begin with the branches of knowledge in
which art and architecture were located in relation with each other. In
the latter part of this chapter these three arts will be studied within the
environmental context with the aim of demonstrating the practical
3
relationship between them through the examples belonging to the
historical Italian model.
The concerns of the contemporary era about the intersecting spheres of

the fields of art and architecture will be elaborated in the continuation
of the second chapter beginning with related arguments. Later Bauhaus
in Germany and De Stijl in Holland will be studied in order to bring
under discussion these two avant-garde movements, emphasizing the
unification of all branches of art. Meanwhile, another movement of the
twentieth century art world will bring another point of view to the
subject. Minimalist Art will be the following and the most relevant
example to study the dialogue between the arts.
Even if the Minimalist work did not carry the aim of being discussed in
architectural debates and did not aim to unite itself with architecture
like The Bauhaus and De Stijl movements, it caused numerous
discussions about sculpture and architecture with its formal and spatial
qualities. The aim will not be carrying the concepts of Minimalism and
discussing them with their formal counterparts in architecture but
rather, considering the works of Minimalist artists in relation to their
architectural character. By this method, it will be possible to reveal the
main facts that constitute the relationship between this movement and
architectural practice.
Discussing the contemporary era with its recent debates on the

relationship among architecture, painting and sculpture, the subject will
relate to the professional relationship among the practitioners of these
disciplines. The issue will be studied in the third chapter through a case
4
study, viz., the architecture of Frank Gehry. The reason behind
selecting Gehry’s projects and his conceptions about architecture for
this chapter is his known interest in art, his declarations about the
influences of the contemporary artists on his works, and his
collaboration with painters and sculptors in several commissions. In my
opinion, Gehry’s work has vast importance as an example of personal
expression. Other than trying to satisfy the practical needs of society, he
creates architectural artifacts like an artist whose work can be seen as a
personal challenge. That is why this chapter contains many references
to Gehry as an artist in architecture whose end products have the
opportunity to become large-scale urban sculptures. Especially when
these are museums, or small-scale exhibition halls, the spectacle
becomes the building as well as the artworks that are exhibited inside of
it.
The subjects under discussion in this chapter are Gehry’s working

methods, his expressive forms, the materials he uses, the influences of
painting and sculpture on his work, and his collaboration with artist
friends such as Ron Davis, Lucinda Childs-John Adams, Richard Serra
and Claes Oldenburg in numerous projects of art and architecture.
The main issues that this study will deal with are:
• The historical and contemporary discussions about the relation

between architecture, painting and sculpture,
5
• Assuming that the end products of the two disciplines are
different from each other, the elements of interaction that affect
the development of the two diverse arts,
• The projects that Frank Gehry worked on together with other
artists,
• When artists and Frank Gehry were in collaboration, what were
the fundamental issues of discussion? The diverse approaches to
material, the relation of form and content, spatial experience in
the works of these artists,
• Based on the team works, what can be assessed about the reasons
behind Gehry’s departure from traditional architectural forms?
In the conclusion, the consequences of this interaction will be

elucidated and summarized.
6
CHAPTER 2
IN SEARCH OF A DIALOGUE BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE

AND THE VISUAL ARTS
Some disciplines are collaborative by their nature. Architecture is one

of them with its functional, aesthetical, formal, and technical aspects.
The art of architecture converts volume into space by adding meaning
into the three dimensional structure. The diverse qualifications stated
above should be contained by the end product in order for architecture
to be used, and, in order for it to be remembered as a work of art for a
long period of time. But can such a complicated mission be
accomplished only by the efforts of the architect?
The answer of this question can either be “yes” or “no” according to

the conditions under which the architectural production is being made.
For instance, with respect to ancient times the answer could be given as
“yes”. That is due to the fact that there was not a separation between art
and architecture. These were the two branches of art, which created
works of painting, sculpture, or architecture. A church or a monument
was accepted as an architectural artifact with a painting in it, or a pieta
that was a part of its wall was regarded as a construction element
besides being a sculptural entity. Under such circumstances, in which
7
there were no disciplinary boundaries between painting, sculpture and
architecture, a building was being designed, developed, realized,
organized and presented by one man who was called the architect.
Surely there was also some teamwork involved, but in the end the
architect was solely responsible for the final accomplishment. Even in
such a case though, the only person in the process is not the architect.
There would be various roles involved such as the architect as an artist,
the architect as a technician, the architect as a manager and numerous
others. At this point, the intra-disciplinary relations are activated.
Today, however, the answer to this question would be “no”. This is due
to the fact that one person cannot be qualified to perform all of these
functions, as in the ancient times. Specialized institutions share the
responsibility of the realization of an architectural project. However,
the architect is both the person who designs from scratch and who
decides where to go and from whom to get advice and support in the
realization of his commission. At this point the inter-disciplinary
relations begin to be activated.
Currently, it would be proper to clarify the nuance between the terms

intra-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary. In the pre-modern world of
intra-disciplinary relationships, the mission was not given to different
people with diverse professions. To rise up a building was an act of art.
If one man were good at masonry, he would construct and, if one were
good at painting he would paint the sketches of the architect. But the
architect was the one who decided the strength of the wall that was to
be built and who made sketches for the wall paintings. In sum,
architecture was a roof, under which all the necessary branches were
8
intertwined. However, in the modern world, architecture is a profession
that is apart from the other disciplines related with the construction
process such as civil engineering and mechanical engineering. Thus the
disciplines that are necessary for raising an architectural project are
interactively related to each other. Because of the fact that the idea of
profession was born after the industrial revolution, the inter-
disciplinary work of an architect, an artist and an engineer results in the
complete project.
Even if it is possible to observe different conditions of architecture

throughout history, one thing stays constant: the nature of architecture
as a collaborative discipline. Either through intra-disciplinary
relationships or through inter-disciplinary practices due to the changing
lifestyles of societies, architecture is in exchange with other branches
of art and science in order to realize its mission of providing a shelter
of quality.
In this study, as stated before, the relationship of architecture with art

was selected as the main topic to be discussed. This is not because the
relationship of architecture with other disciplines is less important. It is
a selection in order to define the borders in which the dialogue between
the two disciplines could be exemplified, studied and elaborated
throughout the historical and contemporary debates about this subject
matter.
9
2.1. The Historical Context of the Relationship Between The Arts
This section will present a historical perspective on the issue. The

relationships of art and architecture as branches of knowledge and the
practical associations among them in the environment with a case study
of the historical Italian model will be the subtopics corresponding to
the two different approaches towards the link between them.
2.1.1. Architecture, Painting and Sculpture in Relation as to Each

Other as Branches of Knowledge
In her article “Architecture in Trees and Fields”, Emel Aközer makes a

survey about the location of architecture in historical trees of
knowledge.4 According to Aközer, in the early seventeenth century
Francis Bacon took architecture as a branch of “mixed mathematics”
related to perspective, music, astronomy, cosmography, engineering
and the mechanical arts.
In the same period, Blondel made a distinction between three kinds of

architecture such as, civil architecture, military architecture and naval
architecture, defining architecture basically as “the art of building”.
4
Aközer, Emel. “Architecture In Trees and Fields”, published in the catalogue of Four-Faces-The
Dynamics of Architectural Knowledge. The 20th EAAE Conference Stockholm-Helsinki/May 8-
11,2003, available on www.fourfaces.info, October 26, 2003.
10
MIXED MATHEMATICS
PERSPECTIVE MUSIC
ASTRONOMY COSMOGRAPHY
ENGINEERING MECHANICAL ARTS
ARCHITECTURE
Figure 2 1Francis Bacon’s Diagram, early 17th Century.
In the eighteenth century, Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert,

purged architecture of its mechanical relations and placed it under the
category of Beaux-Arts with painting, sculpture, music and poetry.
BEAUX-ARTS
ARCHITECTURE PAINTING SCULPTURE MUSIC POETRY
Figure 2 2Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert’s Diagram, 18th Century.
In the twentieth century, Paul Oskar Kristeller was writing on the

concept of fine arts under which architecture was then located.
Kristeller made a review of the situation, giving references to Benedeto
Croce, M. Menendez y Pelayo and L. Venturi:
“Some scholars have rightly noticed that only the eighteenth century
produced a type of literature in which the various arts were compared
with each other and discussed on the basis of common principles, whereas
up to that period treatises on poetics and rhetoric, on painting and
architecture, and on music had represented quite distinct branches of
11
writing and were primarily concerned with technical precepts rather than
with general ideas. Finally, at least a few scholars have noticed that the
term “Art,” with a capital A and in its modern sense, and the related term
“Fine Arts” (Beaux Arts) originated in all probability in the eighteenth
century… In this broader meaning, the term “Art” comprises above all the
five major arts of painting, sculpture, architecture, music and poetry. ”5
Kristeller’s article is important because it indicates the place of

architecture in the trees of knowledge until the industrial revolution in
relation to painting and sculpture. Furthermore, it depicts that in the
course of history, diverse arts do not change independently, but they
modify themselves consistently in accordance with the relationships
between them. He states that:
“The branches of the arts all have their rise and decline, and even their birth
and death, and the distinction between “major” arts and their subdivisions is
arbitrary and subject to change…As a result of such changes, both in
modern artistic production and in the study of other phases of cultural
history, the traditional system of the fine arts begins to show signs of
disintegration. Since the latter part of the nineteenth century, painting has
moved further away from literature than at any previous time, whereas
music has at times moved closer to it, and the crafts have taken great strides
to recover their earlier standing as decorative arts.” 6
As mentioned by Kristeller, fine arts changed their location in the end

of the nineteenth century, leaving behind signs of their existence within
different groups of practice. When one of them is replaced by the other
or loses its significance due to the variations of the age, its content
spreads to the emerging “major arts” transforming their development.
Thus, it would be possible to say that, not only do they appear or
5
Kristeller, Paul Oskar , “The Modern System of the Arts: A Study in the History of Aesthetics”, in
Journal of the History of Ideas, Volume 12, Issue 4, Oct., 1951, p 496-98.
6
Kristeller. “Conclusions”, in Journal of the History of Ideas, Volume 12, Issue 4, Oct., 1951, p 46.
12
disappear but also that they leave traces on the historical path, causing
the formation of intersecting spheres.
Even though the places of art and architecture were not constant in the
historical trees of knowledge, the bond between them was always
perceptible. Yet, in order to clarify this link, the demonstration of the
practical outcomes should be investigated through a case study.
Although there have been many examples of interaction between arts
and architecture throughout history and in many diverse cultures, the
classical Italian model would be an outstanding example to discuss the
position of architecture in dialogue with other branches of art.
2.1.2. Architecture, Painting and Sculpture in the Environment:

The Classical Italian Model
Italian art history is composed of works that were produced in the

intersection of three fields of art: architecture, painting and sculpture.
Without the close relationship among them, Italian art could not have
had such an important position in the course of history. With the
unification of these practices, outstanding examples were produced
which are still engaging art historians’ interest.
In this section, different examples of Italian art will be studied. The

works of art will be chronologically surveyed. The intra-disciplinary
relationships of art in the pre-modern world will be the main concern of
13
this section. The interaction of painting and sculpture with architecture
will undergo close examination.
Italian Art History
In this part other than making a detailed survey of European art and
architecture history, examples will illustrate the interaction of diverse
arts in consecutive periods7. The Italian model merits selection because
it presents one of the most striking examples of artistic variety under
one roof. The period from the early Gothic to the High Baroque era
best illustrates the relationship between art and architecture.
Early Gothic Style Architecture (c.1250-c.1300)
Santa Maria Novella Cathedral, Florence
Figure 2 3. Santa Maria Novella Cathedral, Florence, c.1279-c.1470, exterior.
7
The styles that are going to be under examination are belonging to the consecutive periods of
European art history which can be classified as, The Romanesque Style (c.1000-c.1200), The Gothic
Style (c.1150-c.1500), The Renaissance Style (c.1450-c.1600), The Baroque Style (c.1600-c.1760)
and The Modern Style (c.1760-).
14
The construction of the Santa Maria Novella Cathedral began in c.1276
and finished in the late fifteenth century. The façade was completed by
Leon Batista Alberti, c.1470. The importance of this cathedral is the use
of light, combined with lightness and free movement inside the
building.8 According to John White, the two-dimensional wall and
panel paintings were converted into three-dimensional architectural
space for the first time in this cathedral. Natural light illuminates the
interior in a sober manner. Light furnishes an element of direction from
the entrance to the altar.
Figure 2 4. Santa Maria Novella Cathedral, interior.

Figure 2 5. Santa Maria Novella Cathedral, interior.
Stained glass, letting the sunshine in, serves as an element of both

construction and orientation. By this method, illumination gives
meaning to this volume. Unlike the exterior, the interior has plain
8
Unless otherwise is mentioned, all historical information was gathered from the book: White,
John. Art and Architecture in Italy.1250-1400, Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Penguin Books Ltd.,
1966. Others are the author’s remarks of the visits to these sites in summer 2002 and summer 2003.
15
walls without decoration. That is because Alberti later completed the
opaque façade. In fact, the back elevation facing the train station has
more transparent surfaces, lighting the altar. Huge glass surfaces are
perceptible. The construction technology of the day was used in an
effective manner in order to achieve the aim of controlling the natural
light in the inside of the cathedral. Thus, the light in the wall-paintings
was transformed into an architectural element combining the vision of
the painter with the ability of the architect.
Duomo, Siena
Figure 2 6. Duomo, Siena, c.1250-c.1400, exterior.
In Siena another cathedral was being built in the same period. The
Duomo at Siena was constructed in the period from c.1250 to c.1400.
Started in the early Gothic and completed in the late Gothic period,
16
Duomo presents an exceptional combination of architecture and
sculpture. The outside and the inside of the cathedral have sculptures
embedded onto the surfaces, narrating stories and generating an
outstanding spatial experience. Even the façade could be accepted as a
sculptural entity itself. This is one of the common features of Gothic
buildings. The sculptural characteristics of the structural elements
interfere with the supplementary ornamentations.
Before entering the church, the dominant vertical axis causes the gaze
to move from the bottom to the top. In the interior, the thriving spatial
effect is caused by sculptures of heads fixed on the upper parts of the
walls. In the path directed to the altar, one continuously feels like one is
being watched.
Figure 2 7. Duomo, Siena, interior.
17
Figure 2 8. Duomo, Siena, ceiling.
Figure 2 9. Duomo, Siena, detail from the head sculptures, interior.
With the semi-transparent stained glass used in the windows, the

interior has a dark atmosphere. Every corner is painted or sculpted
generating a complex visual and spatial experience. Only the altar is
illuminated with natural light symbolizing the intensity of the light of
salvation in the most sacred part of the cathedral.
Figure 2 10. Duomo, Siena, stained glass windows, interior.

Figure 2 11. Duomo, Siena, detail from the façade.
18
Merging with painting and sculpture for increasing the dramatic effect
of the cathedral, the architectural design interacts with and unifies the
other two disciplines. Space gains meaning through the effects of the
paintings and statues that complete the three-dimensional spatial
formation.
Gothic Style Architecture (c.1300-c.1350)
Palazzo Vecchio, Florence
Figure 2 12. Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, c.1299-1500s, exterior.
Palazzo Vecchio’s construction was started in c.1299 and completed in

the late fifteenth century. As a civic building, Palazzo Vecchio
demonstrates another function. It is one of the highest buildings in the
historical city center of Florence. Constructed as a palace, it is opaque
19
to the public square that was used for political demonstrations in
various times in the course of history. It has a huge court inside, which
is ornamented with wall paintings and carvings. In this building, unlike
the Duomo in Siena, sculpture does not have an enormous effect on the
spectator; rather, this effect belongs to the paintings in the interior
spaces. Both in the courtyard and the interior, it is possible to observe
the large-scale paintings that surround the spaces. Their existence
continues in the secret passage that begins in Palazzo Vecchio and
continues until Palazzo Pitti passing over Ponte Vecchio, over the river
Arno.
Figure 2 13. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, courtyard.

Figure 2 14. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, room.
20
Figure 2 15. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, room.
Figure 2 16. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, hall.
21
In the Doumo in Siena, the interaction of architecture, painting and
sculpture was designed for the aim of creating a holy feeling and
inspiring fear in the spectator. Meanwhile in Palazzo Vecchio, this
interaction carries the aim of increasing the visual and spatial quality of
the environment. In my opinion, different aims and consequences of the
interaction between disciplines become apparent in this comparison.
Late Gothic Style Architecture (c.1350-c.1400)
Loggia Della Signoria, Florence
Figure 2 17. Loggia Della Signoria, Florence, c.1376-c.1381, exterior.
Loggia Della Signoria in Florence was constructed by Benci di Cione

and Simone Talenti between c.1376-c.1381. It is right across Palazzo
Vecchio, facing the square and finishing the second part of the Uffizi
22
Museum. It is an open area with statues. Besides the artworks that are
settled inside of it, it is decorated with sculptures on the roofline.
Even though it functions as an exhibition platform, it is used in
everyday life as an urban structure. In my opinion, it is a fundamental
example of the spatial quality of a public open space constituted by
sculptures exhibited and protected in the architectural domain. As stated
by John White, the spatial meaning of the whole piazza is given by the
volumetric character of Loggia Della Signoria.9
Figure 2 18. Loggia Della Signoria, exterior.

Figure 2 19. Loggia Della Signoria, interior.
Affirming his reading, it is possible to add the fact that this volume
accomplishes the task of constructing a space of exhibition and
protection for the sculptures. Furthermore, Loggia Della Signoria
makes the utilization of the space of art possible in public realms. It is a
place for tourists to rest for a while, for artists to paint pictures of the
9
White, John. “The Loggia del Bigallo and Loggia della Signoria in Florence” in Art and
Architecture in Italy.1250-1400, Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Penguin Books Ltd., 1966, p 327.
23
statues and it functions as a stage for the musicians to perform their
concerts. Therefore, in this case, it is possible to follow the
characteristics of the mutual relationship between separate disciplines
that are also important today. With the interaction of sculpture and
architecture, the sculptural exhibition area and the architectural
construction develop a spatial integrity.
Renaissance Style Architecture (c.1420-c.1600)
Medici Chapel, Florence
Figure 2 20. Medici Chapel, Florence, c.1520-c. 1534, exterior.
Medici Chapel was constructed between c.1520 and c.1534 by

Michelangelo.10 It is a chapel housing the monuments of the Medici
10
Unless otherwise is mentioned, all historical information was gathered from the book: Wittkower,
Rudolf. Art and Architecture in Italy.1600-1750, Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Penguin Books Ltd.,
1958.
24
family. On the ground floor rest miniature statues of the family
members. On the second floor, one finds monumental tombs and the
entrance of the chapel. The impressive part, which demonstrates
Michelangelo’s genius of combining sculptural figures with
architectural structure, is the tomb room.
Figure 2 21. Medici Chapel, interior.
The space gains its significance with the statues that were located in the
niches of the wall construction. Thus, the spatial experience is
generated by the integrity of the architectural forms with the sculptures
that become inseparable parts of the tombs. The niches, as voids, house
the statues in such a unique manner that the space narrates its story
through an architectural gaze completed by the effects of the
sculptures. On this issue James Ackerman states that:
“Already in his architectural work of the late 1470s, Michelangelo’s interest
in spatial volume, three-dimensional massing and perspective illusions
distinguishes him from his contemporaries, though the effect of his
25
innovations was minimized by a conservative and decorative treatment of
the wall surfaces…Nothing remains of the fifteenth-century concept of the
wall as a plane, because the goal of the architect is no longer to produce an
abstract harmony but rather a sequence of purely visual (as opposed to
intellectual) experiences of spatial volumes.”11
Figure 2 22. Medici Chapel, interior, detail.

Figure 2 23. Medici Chapel, sketches of the statues.
Figure 2 24. Medici Chapel, interior, detail.
11
S. Ackerman, James. “Introduction” in The Architecture of Michelangelo. London: Penguin
Books, 1970, p 26-28.
26
High Baroque Style Architecture (c.1600-c.1675)
The Piazza of St Peter’s, Rome
Figure 2 25. Piazza St Peter’s, Vatikan, Roma, c 1546-1590.
The Piazza of St Peter’s appears as another type of urban structure. It

was constructed as an addition to Giacomo della Porta’s St Peter’s
Church, between c.1546-c. 1590 by Gianlorenzo Bernini (c.1596-
c.1680). It is an important example both for illustrating Bernini’s work
and for examplifying the relationships of architectural elements of
construction with architectural elements of ornamentation in an urban
open space.
Figure 2 26. Piazza St Peter’s. Figure 2 27. Piazza St Peter’s, detail from the collonade.
27
Bernini’s piazza is settled on an axis which ends up with the cathedral.
The most dominant architectural element that gives meaning to the
piazza is the colonnade. Surrounding the center on both sides, it causes
a sensation of power. Approaching the cathedral, the piazza widens up
opening its arms, without losing the potency to direct the observer to
the entrance of the church. When the spectator walks inside the
colonnade, it presents various points of view for the whole piazza. The
roofline of the colonnade is ornamented with statues of different kinds.
The consistency of the statues with the individual column develops

another work of art: the colonnade itself. Besides being an
architectural construction, it appears as an artwork that surrounds the
spectator. That large scale surprisingly does not overwhelm the
observer reveals the genius of Bernini. The relationship between the
figures of sculpture and the figures of architecture proves the existence
of the interaction between these two arts. Rudolf Wittkower states that:
“Even the borderline between painting, sculpture and architecture becomes

fluid in his work. Whenever given the opportunity, Bernini lets his imagery
flow from a unified concept which makes any dissection impossible. His
own time was fully aware of this. In the words of Bernini’s biographer,
Filippo Baldinucci, it was “common knowledge that he was the first who
undertook to unite architecture, sculpture and painting in such a way that
they together make a beautiful whole”…The creation of new species and
fusion of all the arts enhance the beholder’s emotional participation: when
all the barriers are down, stepping across traditional boundaries, life and art,
real existence and apparition, melt into one.”12
12
Op.cit. Wittkower, R., 1958, p 105-106.
28
St. Agnese Church, Rome
Figure 2 28. S Agnese Church, Piazza Navona, Rome c. 1653-c.1655, exterior.
St. Agnese Church is an exceptional church with its central plan.

Completed by Francesco Borromini (c.1599-c.1677) between c.1653
and c.1655, it appears as one of the important examples of High
Baroque architecture. Borromini was a student of Bernini’s atelier.
Unlike Bernini, he was not a sculptor. He was trained as a mason and
was not known until his early thirties. Other than sculpting the façade of
St. Agnese, he preferred to use the construction elements in a pure
manner. In contrast with Bernini’s sculpture “The Four Rivers
Fountain” located in the middle of Piazza Navona, this example
presents a dominant but plain exterior. The aim of presenting the church
in relation with the building is that, both of them were constructed by
the architects of their time. Although the projects are different from
each other by means of function and scale, both of them are
29
architectural projects. As discussed in the beginning of the first chapter,
the blurring of the disciplinary boundaries in to each other is obvious in
this pre-modern example.
13
In his article “Architectural Choreography” Kurt Forster states that
Borromini was the pioneer of his age, who combines the architectural
Figure 2 29. The façade of St Agnese with Bernini’s sculpture “The Four Rivers Fountain”.
elements in a creative manner, dissolving into each other. He claims:
“In Borromini’s buildings, neither the mass of walls nor the weights of
vaults lose any of their definition, but they assume the appearance of a
different material state…In a frequent reversal of dominant and subsidiary
forms, Borromini challenged the hierarchy of structure over
ornament…Frames of doors and windows inside and out no longer define
themselves in size and treatment relative to their positioning but instead
glow voluminous volutes, open their pediments to embrace floating
cartouches, and span over sculptural excrescences.”14
13
Forster, Kurt W. “Architectural Choreography” in, Francesco Dal Co, Kurt Forster. Frank O
Gehry. The Complete Works. Milano, Electa: The Monacelli Press, 1998, p 32.
14
Ibid. p 33.
30
Figure 2 30. St Agnese, interior.
Late Baroque and Rococo Style (c.1675-c.1750)
Fountain of Trevi, Rome
Figure 2 31. Fountain of Trevi, Rome, c 1730-1740.
31
The Fountain of Trevi was designed and realized by Niccola Salvi
between c.1730-c.1740. It is one of the outstanding examples of
architecture, which represents the interaction between architecture and
sculpture. By the integration of the inhabitable space with the fountain
as its façade, the intertwine of two arts becomes obvious. Neither can
be called a building, nor a sculpture alone, The Fountain of Trevi shows
the unification of both definitions.
Figure 2 32. The Fountain of Trevi, detail.
In this section, the main aim was surveying the interaction of

architecture with painting and sculpture in pre-industrialized Italy. The
goal of studying the issue in this domain was to display the unification
of these three disciplines in different periods of time in Italian art
history. Even though the nature of the integration of these fields in the
32
modern world is different than that found in the ancient times, this
session presents a comprehensive study of the background of the
relationship among them. In my opinion, this research was required in
order to examine the method of interaction among the disciplines,
which is diversified in the contemporary era and replaced by the mutual
give-and-take between architecture and the visual arts.
According to Christian Norberg-Schulz, the expansion of the

disciplinary fields in the seventeenth century occurred because of
exploring travels, colonization and scientific research.15 He underlines
the emerging characteristics of Baroque architecture in the changing
world of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as such: in Baroque
architecture a single building loses its plastic individuality and becomes
a part of the superior system. The idea of the “modern world” might
have begun to be developed in this plurality.
Like a building, which was becoming one of the units of a superior

system, all branches of art started to become diverse fragments of a
complex organism in the modern world. Therefore, architecture and the
visual arts grew apart in the beginning of the nineteenth century due to
this disciplinary dissociation. Nevertheless, this new formation did not
prevent architecture from developing interrelations. The interaction
among architecture and the visual arts continued under a different title:
interdisciplinary exchange.
15
Norberg-Schulz, Christian. “Introduction” in History f World Architecture. Baroque Architecture,
Milano: Electa 1971, Electa Architecture, 2003, p 7.
33
The following section will present a survey of the conditions of the arts
in this world of specializations. In this part of the text, the meaning of
the concept of unification of the arts will be re-evaluated in accordance
with the conditions of the modern era.
2.2. 20th Century Debates on the Relationship Between the Arts
Architecture and Art after the Industrial Revolution
The era including the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, during
which social structure changed due to new techniques that hegemonized
all kinds of production and communication, has taken its place in the
course of history as the modernization period. In the 1800s, the
industrial revolution gave rise to the mechanical age. Manual
production was replaced by the mechanical, initiating a new epoch. Life
gained velocity with developing means of organized production in
different sectors. As a consequence, architecture and the visual arts
became branches which started to adapt themselves to the mechanical
production of the age. At this point, it would be appropriate to elaborate
the condition of the arts in the modern society with the examples from
the beginning of the twentieth century.
The changes had begun with the reformation of the educational system.
The conception of the arts -including architecture and the visual arts- as
a unified whole was the center of Ecole des Beaux-Arts’s discourse. In
the ateliers in Paris, young artists were educated with a multi-
directional attitude where architecture and art were discussed and
34
mastered together. Students were coming to Paris especially from
America and, upon their return, were taking with them what they had
learned in the school of Beaux-Arts. It is possible to observe that young
artists and architects all over the world in the late nineteenth century
grew up with the doctrines of the Beaux-Arts school. Although
modernist movement in the twentieth century was critical of the Beaux-
Arts system which had become rigid by then, the training of architects
as “fine artists” with exposure to multiple arts could be considered as
one of the sources of the artistic approach to architecture in many
nineteenth century examples.
Figure 2 33. 14" x 21-1/2" Beaux-Arts print, 1869.

Figure 2 34. 14" x 21-1/2" Beaux-Arts print, 1870.
Aiming at the synthesis of the arts on the final product was the thought
of the late nineteenth century that appeared in the discourse John
Ruskin and Robert Morris in England.
35
As stated by Walter Gropius, the first attempt to fulfill the lack in the
aesthetical value of the product was made by Ruskin and Morris with
their “Arts and Crafts Movement”.16
Figure 2 35. John Ruskin (1819-1900) and William Morris (1834-1896).
Started in the 1860s, this movement was standing for the idea that, the
machine was dehumanizing the worker and removing him from the
artistic process. The reason why Walter Gropius (1883-1969), gave
references to the “Arts and Crafts Movement” in his book The New
Architecture and The Bauhaus is, the resemblance of its discourse with
the Bauhaus School that was going to be established by him in the
beginning of the twentieth century.
However, this was not the only movement that carried the aim of
integrating industrial production with art. Art Nouveau, an active
16
Gropius, Walter. The New Architecture and The Bauhaus. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT
Press, 1965, p 61-62.
36
movement between 1890 and 1914 in Europe, attempted to establish a
new understanding, intending to transform mass-produced elements
into individual works of art. Victor Horta (1861-1947) in Belgium was
one of the pioneers of this movement.
Figure 2 36. Victor Horta, interior.
In the late eighteenth century, the invention of new materials and

techniques of fabrication caused radical changes to happen in the
architectural world. Steel, glass and concrete became accepted as new
elements of construction. With their application in the construction
industry, the architecture of the period began to develop a different
character. At the beginning the attitude of Horta was satisfying the
needs of the society both in a technical and in an aesthetical manner.
However, in time, due to the emerging need of quick and qualified
production, the constructions started to have standardized elements.
Higher structures with modular systems were constructed in European
37
cities, re-building the whole environment. Adler and Sullivan in
Chicago (late eighteenth century), August Perret in France (1904),
Marinetti and Sant’Elia in Italy (1909) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
and Bruno Taut in Germany (1920s) were trying to establish the new
architecture consistent with the spirit of the age. However, a common
judgment had appeared; the mechanization in organized production
was causing decline in the aesthetical value of the final product. At this
moment, Henry van de Velde’s argument of “the artist as a creative
individualist” gained importance.17 In his text that clarifies the theses of
Deutscher Werkbund (1914) movement, van de Velde (1863-1957)
explained that the spirit of the age is visible only through the works of
the artist. With the free will and imaginative power of the creator, the
design process could be freed from mechanized, prototyped formations.
He stated:
“Certainly the artist who practices a “beneficial concentration” has always

recognized that currents which are stronger than his own will and thought
demand of him that he should acknowledge what is in essential
correspondence to the spirit of his age. These currents may be very
manifold; he observes them unconsciously and consciously as general
influences; there is something materially and morally compelling about
them for him. He willingly subordinates himself to them and is full of
enthusiasm for the idea of a new style per se.”18
According to van de Velde, the artist has the power to capture and
transform the existing conditions with his individual creativity. Thus
like in the ancient times, an architect could also be a painter, a sculptor
or a furniture designer at the same time. As seen in his projects, van de
Velde worked on objects of industrial design as well as buildings.
17
Conrad, Ulrich ed. “Muthesius /Van de Velde: Werkbund Theses and Antitheses” in Programs
and Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1970.
18
Ibid. p 29.
38
Like the aim of the Russian Avant-garde movement (1910-1934),
Henry van de Velde was supporting the idea that architecture should
interact with painting, sculpture, photography, poster and book design,
ceramics, textiles, and theatre.19 It is possible to observe the material
outcome of his ideas in his work in the beginning of the twentieth
century.
Figure 2 37. The Art School Building in Weimar, 1904-11.

Figure 2 38. Henry van de Velde interior design.
Figure 2 39. Henry van de Velde furniture design.

Figure 2 40. Henry van de Velde ceramic design.
19
“Introduction” in Russian Avant-Garde available on http://www.mkg-
hamburg.de/english/ausstell/01_russen/intro.htm December 14, 2003.
39
As in historical times, van de Velde was an architect whose work was
enriched with the artworks and designs that he produced. On the one
hand his arguments were in direct relation with the pre-industrialized
world of architecture and art; and on the other hand he was using the
new construction materials and techniques that combined his art with
technology.
In addition to these movements and groups that formed the base of the
contemporary debates about the relationship between architecture and
art in the beginning of the 1900s, there were two avant-garde groups
that were concentrated on increasing the spatial quality of their
architecture in accordance with the relation with other arts. These
foundations were the Bauhaus School and De Stijl group. They present
an alternative method to apply architecture as the great art in the age of
mechanical reproduction20.They will be surveyed to understand the
concept of “unification of the arts” in their products towards the
architectural spaces of quality.
2.2.1. Bauhaus and De Stijl: Avant-Garde Movements Uniting Art

and Architecture
2.2.1.1. The Bauhaus School, 1919-1928
Artists, let us at last break down the walls erected by our deforming
academic training between the “arts” and all of us become builders
again!…Painters and sculptors, break through the barriers to architecture
and become fellow builders, fellow strugglers for the final goal of art: the
20
The expression was taken from Walter Benjamin’s well known text “The Work of Art In The Age
of Mechanical Reproduction” in Illuminations, Fontana, Great Britain: The Chaucer Press, 1973, p
219-255.
40
creative conception of the cathedral of the future, which will once again be
all in one shape, architecture and sculpture and painting.21
Walter Gropius, 1919
The Bauhaus School was founded by Walter Gropius in 1919, with the
unification of two faculties: Weimar School of Arts and Crafts and
Weimar Academy of Fine Arts under the name Das Staatliche Bauhaus
22
Weimar. Gropius’s dream was to unite all branches of art under the
great art of architecture. He was negating the concept of “art for art’s
sake” and he was trying to sublate art into the praxis of life and
reintegrate artists into daily realities.23 He was explaining the aims of
the Bauhaus in his manifesto as:
“The ultimate aim of all visual arts is the complete building!…Architects,

painters, and sculptors must recognize anew and learn to grasp the
composite character of a building both as an entity and in its separate
parts… Together let us desire, conceive, and create the new structure of the
future, which will embrace architecture and sculpture and painting in one
unity…”
“The Bauhaus strives to bring together all creative effort into one whole, to
reunify all the disciplines of practical art – sculpture, painting, handcrafts,
and the crafts – as inseparable components of a new architecture. The
ultimate, if distant, aim of the Bauhaus is the unified work of art – the great
structure – in which there is no distinction between monumental and
decorative art.”24
Gropius was claiming that, the architect was responsible for the
mastery of space. He has to combine his imaginative power with his
21
Conrad, Ulrich ed. “1919. Gropius/Taut/Behne: New Ideas on Architecture” in Programs and
Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1970, p 46.
22
Ibid. p 51-52.
23
Op.cit. Gropius, W., 1965, p 90.
24
Conrad, Ulrich ed. “1919. Walter Gropius: Programme of the Staatliches Bauhaus in Weimar” in
Programs and Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press,
1970, p 49-50.
41
technical proficiency not merely for constructing buildings but also for
performing the art of architecture. 25
Although Walter Gropius’s teaching was departing from the traditional

concepts in the new architecture that he was trying to establish, it is
possible to observe a resembling attitude towards the relation of
architecture and visual arts similar to the ancient times.
Figure 2 41. Poster for Bauhaus Exhibition, 1925.
He suggests that the perfect collaboration in the practice of architecture

cannot be accomplished with the contribution of different professions.
It can only work out with the common comprehension of a team, which
is made up of equally educated people, capable of both designing
artistically and solving the problems of the design technically.26
Consequently he was proposing a new type of architect who would be
able to have the skills of a painter, a sculptor and an architect like in the
25
Op.cit. Gropius, W., 1965, p 24-52.
26
Op.cit. Gropius, W., 1965, p 66-80.
42
ancient times. However, his proposal does not mean that there has to be
a physical interaction between the disciplines like it is observed in the
Italian model.
From his suggestions, it is possible to capture the idea that the only
method of interaction among diverse disciplines should not necessarily
be sculpting a façade in a conventional manner. Furthermore, it can be
done with the coordination of arts for the common aim of making the
distinction between monumental and decorative elements disappear.27
The necessities of the new age lie certainly beyond this judgment.
Without loosing the will of creating an environment that gives aesthetic
satisfaction, getting benefit from the mechanized production system
was his teaching’s basic objective. In the case of the Bauhaus School,
the interaction between architecture and the arts was carrying the aim
of combining the developing technology’s opportunities with the new
aesthetic understanding.
Figure 2 42. Bauhaus Building at Weimar.

Figure 2 43. Bauhaus School interior design.
27
Op.cit. Gropius, W., 1965, p 66.
43
2.2.1.2. De Stijl, 1917-1930
We have to realize that art and life are no longer separate domains.
Therefore the idea of “art” as illusion unconnected with real life has to
disappear. The word “art” no longer means anything to us.28
Theo van Doesburg and Cor van Eesteren, 1923
De Stijl (The Style) -like the Bauhaus school- is a group of artists

whose aim was uniting architecture with other arts. The Dutch group
came together under the leadership of Theo van Doesburg (1883-1931)
in 1918 and declared a manifesto. The Dutch painter Piet Mondrian and
designers Theo van Doesburg and Gerrit Rietveld were the leaders of
the De Stijl movement. Manfredo Tafuri states that this group tried to
bring architecture into the avant-garde.29 Like the Bauhaus School, their
aim was negating the distinction between art and architecture starting
with the unification of art and life. Kenneth Frampton claims that “[i]n
1923 Van Doesburg and Van Eastern managed to crystallize the
architectural style of Neo-Plasticism in an exhibition of their work.”30
In this exhibition, they were explaining their attitude towards form in
architecture, which was coming into existence due to the necessities of
the Modern World. As Frampton underlines, Van Doesburg was
explaining:
“The new architecture is anti-cubic, that is to say, it does not try to freeze
the different functional space cells in one closed cube. Rather, it throws the
functional space cells (as well as the overhanging planes, balcony volumes,
etc.) centrifugally from the core of the cube. And through this means,
height, width, depth, and time (i.e. an imaginary four-dimensional entity)
approaches a totally new plastic expression in open spaces. In this way
28
Conrad, Ulrich ed. “1923. “De Stijl”: Manifesto V: - + = R4” in Programs and Manifestoes on
20th Century Architecture, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1970, p 67.
29
Tafuri Manfredo, Francesco Dal Co, Modern Architecture, Vol 1, New York: Electra /Rizzioli,
1986, p 110.
30
Frampton, Kenneth, in Modern Architecture a Critical History, Oxford University Press, 1980, p
145.
44
architecture acquires a more or less floating aspect that, so to speak, works
against the gravitational forces of nature.”31
Figure 2 44. Shroeder House by Geerit Rietvelt, 1924.

Figure 2 45. Sketch of the interior of Shroeder House.
Here, Bauhaus School and De Stijl group symbolize two avant-garde

movements whose basic purpose was to find humanistic solutions for
the emerging needs of mechanized society. Architects came together
with artists in both of the teams for declaring the new rules of
architecture. Theo van Doesburg summarized the principles of De Stijl
as:
“16. Architecture as a synthesis of Neo-Plasticism… Building is a part of
the new architecture, which, by combining together all the arts in their
elemental manifestation, discloses their true nature…Since the new
architecture permits no images (such as painting or sculptures as separate
elements) its purpose of creating a harmonious whole with all essential
means is evident from the outset. In this way, every architectural element
contributes to the attainment on a practical and logical basis of a maximum
of plastic expression, without any disregard of the practical demands.”32
31
Ibid.
32
Conrad, Ulrich ed. “1924. Theo van Doesburg: Towards a Plastic Architecture” in Programs and
Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1970, p 80.
45
Figure 2 46. Furniture design by De Stijl.
Figure 2 47. Furniture design by De Stijl.
Their idea of bringing art into life and using it as a material for the new
production system were important reasons for their selection in this
study.
2.2.2. Minimal Art: The Changing Definition of Sculpture and the

Emerging Architectonic Qualities.
After studying the interaction of art and architecture as branches of

knowledge in the historical Italian model and in the beginning of the
twentieth century with Bauhaus and De Stijl, it is necessary to explore
the contemporary condition of interaction, in the mid and late twentieth
century as well.
The underlying concept of the unification of the arts that was proposed
by Bauhaus and De Stijl was trying to bring a new aesthetic
understanding to the architecture of the age. If, according to their
discourse, different disciplines such as painting, sculpture and
46
architecture were proposed to be melting into each other, first of all, the
line between their definitions had to be blurred. In the following years,
in the 1960s in America, the distinction between the traditional
definitions of sculpture and architecture was being eliminated by
Minimalist Art, the pioneers of which were Richard Serra, Carl Andre,
Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, and Robert Morris. At this point Rosalind
Krauss’s text “Sculpture In The Expanded Field”33 gains importance
with its innovative approach to this issue. According to the ideas that
were underlined by Krauss, Minimalist Art was selected as the case
study to examine the interaction of sculpture and architecture in the
second half of the twentieth century. The reason for focusing on the
characteristics of their work in this part of the thesis is their leadership
in bringing new definitions to the art of sculpture, which is in direct
relation to the architectural space.
Rosalind Krauss’s article reveals the progress of sculpture due to
changing definitions, conceptions and styles of the modern era. She
underlines how the world has changed in the new century and how the
emerging conditions have affected the development of sculpture. She
argues that the new sculpture in the urban fabric is sharing the space of
architecture with its material and its scale. Even if the aim of
Minimalist artists is not uniting their work with architecture, because of
the common concept that they share with the architects, the interaction
between their art and architectural production was inevitable: the
concept of space.
Imagined space was constructed by Minimalist artists with the use of
structural materials such as brick, steel, glass, wood, and metal sheets.
33
Krauss, Rosalind E. “Sculpture In the Expanded Field.” The Originality of The Avant-Garde and
Other Modernist Myths. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1985.
47
Through these spaces, Minimalist sculptures were not only challenging
architectural space but were also proposing an inventive method to
design and re-read it. Their first attempt was to enlarge in scale in order
to be explored outside the gallery space. Richard Serra states:
“When sculpture leaves the gallery, to occupy the same space and place in
terms of sculptural necessities, architects become annoyed. Not only is their
concept of space being changed, but also for the most part it is being
criticized. The criticism can come into effect only when architectural scale,
methods, materials, and procedures are being used. That’s how comparisons
are provoked.”34
Figure 2 48. Richard Serra, Clara-Clara, 1983, Paris.
Instead of being an artwork in relation with the spectator in an

exhibition area, Minimalist artworks started to take their places in the
public spaces. When they began to generate spatial experience outside
the gallery, they started to become a part of the urban fabric, in relation
with architecture. Therefore, architects started to be interested in them
as spatial experiments. Marga Bijvoet states that, “The idea of sculpture
is changed in favor of a process of collaboration with architects,
34
Blanchebarbe, Ursula ed., Richard Serra, Axis.Documentation, Kunshalle Bielefeld, 1990,p38.
48
designers, engineers, environmentalists, and local community groups,
with a view to making the public space itself a work of art.”35 At this
point James Wines’s comments on the relationship between public art,
private art and architecture gains importance. He states:
“Sculptures tend to use phrases like “the provision of space directionals”, “a

dialogue with architecture”, and “environmental orientation” to defend their
efforts. Architects, similarly, will speak of “formal accents”, “community
interaction”, and “the formation of places of identity” to support their
decisions to use art in relation to buildings. Public art is not private art
transplanted into a new setting.”36
Stan Allen agrees with this idea stating, “With Minimalism, the
sculptural object was inflated to an architectural scale and propelled
into architectural space.”37 However, Minimalist art was being
criticized due to its spatial quality in the world of art, by which it came
to be adored in the world of architecture. Michael Fried, made this
critique in his famous essay “Art and Objecthood”38 in 1967.
Fried introduced a new terminology to the literature about the condition

of the Minimalist artworks: the literalist art. He suggested that the
works of the Minimalists could not be called art because these objects
could no longer be contemplated but instead, must be experienced
synchronized with their perception. In this case, the artists of the 1960s
proposed a three dimensional stage in order to add the experience,
35
Bijvoet, Marga. “Toward an Art In Public Places.” In Art As Inquiry. Toward A New
Collaboration Between Art, Science and Technology. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc., 1997,
p 150-151.
36
Wines, James, “Public Art / Private Art” in De-Architecture, New York, NY: Rizzoli, 1987, p 60.
37
Stan, Allen. “Minimalism: Sculpture and Architecture.” Art & Design Magazine, 1999, p 26.
38
Fried, Michael. Art and Objecthood: Essays and Reviews. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1998.
49
space-enclosure factors into the relationship that is posed between the
observer and the created set. According to Fried, this fact could not be
predicted as a quality of art. By this method, the work presents a stage
in which the artwork gains objecthood - “the condition of non-art” in
his words- and due to the spatial context, it becomes theatrical.39
Nevertheless, the condition of the Minimalist artworks that was
criticized by Fried forms the basis of their relationship with architecture
on the common issue of space. Stan Allen clarifies this relationship and
assigns the significance of the term Minimalism as:
“Minimalist work of 60s and 70s sought to empty the work of art of its
figurative or decorative character in order to foreground its architectural
condition. The construction of meaning was displaced from the object itself
to the spatial field between the viewer and the object. A fluid zone of
perceptual interference populated by moving bodies. Such artists as Carl
Andre, David Flavin, Robert Morris or Donald Judd sought to go beyond
form or compositional variation, to engage the space of the gallery and the
body of the viewer.”40
From Allen’s point of view, it is possible to follow the relationship

posed between the works of the Minimalist artists and architects. It is
not based only on the resembling formal and tectonic characteristics
but also on the fact that Minimalist artists evoked architectural space.
He was trying to establish the dialogue between Minimalist art and
architecture and, meanwhile, he was disagreeing with Fried’s opinions.
In his essay “Minimalism: Sculpture and Architecture”, he was quoting
from Michael Fried’s “Art and Objecthood” focusing on the scale of
the artworks and Fried’s criticisms on the distance between the
artworks and the beholder in the Minimalist Art. According to Allen,
39
Ibid. p 120-127.
40
Allen, Sten. “From Object to Field.” A+U 335, 98:08, p 25.
50
Fried believed that the largeness of the object tears the beholder apart
from the object and puts a physical and psychical distance in between.
Fried summarized his ideas on this issue saying, “The larger the object,
the more we are forced to keep our distance from it.” Due to this
statement Allen underlines the fact that Fried’s criticisms on distance,
scale, and space articulated in three-dimensions (which are shared with
architecture), mean that he criticized Minimalist art as being too close
to architecture.
Figure 2 49. Robert Morris, Labyrinth, 1999.
Consequently Allen suggests an alternative argument to Fried’s “what

lies between the arts is theater” as, “what lies between the arts is
architecture”. However, after suggesting such a connection between
two disciplines, and stating that Minimalism’s artifacts are more like
architecture and less like sculpture, he declares that, these artworks are
not architecture. He states that, Minimalist works are sculptures in
architectural scale but because they are useless and contextless, they are
not architecture.
In this thesis, the main aim is not comparing one field with another;
rather this study is based on the interactive relationship between them.
51
Being conscious about the fact that sculpture and architecture are
dissimilar due to the issues of function, use, expressive quality,
aesthetic value, and technical features, the basic intention is to discover
the common characteristics. How a sculpture can resemble an
architectural artifact is apparent in the comparison of Dan Graham’s
Pavillion/Sculpture for Argonne and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s
German Pavillion.
Figure 2 50. Dan Graham, Pavillion/Sculpture for Argonne.

Figure 2 51. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, German Pavillion.
The pure geometrical forms, ratios, construction materials and surfaces

are comparable to each other. Although Graham’s pavilion is a
sculpture and Mies van der Rohe’s pavilion is a building, the effects
that they generate on the spectator and user seem resembling with each
other.
52
2.2.2.1. Spatial and Formal Practices of Minimalist Art
Over the last ten years rather surprising things have come to be called
sculpture; narrow corridors with TV monitors at the ends, large
photographs documenting country hikes, mirrors placed at strange angles in
ordinary rooms; temporary lines cut into the floor of the desert. Nothing, it
would seem, could possibly give to such a motley of effort the right to lay
claim to whatever one might mean by the category of sculpture. Unless, that
is, the category can be made to become almost infinitely malleable.41
Rosalind Krauss, 1985
Starting with the issue of the transformation of the definition of

sculpture, Krauss underlines the emerging architectonic qualities that
form the new sculpture’s characteristics in her essay, “Sculpture in the
Expanded Field”. These qualities appear sometimes with mirrored
surfaces that change the perception of the architectural space in which
they are located and, sometimes with the large-scale works that are
settled in a natural environment. But the common quality of these
artworks appears in their description: Minimalist Art. In this section,
the examples of these artworks will be examined due to their spatial
and formal qualifications.
Rosalind Krauss defines Minimalist Art as:

“I have been treating the sculptural movement that begins roughly in the
1964 and continues to the present as the manifestation of a single
sensibility, which for simplicity’s sake I am calling minimalism…If I have
been presenting the minimalist-based work of the last ten years as a radical
development in the history of sculpture, that is because of the break it
declares from the dominant styles that immediately precede it, and because
of the profound abstractness of its conception.” 42
41
Krauss, Rosalind E. “Sculpture In the Expanded Field.” The Originality of The Avant-Garde and
Other Modernist Myths. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1985, p 277.
42
Krauss, Rosalind E., “The Double Negative: A New Syntax For Sculpture”, Passages In Modern
Sculpture, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1983, p 245.
53
As seen in the sculptures of Donald Judd, Richard Serra and Michael
Heizer, the Minimalist art object brings a new definition to sculpture.
Figure 2 52. Donald Judd, Aluminum, 8x8x8 1975.

Figure 2 53. Richard Serra, Running Arcs, 1970.
According to Krauss, the new sculpture has emerged due to a

disciplinary self-criticism and the merging of the traditional definitions
of sculpture and architecture. In her article the main concerns related
with these issues are:
• Modernity, Postmodernity –Plurality- and Historicism,

• Minimalist artworks which introduce a new aesthetic to
sculpture,
• Autonomy and self-referentiality of sculpture,
• The expanded field housing a set of oppositions among which,
the category of modern sculpture is suspended, (architecture/not-
architecture and landscape/not-landscape)
54
• Minimalist sculpture in relation with space and the architectural
experience that it produces.
Figure 2 54,Figure 2 55. Michael Heizer, Double Negative, 1969-1970, 240,000-ton

displacement in rhyolite and sandstone in Mormon Mesa, Nevada, 1,500 x 50 x 30 ft., The
Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles.
The basic fact that relates Minimalist sculpture and architecture can be
stated as the common spatial experience that they produce. If the main
concept of the debates about their relationship is space, it would be
proper to elaborate in this part the nature of the Minimalist work,
followed by its architectonic qualities.
Krauss expresses the common characteristics of the works of The

Minimalist artists as:
• The usage of the objects that are mass-produced,
• Lack of hierarchy within the system that they construct,
• Repetition,
55
• Inertness.43
When Minimalist artists rejected the personality cult and subjectivity of

Abstract Expressionism, what they were after was the accessible
experience that is formed within the compositions of their artworks.44
At this point, the experience turns out to be the bridge that connects the
works of Minimalist artists and architects through form. Thus it is
possible to state that these works gain meaning by the spatial
experience that they produce while one is observing them. By
constructing the expression through spatial and formal composition,
Minimalist sculpture starts to display architectonic qualities.
Rosalind Krauss explains the progress of sculpture and the network of

definitions in which it is placed in relation with architecture with the
diagram called the Klein Diagram. Krauss starts to form her diagram
through a mathematical one known as the Klein group by locating
sculpture between “not-landscape” and “not-architecture”. Forming the
opposite poles, she constructs her schema in stages. “Landscape” and
“architecture” take their places as counterparts. While giving names to
the areas in between, she uses the terms axiomatic structures, site
constructions, marked sites and sculpture. In my opinion, this creative
diagram that includes “architecture”, explains in detail why her
observations are relevant to our study.
43
Ibid.
44
Ibid. p 258.
56
Figure 2 56. Rosalind Krauss, “Klein Diagram”.
Krauss walks out of the traditional realms and defines a modern

sculpture, which is against the monumental one, and discovers new
categories that are due to the emergence of the new qualities in
sculpture. With this diagram she dissolves the definitions into each
other. Thus it is possible to observe an interaction among disciplines
bearing in mind the interaction of their definitions in Rosalind Krauss’s
system.
The interval in which the examples of architecture and not-architecture

are located was called “axiomatic structures”. Krauss explains this
interval as:
57
“The first artists to explore the possibilities of architecture plus not-
architecture were Robert Irwin, Sol Le Witt, Bruce Nauman, Richard Serra,
and Christo. In every case of the axiomatic structures, there is some kind of
intervention into the real space of architecture, sometimes through partial
reconstruction, sometimes through drawing, or as in the recent works of
Morris, through the use of mirrors…But whatever the medium employed,
the possibility explored in this category is a process of mapping axiomatic
features of the architectural experience-the abstract conditions of openness
and closure-onto the reality of a given space.” 45
Figure 2 57. Robert Morris, Mirrored Cubes.

Figure 2 58. Robert Morris, Mirror Installations.
This section will familiarize the reader with Richard Serra’s work
which will later be useful in understanding the professional relationship
between Richard Serra and Frank Gehry.
In order to examine the spatial and formal qualities carried by the

axiomatic structures in relation with architecture, the examples that
Rosalind Krauss gives, Richard Serra’s works “Delineator”, “Twins”,
45
Ibid. p 287.
58
“Circuit” and “Torqued Ellipses” will be our case studies in relation
with each other.
The common properties of these artworks are basically their material -

steel sheets- and their scale. From “Delineator” to “Torqued Ellipses”,
it is possible to follow the rise in the three-dimensionality of the
artwork.
Figure 2 59. Richard Serra, Delineator.
Figure 2 60. Richard Serra, Twins.
59
Figure 2 61. Richard Serra, Circuit.
Figure 2 62. Richard Serra, Torqued Ellipses.
60
Rosalind Kraus states:
“Delineator is to Twins as Twins is to Circuit. In all three, what is

experienced is a powerful imbrication of the visual with the physical, as the
space that one sees is shown to be interdependent with the space
corporealized within oneself, and that space in turn relies for its meaning
upon space at large.”46
“For Minimalists, the interest of phenomenology was located precisely in

its assumption of a “preobjective experience” underlying all perception and
guaranteeing that even in its abstractness it is always and already
meaningful; otherwise, without an expectation of meaning located precisely
in it, we would have no reason to go on to commit acts of seeing, hearing,
moving.”47
According to Krauss, the large-scale structures enable the artist to

generate space within his artwork. Due to the spatial quality that pulls
the viewer inside, the artwork gains meaning with hearing, touching,
moving in and around it as well as perceiving its volumetric character.
In Serra’s diverse examples, it is possible to examine different formal

characteristics. For instance, in Delineator the steel planes are covering
the surfaces of the floor and the ceiling through which one could move
freely without being aware of their existence. In Twins this condition
changes and the steel planes start to divide the space that they are
located in. Therefore one could only move around them in order to be
able to go from one place to another in the exhibition area.
46
Krauss, Rosalind E., “Richard Serra Sculpture”, in Richard Serra Sculpture, The Museum of
Modern Art, New York, 1986, p 28.
47
Ibid. p 29.
61
When a spectator enters the space of Circuit, he could probably
perceive the constructed space due to the feeling that he is surrounded
by the artwork. Finally, in the case of Torqued Ellipses one could enter
the artwork, exit from the artwork, move around it and hear the echo of
one’s voice while walking inside the curved metal sheet.
If it is possible to refer to a volume as space in architecture with the

event that takes place inside of it and, with the meaning that it carries,
it would be possible to refer to a volume created by an artist as “space”
with the conscious perception of the viewer that generates meaning
from the beginning each time the artwork is being observed. Thus the
issue of space is taken in architecture and in Minimalist art in such a
related manner. At this point, with the existence of a common ground
such as space, it would be useful to elaborate on the debates about the
conceptions of “architectural” and “sculptural” those have melted into
each other in the contemporary era.
2.2.2.2. Discussions on the Concepts of “Sculptural” and
“Architectural” as they relate to Spatial Experience
Before studying the contemporary debates about the meanings of the

terms sculpture, architecture, sculptural and architectural, it would be
beneficial to explain this study’s attitude towards the significations and
characteristics of these expressions.
62
Figure 2 63. Table of comparison of architecture and sculpture.
ARCHITECTURE SCULPTURE
CARRYING FUNCTIONAL CARRYING AESTHETICAL

VALUE VALUE
CREATING INHABITABLE SPACE CREATING IMAGINED SPACE
PERMANENT PERMANENT/IMPERMANENT
FUNCTIONING IN LARGE-SCALE ENABLING SCALE VARIATIONS
GAINS MEANING THROUGH GAINS MEANING THROUGH
PERCEPTION AND USE PERCEPTION
These explanations may not be enough to underline the common and

diverse facts that relate architecture to sculpture however, in today’s
world of plurality, where inquiries are being made about the meanings
of the terms architecture and sculpture, they are under examination
with their intersecting spheres. In his book, “What is Art? An
Introduction to Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture”, John Canaday
elaborates the significances of these terms. He states:
“…[p]icture is an expression of its time and also the personality of the artist
who painted it. Sculpture, while, emphatically an expression of its time, has
been less permissive in its allowance for personal expression. We say, “has
been” because the twentieth century has liberated sculpture from an old
alliance so strong that “sculpture, the handmaiden of architecture” was a
popular cliché with nineteenth century art historians.”48
“Finally and perhaps most rewarding for us, architecture is not only an
expression of the age that produced it, but is probably the most dependable
of those expressions. Because it is the least personal and the most
sociological of the arts, architecture is the likeliest to give us the most
unbiased and most complete reflection of the age it served.” 49
48
Canaday, John. “Sculpture” in What is Art? An Introduction to Painting, Sculpture, and
Architecture. New York: Alfred A. Knopf Inc., 1980, p 37.
49
Ibid. p 54.
63
In the recent times, the dependence of architecture on the other arts is
not the same way as before. Besides, the interaction among them is
valid due to the reciprocal needs of the different disciplines.
Architecture may become the social roof under which personal

expressions –artworks- can be collected but also it is one of the media
of expression that reflect the realities and needs of its age. Canaday
continues with describing the existing condition of sculpture in the
modern world pointing to the characteristics of Minimalist Art as:
“It was so extreme that we mean one thing when we say “sculpture” in the
context of thirty thousand years when stretching between the Venus of
Willendorf and Rodin, another when we say “sculpture” in the context of
twentieth century. Objects now classified as sculpture are frequently neither
modeled nor carved, but are glued or nailed or welded into a sculptural unit
for odds and ends of material picked up here and there, with junked
machine parts among the most popular.”50
He states that, the term “sculpture” does not necessarily signify the
same matter in everyone’s mind. From time to time, under different
conditions the counterpart of this term can change. This idea was
supported also by Rosalind Krauss in her texts, which moulded the
contemporary meanings into each other.
50
Ibid. p 46.
64
Figure 2 64. Blolo Bla African sculpture. Figure 2 65. Donald Judd, Untitled.
Highlighting the complexity of making strict distinctions between

categories, Stan Allen states: “Today the situation is more complicated.
It is precisely the mobility of the category of sculpture that makes for a
difficulty in constructing a useful relationship between architecture and
sculpture.”51
Referring to Rosalind Krauss, he expresses that the elasticity of the
categories brings heterogeneity, which appears as a danger of collapse
for the category system. He defines the sculptural building and the
architectural sculpture as:
“When we call a building sculptural it signals a figurative aspect, and

conversely, when we call a piece of sculpture architectural it suggests the
presence of tectonic forms.”52
51
Allen, Stan, “Minimalism: Sculpture and Architecture”, Art & Design Magazine, 1997, p 23.
52
Ibid.
65
He later points to Rosalind Krauss’s Klein diagram, insisting on the
idea that it is not a sufficient source for understanding the
categorization of architecture. This stems from his belief that
architecture is not a historically bounded discipline like sculpture and
therefore the same classification system could not function for the two
disciplines at the same time.
However, the examples of these interactive categories can be given with
the Minimalist works and the contemporary works of Frank Gehry and
Santiago Calatrava, according to Krauss’s Klien Diagram as such:
• Sculpture: Not Landscape/ Not Architecture

o Richard Serra, Delineator
o Richard Serra, Torqued Ellipses
• Axiomatic Structures: Not Architecture/Architecture
o Richard Serra, Marilyn Monroe-Greta Garbo
o Frank Gehry, Barcelona Fish
• Site Construction: Architecture/Landscape
o Santiago Calatrava, Bilbao Airport Garage
o Dan Graham, Pavillion for Argonne
• Marked Sites: Landscape/Not Landscape
o Donald Judd, L.A. Country Museum of Art Sculpture
Garden
o Christo, Valley Curtain
This classification is beneficial for demonstrating the richness and

suitability of this diagram with the issue of interdisciplinary
66
relationships. Here, different examples of “art” and “architecture” were
placed one after another in the same schema.
Figure 2 66. “Klein Group” Diagram with examples.
This means that Minimalist artworks, environmental artworks and

architectural artifacts could act as sources of inspiration for each other
in bringing innovation to the traditional disciplinary fixations. Stan
Allen defines the Minimalist Art and its relationship with architecture
as:
“In the case of Minimalism, a strange circular route has been traced,
whereby artists in the 1960s, in an effort to rethink some of the limits of
their discipline turned towards architecture, only to have the favor returned
some 20 years later, when with Minimalism firmly recognized in its art
historical context, architects begin to look to minimalism as support for
contemporary production.”53
53
Ibid.
67
His theory was confirmed by Richard Serra. He expressed that his
sculpture was in search of the new. He claims in an interview with
Douglas Crimp that:
“I build structures that were 30-40 feet high and weighed between 60-70
tons. I saw a potential for my work in another scale, a scale that was more
interesting to me than the limited possibilities offered by the museum or
gallery rooms.”54
As sculpture was in search for the new for itself, architecture was
making the same inquiry. Contemporary architects - one of whom is
Frank Gehry- began to see the Minimalist artists as collaborators and
the Minimalist projects as entities sharing their profession. Due to the
intra-disciplinary changes, architecture and sculpture started to diffuse
into each other.
Starting from the early twentieth century, form and space have been
concerns of the artists as well as of the architects. They started to give
form to space for different aims, in different ways of expression.
Walter Gropius was explaining the features of space creation in 1920s
in his essay “The Theory and Organization of the Bauhaus” as:
“The objective of all creative effort in the visual arts is to give form to
space…But what is space, how can it be understood and given a
form?…Although we may achieve an awareness of the infinite, we can give
form to space only with finite means….This conception of space demands
realization in the material world, a realization which is accomplished by the
brain and the hands.”55
54
Crimp, Douglas. “Richard Serra’s Urban Sculpture An Interview.” Richard Serra Sculpture. Ed.
Rosalind Krauss, New York: MOMA N.Y., 1986, p 119.
55
Walter Gropius “The Theory and Organization of the Bauhaus”, in Art In Theory1900-1990 An
Anthology of Changing Ideas, Edited by Charles Harrison and Paul Wood, Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1993, p 340.
68
As stated in the quotation, also the conception of space changes from
one standpoint to the other. So how will it be possible to define space
in relation with painting, sculpture and architecture? Nicolaus Pevsner
gives the answer of this question as:
“A bicycle shed is a building; Lincoln Cathedral is a piece of architecture.

Nearly everything that encloses space on a scale sufficient for human being
to move in is a building; the term architecture applies only to buildings
designed with a view to aesthetic appeal.”56
“In every building, besides enclosing space, the architect models volumes
and plans surface, i.e. designs and exterior and sets out individual walls.
That means that good architect requires the sculptor’s and painter’s modes
of vision in addition to his own spatial imagination.”57
Although it is difficult to capture the meaning of space that connects

the artworks with architectural production, it is possible to propose that
it is the result of adding a meaning to the existing volume. This act is
common to all branches of art.
In his text “Architecture as Expression: Can It Approach The Condition

of Art?”58 Robert Maxwell brings into light diverse examples of
expressionist art and architecture from the beginning of the twentieth
century such as the projects of Duchamp, Bruno Taut, Hans Scharoun,
Zaha Hadid, Konstantin Melnikov, El Lissitzky, Rem Koolhas, Daniel
Libeskind, Lebbus Woods and Frank Gehry. Mentioning Frank
Gehry’s architecture as one of the examples of the computer aided
design and realization, he underlines the tools of the artists of the
twentieth century that liberated their work and the formal aspects in
56
Pevsner, Nikolaus. “Introduction” An Outline of European Architecture, Harmondsworth,
England: Penguin Books Ltd., 1943, p 15.
57
Ibid. p 16.
58
Maxwell, Robert, Transgressions: Crossing The Lines At The Royal Academy, in Architectural
Design, London: Academy Editions, 1997, p 10-16.
69
contemporary architecture, which is transformed due to such liberation.
This release was not only from the traditional formal characteristics but
also from the historical bonds that the architect aims to tear himself
from. Thus, a new classification was needed for the works of architects
like Frank Gehry in order to express the ideas on space, art and
architecture in a free manner. The term was found. After the
architectural sculpture that was discussed with the Minimalists, its
counterpart in architecture could be formed as the sculptural
architecture.
Sculptural architecture appeared by the end of twentieth century, which

without doubt approached the condition of art. Architecture as an
artwork was carrying the aesthetic value as well as functional qualities.
The new architecture was about to be born out of:
• The relationship between painting, sculpture and architecture in

the pre-modern world,
• The unification of the arts under the roof of architecture in the
beginning of the twentieth century,
• The blurring definitions and the intersecting disciplinary spheres,
• The interaction of painting, sculpture and architecture resulting
in the inter-disciplinary relations,
• The emergence of architectural sculpture,
• The emergence of sculptural architecture.
One of the pioneers trying to construct a new aesthetical understanding

for architecture according to the spirit of the age is Frank Gehry.
70
Combining these three disciplines with each other in order to bring an
artistic quality to his buildings, Frank Gehry is one of the most
important architects of today. With the examination of his projects and
with a detailed study about his professional collaboration with artist
friends, the interaction of painting, sculpture and architecture in his
work will be surveyed in the following chapter.
71
CHAPTER 3
IN SEARCH OF A DIALOGUE BETWEEN ARCHITECTS AND

ARTISTS
Interdisciplinary exchange between architecture and the visual arts

could only be achieved in conjunction with the professional dialogue
between the practitioners of these fields. In order to make a profound
survey on how an architectural artifact can be accepted as art, Frank
Gehry’s work and collaboration with painters and sculptors will be
elaborated upon in this chapter. The exchanges affecting the
productions of separate domains and the professional relationships
changing the potential of disciplines will here be investigated.
3.1. Frank Gehry and the Art of Architecture
If you try to understand my work on the basis of fugal order, structural

integrity and formalized definitions of beauty, you are apt to be totally
confused. I approach each building as a sculptural object, a spatial
container…The manipulation of the inside of the container is for me an
independent, sculptural problem and no less interesting than the design of the
container itself.59
Frank Gehry, 1985
59
“Buildings and projects” in Arnell, Peter and Ted Bickford eds. Frank Gehry Buildings and
Projects. New York: Rizzioli, 1985, p 112.
72
Figure 3 1. Sketch for Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, by Frank Gehry, 1991.
The distinction between architecture, painting and sculpture as separate

arts was dissolved in Frank Gehry’s work and a new kind of
architecture was developed. Unifying art and technology, Gehry
extends the limits of architectural production. In order to design
inhabitable spaces with an aesthetic apprehension, he states that he
needs art. It would be beneficial to try to understand how Gehry’s
professional life has started:
“I started out studying fine arts at USC, I studied ceramics with Glenn
Lukens…My teacher, having seen me lit up at the experience of seeing a
house under construction, suggested that I take an architecture class. So I
took a night class at USC…. [b]ut having came from the fine arts, I was
always trying to put architects together with artists at school. And I used to
go to Goodall, who was the dean, and concoct projects between architecture
and art departments. But I always failed. They would never cooperate. The
artists and architects were in the same building, but never talked.”60
60
Bechtler, Cristina, ed. Kurt W. Forster Frank O Gehry. Art and Architecture in Discussion.
Verlag: Cantz, 1999, p 53-54.
73
Francesco Dal Co starts his article in the book Frank O. Gehry The
Complete Works, with a title “The World Turned Upside Down: The
Tortoise Flies and the Hare Threatens The Lion”61. This may seem an
irrelevant beginning but it is a title which introduces the extraordinary
architecture of Frank Gehry. This belief, finds its support in the article
when Dal Co starts with the project of “Il Corso Del Coltello”. In the
installation “Il Corso Del Coltello”(The Mission of the Knife), which
was an outcome of the collaboration of Frank Gehry, Claes Oldenburg
and Coosje Van Bruggen, the aim was to demonstrate the urgency of
cutting the umbilical cord with the past. Being open to progress, the
necessity of turning our faces towards the present, and being a part of
our own time, living and believing in the truth, against the structures
and the forms of the past were illustrated by this manifesto. In order to
take part in the contemporary world, it was necessary to obey the new
rules and furthermore to create original systems to be used according to
today’s requirements.
Gehry’s attitude signified a new approach in which technology was

related with art in an unexpected manner. The complex forms that are
brought to life with the proper computer program, widened his
perspective in the act of design. Frank Gehry was involved in the
computerized process –the CATIA computer program- in order to
reach the fluid, complex and interrelated forms that he wanted to
create. His aesthetic is functional and technological in relation with the
nature of architecture.
61
Dal Co, Francesco. “The World Turned Upside Down: The Tortoise Flies and the Hare Threatens
The Lion” in Francesco Dal Co, Kurt Forster. Frank O Gehry. The Complete Works. Milano, Electa:
The Monacelli Press, 1998, p 39.
74
Maximizing the computer’s abilities was not his aim; rather, the
computer was a tool for arriving at the sculptural forms that he had
imagined.
In order to prepare a project of both of a functional quality and of an

artistic expression, as stated by Kirsten Degel and Kjeld Kjeldsen62,
Gehry starts pragmatically from inside out. At the beginning, he takes
wooden rectangular blocks, which are signifying the elements of the
program in order to determine the organizational schema. Starting with
the basic rectangle that contains the functional spaces, he breaks down
each geometrical shape into its parts, assembling them in a different
way. That is why he was called one of the “deconstructivist architects”
of the late twentieth century.
Beginning to shape them like clay models he decides their forms in

relation to the functions that they are going to carry. All of his
architectural elements are not necessarily carrying technical functions
but some of them are added as compositional elements that help Gehry
express an emotion or a theme with his building. At the end, he does
not create pure geometrical forms. His aim is not preparing every inch
of the building for a specific function but rather he tries to create a
meaningful continuum in form. This could be accepted as one of the
grounds for calling him an artist in architecture. It is not surprising that
Robert Wilson63 defines Frank Gehry as an architect who thinks like a
sculptor with his own signature.64
62
Degel, Kirsten and Kjeld Kjeldsen eds. The Architect’s Studio. Lousiana: Lousiana Museum of
Modern Art, 1998, p 16-17.
63
Robert Wilson is an American artist who is born in Waco, Texas, and who was educated at the
University of Texas and Brooklyn's Pratt Institute where he took an interest in architecture and
75
Frank Gehry states that he shapes his volumes in a free and sculptural
manner, explaining the process by saying: “You forget about it as
architecture, because you are focused on the sculpting process.”65
Figure 3 2. Frank Gehry’s study model.

Figure 3 3. Frank Gehry’s study model.
Having seen that the compositions that he has sculpted could be

realized by CATIA, his imagination is liberated. Thus, beyond
achieving the technical goals in the design process, he could cross the
line between designing a building and sculpting a building. As a
consequence, his architecture started to enter the realm of art. He
stated:
“I have never felt that what artists are doing is very different. I have always
felt that there is a moment of truth when you decide: what color, what size,
what composition? How you get to that moment of truth is different and the
end result is different. Solving all the functional problems is an intellectual
exercise. That is a different part of my brain. It is not less important, it is
just different.”66
design. He studied painting with George McNeil in Paris and later worked with the architect Paolo
Solari in Arizona.
64
Op.cit. Bechtler, C., 1999, p 93.
65
Van Bruggen, Coosje, “Toward a Unity of Opposites: A Mere Building Versus Sculptural
Architecture” in Frank O Gehry. Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. New York: Guggenheim Museum
Publications, 1997, p 103.
66
Ibid. p 95.
76
Figure 3 4. Frank Gehry in “Il Corso del Coltello”
Figure 3 5. Commercial for Machintosh with Frank Gehry with the catchword: “Think
different”.
By means of using architecture as a medium for self-expression, Gehry

created expressive forms out of standards. While the orthogonal forms
of modern architecture express roughness, strength, structural
constancy, constructional security, dominancy, durability, permanency,
and familiarity, Frank Gehry’s organic forms express softness, tactility,
lightness, activity, energy, dynamism, temporality, variability, and
unfamiliarity. “For me, Modernism is a way of understanding the most
direct way of making things," said Richard Meier67. This direct way
could signify the most appropriate form for a specific function. For
example, the excessive quality in Gehry’s work – the non-functional
architectural elements that complete his compositions such as the
ceiling of the fish gallery in Guggenheim Museum Bilbao- separates it
from the buildings of the Modernist architecture that create fabricated
standard solutions, for the needs of the industrial economy at the
beginning of the twentieth century.
67
Lacayo, Richard, “Skyline”, Time, 0040781X, 02/21/2000, Vol. 155, Issue 7.
77
Figure 3 6. Fish Gallery, Guggenheim Bilbao Museum.
For example Le Corbusier’s Plan Voisin, which proposes a center of

industry for Paris, was suggesting fabricated elements of construction to
be used in a number of identical buildings. Gehry’s approach is to the
contrary. He sees a building as a sculptural object, which has its own
peculiarities. More like Le Corbusier’s Notre-Dame-du-Haut Chapel in
Ronchamp, the sculptural quality of the building has priority in his
work. Although in Plan Voisin Le Corbusier describes the new
architecture for the changing life in the modern cities in the early
twentieth century with the architecture of mass production, Frank
Gehry stands against this idea, expressing the new face of the modern
city with individual buildings and forming a harmonious whole with
their different characteristic features. Frank Gehry constructs “Notre-
Dame-du-Haut Chapel”s for the urban fabric, uniting the sculptural
78
quality with the complex functions that a large scale architectural
project would carry.
Figure 3 7. Le Corbusier, Plan Voisin, 1925.

Figure 3 8. Le Corbusier, Plan Voisin, 1925.
Figure 3 9. Le Corbusier, Notre-Dame-du-Haut Chapel in Ronchamp, 1956.
But if the main medium for self-expression through form is art, could
Gehry’s work be the art of architecture?
Due to the fact that Gehry’s architecture evokes a sensation of
appreciation and excitement, it elevates the imaginative power of the
79
observer. It liberates the mind from the conventional norms of
architecture and causes the user to perceive it as if it is an artwork.
Because besides the function that the spaces carry, his designs are
organically integrated masses, bounded to a compositional schema. In
Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, one can feel that natural forces caused
the building to take its shape in the construction period. The fluid
masses appear as if they took their forms with the strong blow of the
wind from different directions and the shapes look like they have been
squeezed by a hand and organized in an organic manner. The feeling of
touch is everywhere in the museum and it gives the impression that this
exciting technological product is hand-made.
The American artist Robert Rauschenberg68 explains his excitement for

the museum, “The Bilbao Guggenheim Museum is the most awesomely
man-built space I have ever experienced. It spiritually enlightens man
and inspires art.”69 Then the answer to the question could be: “Yes,
Gehry’s architecture is close to the condition of art.” It expresses the
emotions of the architect and communicates with the perceiver,
illustrating itself as a symbol of developed technology and freedom. In
front of his buildings, one immediately feels that they were designed for
attracting attention and being perceivable.
In addition to using a new formal vocabulary in his work, Gehry

redefines the requirements of the given function. For example, the
entrance hall for the DG bank Headquarters in Berlin bears resemblance
68
Robert Rauschenberg anticipated movements such as Pop Art, Conceptualism, and Minimalism.
He attended the Kansas City Art Institute, the Academe Julian in Paris, and Black Mountain College
in North Carolina between 1947-49.
69
Op.cit. Betchler, C., 1999, p 92.
80
to a horse’s head, which is an interpretive formal analogy. Besides, he
uses the interior space of the head skeleton as a conference area, which
is a new volumetric relationship between form and function.
Figure 3 10. Frank Gehry, Entrance Hall for the DG Bank Headquarters in Berlin Pariser
Platz, 1999.
Figure 3 11. Entrance Hall for the DG Bank Headquarters in Berlin Pariser Platz, interior.
In sum, it can be stated that what makes Frank Gehry’s architecture art
is the innovative and expressive quality that is also applicable to his
work. His functional areas, which are independent from the excessive
sculptural skin that envelops them, are gathered in a schema, enabling
the view to utilize the interior spaces easily. Moreover, the exterior
planes are perceived as works of art.
81
3.2. Case Study: The Guggenheim Bilbao Museum
Figure 3 12. Frank Gehry, Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, river façade, 1991-1997.
When one steps out of the train in Bilbao, the first thing to do is to find
one’s way down to the river. At the end of the street right across the
station, there lies the river with Santiago Calatrava’s Zubizuri Bridge
constructed over it. One is amazed by the structural and plastic beauty
of Calatrava’s bridge. Following the river, the main approach to
Guggenheim Bilbao Museum70 is made. First of all it is possible to see
the sculptural steel tower from its backside.
With the rising sun, the museum starts to glaze, beginning from the
tower, continuing with Louis Bourgeois’s “Spider”, the Fish Gallery,
the terrace and the huge staircase that gives an end to the river façade
(the north façade) of the building. Titanium gives the huge mass an
effect of lightness. Doubling its image in its reflection on the river, the
70
The author has found the opportunity to visit the Guggenheim Bilbao Museum during 19-22
November 2003 for her thesis studies.
82
Guggenheim Museum looks as if someone caught and trapped it in a
frame while it was flowing by the river.
Figure 3 13. Sketch by Dilek Yücesan, the bridge with the steel-skeleton tower in the front.
Using the bridge that is used as an important axis of transportation in

the city, it is possible to reach the other side of the river. The tower,
which seems at first like a monumental entity, appears as a functional
element for this side, providing connection with the urban fabric to
reach the ground floor where the back entrance is.
Guggenheim changes its appearance according to the angle from which

one is looking at it. The color changes, the alteration in the surfaces
moves the gaze and the different relationships with its site, invites one
to move around it and perceive it from various points of view. Right-
angled masses are integrated with organic forms, sunlight passes
through the glass surfaces uniting inside with outside, and the pool on
the back makes one perceive the building as if it were constructed on
the river.
83
The main entrance on the front façade is on the south side. To enter the
building one has to go down the stairs of the main square, which is in
front of the museum. At first glance the heights of the masses look very
close to human scale, enabling one to get in touch with them. On the
right hand side, the administration part of the project is located. One
can think that it is not a part of the museum because of its geometrical
form and color. However, this should not be taken as a failure of the
architect. On the contrary, it may be accepted as a decision to underline
the power of plurality in a unified whole.
Figure 3 14. Guggenheim Museum, north elevation.
Figure 3 15. Guggenheim Museum, south elevation.
84
Figure 3 16. Guggenheim Museum, tower.
Figure 3 17. Guggenheim Museum, administration building.
85
When one goes down the stairs and enters the museum, on the left side
there lies the information desk and on the right side there appears the
ticket desk. After passing through the gate, the most important area of
the building can be observed at first glance: the atrium. The whole
project is developed around this atrium. Upon entering this area, one
immediately raises one’s head and tries to see what is above, moving
one’s gaze across the vertical glass and stone surfaces, which appear as
areas for circulation.
Figure 3 18. Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, atrium.
86
Light and heavy masses are in such a strong balance that it is
impossible to hide one’s amazement. One feels the movement all of a
sudden. The galleries are located around the atrium on different floors.
On the first floor lies the famous Fish Gallery with Richard Serra’s
sculpture, “Snake”, as a part of the permanent collection. The Fish
Gallery continues as a part of the atrium, so one is directed towards the
end of it as soon as one enters the area of the atrium.
Figure 3 19. Sketch by Dilek Yücesan, the atrium.

Surprisingly the spaces of “Snake” and “Guggenheim Bilbao Museum”

have similar effects on the spectator. They both turn heavy elements
into light constructions enabling the perceivers to free-flow through
them. Inside of “Snake” one feels the strength of the material, the
effects of voices, the different shades of light and various spatial
87
changes from the beginning until the end just like one could feel
walking inside the museum.
Figure 3 21. Sketch by by Dilek Yücesan, Snake, Richard Serra, Fish Gallery, Guggenheim
Bilbao Museum.
Figure 3 22. Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, atrium.
Richard Serra’s volumes in “Snake” create an unfamiliar spatial effect

with the curvilinear surfaces similar to the museum’s dominant carved
forms. In both of the designs, due to the motion on the surfaces, heavy
construction materials gain plasticity.
The museum amazes the spectator as a functional shed providing area

for exhibition. However, it is not perceived as a mere building. The
museum evokes the feeling of “being designed” for the spectator with
the expressions of the architect. This building is an artwork that is
experienced, lived and contemplated at the same time.
88
Continuously, perception is divided in the atrium area. Glass, steel and
stone are mixed. Masses are hanging with the atectonic feeling that they
generate.

It is possible to lose direction in the building because one is

continuously passing from one gallery to the other as one is moving
around the atrium. Functional changes in the interior are signified with
the change in the material. For instance, the elevator is covered with a
steel structure while the wall of the gallery facing the atrium is
separated from it with the usage of stone cladding. The stairs are
covered with stone while the exhibition halls are covered by ceramic
tiles. The colors of the walls change, separating one gallery from the
other.
89
Every function has its spatial and furthermore sculptural counterpart in
Gehry’s design. Galleries are both exhibition areas with sufficient
lighting technology and air-conditioning in all spaces, and they are also
areas of formal illusions with various optical effects. The vertical glass
surfaces in the atrium are circulation areas as well as sculptural entities
generating an effect of infinity. Terraces in the inside both enable the
spectator to look down to the atrium and to the other galleries and
divide the total space in every floor, deepening the three-dimensional
effect. The bridges around the atrium connect the galleries functionally
and provide a transmission area with a vista of other people moving
inside the building.
The staircases, one from the car bridge, the other from the street in front
are frequently used. This shows that not only the building but also the
urban setting is used and has become a part of this area of the city. The
Guggenheim Bilbao Museum is one of the most proper examples of
influences of art on Gehry’s work. Gehry was inspired from art in his
designs. But where and how?
First of all he uses the elements of design in an innovative manner. The

continuous flow among the spaces and among the surfaces creates the
sculptural character in his work. Always searching for the new and
using it as a means of expression is, what lies beneath the dialogue
between Gehry and his artist friends. For instance, he looks at the
innovative material usages of the artists. Both Frank Gehry and Richard
Serra use CATIA in order to realize their projects. He designs the whole
that is made up of several diverse elements and groups. These
fragments are perceived in their individuality without being outside the
90
concept of his design. Frank Gehry gives his forms a sculptural quality,
converting one shape to another continuously. Therefore he manipulates
different perceptions of perspectives that enrich his product. The wall
and roof become the same surface within a definite continuum. His
architecture seems kinetic due to the organic forms in his compositions.
He adds and subtracts masses due to his will, plays with shapes like
clay models and stops at a certain time when he feels that the design is
complete.
The relationship between art and architecture was surveyed by a

number of critics by the end of 1990s. On the same subject articles were
written from the view of art critics and architects. One example of this
is the evaluation of Richard Serra’s Torqued Ellipses that are
constructed temporarily in the space of Frank Gehry’s Fish Gallery in
the Guggenheim Bilbao Museum. The comparison of Aruna D’Souza
and Tom McDonough’s “Sculpture In The Space of Architecture”71 and
Mark Robbins’s “Notes On Space”72 will give us an idea of how
artworks were examined in relation to architecture. The peculiarity of
these articles is that they enable us to recognize the condition of art and
the condition of architecture in our case study of Guggenheim Bilbao
Museum.
In the February volume of the magazine “Art in America”, in which the

article “Sculpture in the Space of Architecture” by Aruna D’Souza and
Tom McDonough appeared, “Torqued Ellipses” was on the cover. This
71
D’Souza, Aruna, Tom McDonough, “Sculpture in the Space of Architecture”, Art in America,
2000, Feb., v. 88, no.2. One assistant professor of art history at the Center for Curatorial Studies and
one assistant professor of art history at Binghampton University.
72
Robbins, Mark, “Notes On Space”, Architecture, 1998, Aug., v. 87, no.8, p. 51.
91
work makes one recognize the changing conceptions and conditions of
sculpture with a specific emphasis on this work. The article of D’Souza
and McDonough starts with a quotation from Frank Gehry on
Guggenheim Museum Bilbao’s exhibition halls and on Richard Serra’s
“Torqued Ellipses”: “I made this space with Richard in mind…Look at
the great spaces they create between themselves and the walls.”73
Figure 3 25. Torqued Ellipses, Installation at the Fish Gallery, Guggenheim Bilbao Museum.
Although “Torqued Ellipses” is an artwork which carries no other aim

than being a sculpture74, here it will be considered as a piece that will
be discussed due to its spatial characteristics in the architectural realm.
What is important about the text is that it relates the architect’s spaces
with the artwork’s. The authors state that:
“So what are we to make of the striking analogies between the museum’s
architecture and the sculptures?The Bilbao exhibition of the Torqued
Ellipses made it clear that Gehry and Serra both insist on the mobility of the
viewer, for neither’s forms can be taken in at a glance. It also revealed how
both men are working with the illusion of weightlessness, Gehry dissolving
the enormous museum into a shimmering vision of glass and metal, Serra,
as we have seen, transmuting steel into frozen movement.” 75
73
Op.cit, D’Souza, McDonough, 2000, p 84.
74
Robbins makes a quotation from Serra about the functionlessness and uselessness of his works.
75
Op.cit, D’Souza, Aruna, Tom McDonough, 2000, p 85.
92
This evaluation includes both the architect’s work and the artist’s
sculpture in relation to each other, underlining the relationship between
their works. After scanning the collaboration of artists with architects,
they make a conclusion to predict the relationship between them, which
carries valuable observations. They sum up, claiming:
“The Torqued Ellipses may well be the finest works Richard Serra has
produced, despite the fact that they can not exist in the idealist realm of
meta-architecture as hoped. This is to say that they are utterly contemporary
in their contradictions, existing as both sculpture and architecture, as both
modern and postmodern, as both idealist and implicated. No setting could
have made this clearer than Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Bilbao, a building
which itself rehearses the same hybrid condition, determinedly blurring the
line between sculpture and architecture.”76
At this point, the evaluations of Mark Robbins in his text “Notes On

Space” can be followed since he starts his article with the statement:
“Distinctions between architecture and contemporary sculpture grow
increasingly blurred.”77 He is an architect and artist, the curator of
architecture at the Wexner Center and he teaches at the Knowlton
School of Architecture at Ohio State University. This detail is given in
order to differentiate between the approaches of the architects from
those of the art critics on the same subject matter. Robins evaluates the
examples from the spatial arts and architecture together due to their
abilities in creating space.
Robbins begins by giving examples from the works of Gordon Matta

Clark and Rachel Whiteread who operated on architecture. They have
worked on architecture as such; Matta Clark cut buildings and
Whiteread prepared moulds around existing structures and made
76
Ibid. p 88.
77
Op.cit, Robbins, M, 1998, p. 48.
93
sculptures out of them. He continues with the abstract and formal
attitudes of Richard Serra, Donald Judd, James Turrell and the other
artists.78 He states:
“Architects often find an affinity with the Minimalist vocabulary…[i]t

emphasizes space, light, and volume and freely manipulates compositional
elements. It is not surprising that architects see elements of their own
formal training in the work of these sculptors, but with an apparent release
from program or client. In many of these works the space itself becomes the
project.”79
Robbins believes that these artworks present an alternative way of

looking at and constructing space. What makes the connection between
his article and the other one belonging to D’Souza and McDonough
visible is the equal importance that is given to the artworks and the
architecture in which they are located. In Robbins’s words it is possible
to examine the relationship between the formal vocabulary of R.Serra
and F.Gehry: “Serra’s spatial inventiveness –the relation between
sculptural skin and internal volumes- most immediately recalls
architect Frank Gehry’s work and is apparent in the great number of
models from which they both work.”80 Furthermore, according to
Robbins, Frank Gehry had absorbed the formal vocabulary of Richard
Serra and adapted it to his own work81. He emphasizes that the line
between the two autonomous disciplines as contemporary art and
architecture is blurred in the works of the Minimalists and in those of
Frank Gehry.
78
Ibid p 50.
79
Ibid.
80
Ibid p 50-51.
81
Ibid p 50.
94
These are two different articles examining the same product from
different points of view. While D’Souza and Aruna evaluate Richard
Serra’s “Torqued Ellipses” from the perspective of an art critic,
Robbins examines the same object with the space that it produces. One
is carrying an approach focusing on the issue of material and formal
vocabulary, while the other focuses on the space itself that becomes the
aim of the artwork. It is possible to follow from the articles that the
sculptures of the Minimalist artists carry architectonic qualities and the
recent works of Frank Gehry carry sculptural characteristics. There is a
transformation from one direction to the other on both sides; there is a
bridge that is constructed from one discipline to the other.
After examining the Guggenheim Bilbao Museum and reading the

articles that are based on the relationship of art and architecture, it
would be appropriate to elaborate the formal characteristics of this
building that bring it closer to the condition of art. As stated before,
Gehry’s architecture is not a standard building; it is both high-tech and
hand-made, it expresses a sculptural quality, and offers an alternative to
orthogonal architecture. But what exactly is the orthogonal architecture
that is criticized by Frank Gehry with his organic forms?
The early Modernists architects were the pioneers who formed a new
architecture out of traditional norms. They eliminated ornaments; they
preferred pure geometrical forms and were in favor of the simple
organizational schema for an architectural project. One of these
pioneers was Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who designed the German
95
Pavillion82 at the Barcelona World Fair in 1929. It is possible to make a
comparison between this building and the Guggenheim Bilbao
Museum in order to see how the same aim of creating a sculptural
architecture, beyond the classical definition of architecture, has led two
different architects to different solutions. One is completely orthogonal
and the other is totally organic. Both of the buildings propose an
innovative approach to architectural design. How could these works be
in such apparent harmony while they appear in such a formal contrast?
Both Mies van der Rohe and Frank Gehry give importance to art. The
two architects try to reach beautiful, sculptural architecture with
different methods. While Mies van der Rohe uses the basic, planar,
orthogonal geometry to define the functional boarders of space, Gehry
uses a sculptural shell to transform his pure geometrical functional
areas into fragments of an artwork.
Figure 3 26. Sketch by Dilek Yücesan , German Pavillion, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe,
Barcelona, 1929.
82
The author visited the German Pavillion during 22-24 November 2003.
96
Figure 3 27. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, German Pavillion, Barcelona, 1929.
Figure 3 28. Guggenheim Bilbao Museum, north elevation.
97
Currently, it would be beneficial to make a comparison between the
work of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Frank Gehry in order to
observe two different examples of architecture that approach to the
condition of art.
In the German Pavillion pattern is formed with repeating orthogonal

planes. Geometrical forms are organized due to order and proportion
and orthogonal forms are dominant. As pure geometry is the tool for
the organization of volumes, dynamism in mass is achieved through the
harmony of vertical and horizontal planes forming the functional
elements of construction such as the floor, the ceiling, and the
separators. Reinforced concrete is the main construction element. The
plastic quality of the building is achieved through the innovative
approach of the architect towards the organization of pure geometrical
forms. In this example, planes are functional space enclosure elements.
They carry the roof, they separate the volumes and they give direction
to the flow in the building. Rectangular architectural forms could be
associated with directed motion; when one enters the building, one’s
movement flows from one part to the other following a definite path
because everything in the building has a specific function. Only
adequate number and amount of architectural elements are used as
separators, frames and load bearers. However in Guggenheim Bilbao
Museum pattern is formed with variations of organic surfaces and
irregular forms are dominant. Organic geometry is the tool for the
integration of masses. Dynamism in mass is achieved through the
organic integration of architectural elements with each other such as
wall and roof. But the important fact is that, excessive components are
defining the borders of the spaces. For example, the plasterboards are
98
carved and embedded on the vertical surfaces surrounding the atrium of
the gallery. Because of this reason, it is impossible to distinguish in the
museum what is structural and what is constructional. In this building,
different than the other one steel structure is the main construction
element. Surfaces are space enclosure elements, which do not
necessarily appear as either load bearing elements or separators of the
volumes. Frank Gehry’s architecture generates a new understanding for
the flow on the surfaces that make them look like they are eliminating
the gravitational force. The shell is the boarder in which, functional
spaces float, independent from their skin. Spaces are enveloped by the
steel structure and the steel structure is covered by the skin of stone,
glass and titanium. Free architectural forms are associated with multi-
directions inside of and around the building. In Mies van der Rohe’s
architecture structure is combined with function whereas in Frank
Gehry’s work structure is combined with function and independent
forms.
In both of the examples, the buildings are crossing the boundaries of

traditional architecture of their age. What makes the two architects
similar to each other is that, they both use architectural elements in an
unfamiliar manner. While Mies van der Rohe was making an inquiry
about the traditional forms of his age and, introducing the new usage of
reinforced concrete to the architectural world, Gehry was proposing an
alternative approach to architectural form with his age’s innovative
computer technology and materials such as steel, glass and titanium. In
the end, when Mies and Gehry want to cross the line that separate
yesterday from today, they both cross the line that separate architecture
from art. The method for both of the architects to question the
99
architecture of their age is, producing artifacts that approach to the
condition of art and are contemplated.
Focusing on Gehry’s work, an important question could be asked. How

does Frank Gehry’s architecture approach to the condition of art? In my
opinion, his architecture is shaped with the facts that he learns from
painting and sculpture as well as from his collaboration with painters
and sculptors. In the following section, Frank Gehry’s influences from
the visual arts will be elaborated.
3.3. Influence of Visual Arts on Frank Gehry’s Work
Frank Gehry’s style developed under the influence of works of art. In

an interview with Christopher Palmeri, Frank Gehry said:
“C.P.: You famously redesigned your house in Santa Monica, using chain-
link fencing and plywood. Were you rebelling against the modern designs
in vogue at the time?
F.G.: I wasn't rebelling. The jobs I got, they didn't have the budgets to do the
modern stuff. I couldn't get the workmanship. The artists I liked at the time,
[Robert] Rauschenberg and [Jasper] Johns, were making art out of junk,
found objects. People were paying hundreds of thousands of dollars for
them. I thought there's an aesthetic leap here -- why not go with it and turn
cheap construction into a positive? I started exposing the wood, the rough
carpentry. And it worked. People started responding to it positively.”83
The artworks inspired Gehry to create a brand new type of architecture

that was at the beginning inexpensive and quick, and broke completely
with the aesthetic norms of the day. It is possible to follow in his words
83
From the interview of Christopher Palmeri with Frank Gehry “A Dream of "Paperless"
Architechture” in Business Week Online, 10/2/2003, pN.PAG, 1p Item: 10966546.
100
that everything about Gehry’s architectural approach started when he
turned to the artworks of his time. Their application to his work –the
cheap material preferences and the idea of constructing qualified
projects with a low budget- started to form Frank Gehry’s architecture,
with the redesigning of his own house in Santa Monica, California in
1982.
Figure 3 29. Frank Gehry, Santa Monica House, exterior, 1987.

Figure 3 30. Frank Gehry, Santa Monica House, kitchen, 1987.
Taking a traditional California house and cladding it with new

materials and geometrical forms, Frank Gehry started to display his
innovative approach towards structure, construction, and material. With
creative organization, Gehry started to transform the concepts of form-
function, solid-void and interior-exterior. Nicolai Ouroussoff explains
how his house has attracted attention in a detailed manner:
“Let’s go back to 1978, Santa Monica, California. One by one, the cream of
America’s cultural elite is parading through a little house on the corner of
Washington and 22nd Streets. Philip Johnson, the dean of American
architecture, drops by and later, the pop artists Jasper Johns, Claes
Oldenburg and Coosje Van Bruggen. So do the avant-garde musician Philip
Glass and the sculptor Richard Serra…They are all there to see a small pink
101
Cape Cod style bungalow that a little-known architect has joyfully torn apart
and rebuilt.”84
While Gehry was rebuilding his own house, he became the center of
attraction among the artists who heard about his unfamiliar design. Why
were civil or mechanical engineers not talking about this little house
rather than the artists? In my opinion, in the answer to this question, the
core issue of this chapter is hidden; the reciprocal interest of
architecture and art in each other. Gehry’s work influenced by the the
Californian artists, end up in a production in architectural realms that, at
the end, attract the attention of the same artists. Because he questioned
the nature of a house and re-invented it freely and personally with his
new forms and materials, that is close to the work of an artist.
Therefore, it would be practical to examine the work of Gehry in light
of its relationship with the other arts.
Peter Arnell underlines Gehry’s close relationship with the artists.

Arnell thinks that Gehry loves understanding their problems and their
way of thinking, and his architectural work is influenced from the
creative approaches of the artists.85 Not only was Gehry influenced by
the works of the artists but they were also surprised and affected by his
work. For instance Richard Serra states that:
“The first work of Frank that I saw was his house in Santa Monica, in the
70s. It wasn’t that he was reckless, rather he was fearless as he went about
cutting and tearing his house apart, and simultaneously reconstructing the
shattered remains with mundane industrial materials. This was innovation. It
immediately impelled me to reconsider the house as a container.”86
84
Op.cit, Degel and Kjeldsen, 1998, p 13.
85
“Frank Gehry and Peter Arnell: A Conversation” in Arnell, Peter and Ted Bickford eds. Frank
Gehry Buildings and Projects. New York: Rizzioli, 1985,p XIV/XV.
86
Op.cit, Bechtler, C., 1999, p 73.
102
Gehry feels that in order to find solutions to his architectural problems,
he makes use of art. However he strongly underlines that he is not an
artist but an architect whose aim is to produce architecture.87 He does
not like to be confused with the artists by means of the disciplinary
studies, because he thinks that architecture needs respect as an art of
creating space, performed by the architects. How an architect can utilize
art, at this point, is the question. He states, “My approach to
architecture is different. I search out the work of artists, and use art as
means of inspiration.”88
3.3.1. Interaction with Painting
Frank Gehry finds resemblances between his attitude and a painter’s

approach towards his creation. He states that the condition of designing
a “one-room building” is very similar to the state of a painter standing
in front of a canvas.89 Designing the materials, the relations and
expressing them in a creative manner appear as the common
conditions. Painting is in the first place among the arts, which he finds
relevancies to his work. He claims:
“Painting and sculpture influenced my work. For instance, when I had the
Bellini picture with the Madonna and Child, I originally thought of it as the
Madonna-and-Child strategy for architecture. You see a lot of big buildings
with a lot of little buildings, little pavilions in front. I attribute that to the
Madonna and Child composition.”90
87
Ibid. p XIV/XV.
88
Nairn, Janet. “Frank Gehry: the Serach for a “No Rules” Architecture”, Architectural Record, June
1976, p 95. (See footnote 1) in Rosemarie Haag Bletter, “Frank Gehry’s Spatial Reconstructions” in
The Architecture of Frank Gehry, New York: Rizzioli, 1986, p 24.
89
Friedman, Mildred. “Fast Food” in The Architecture of Frank Gehry, New York: Rizzioli, 1986, p
87.
90
“Commentaries by Frank Gehry” in Friedman, Mildred. Architecture and Process. Gehry Talks.
New York: Universe Publishing, 2002, p 42.
103
Here it is noticeable that Gehry uses the visual strategy of a painting’s
composition while observing an architectural formation. For example,
the visual strategy in Frederick R. Weisman Museum (1990-93) is
similar to the cubist paintings. As it appears to be significant in the
cubist paintings of Picasso and Braque, the spatial figure-ground
relationship can be observed in Gehry’s composition.
Figure 3 31. Frank Gehry, Frederick R. Weisman Museum, 1990-1993.

Figure 3. 32. Picasso, Portrait of Daniel Henry Kahnweil, 1912.
While the three-dimensionality of the painting comes from the solid-

void effect in a geometrical order, the volumetric transparencies and
opaqueness of the spaces that is reflected on the outside of the
Frederick R Weisman Museum were composed of architectural, three-
dimensional surfaces. The aim of making this analogy is to demonstrate
the possibility of reading his forms with their counterparts in painting.
This proves the existence of a conceptual relationship between his work
104
and the artists’. While using the visual references of paintings, Frank
Gehry was influenced by the creation period of these compositions,
their processes. The following section will examine how artworks that
are related to Frank Gehry’s work inspire him also in their creation
periods.
Process in Painting – Process in Architecture
Frank Gehry was fascinated with the process of creation rather than the
final product. He states that he likes buildings more, when they are
under construction and that he gets excited by the uncompleted product.
In order to find a method for applying these concerns to his
architectural work, he finds the solution in looking at examples from
the field of painting. He states:
“There is an immediacy in paintings, you feel like the brush strokes were
just made. I think about paintings all the time, so one part of architecture
that I felt an interest in exploring was how to bring these ideas to
buildings… In particular, how could a building be made to look like it’s in
process? And how can the expressive and compositional attitudes of
painting be explored in a building? That’s what led me to explore opening
up the structure and using the raw wood techniques and developing
buildings that look like they just happened.” 91
He is also wondering about their quality that made them so kinetic. He

is charmed by their characteristics, which make one think that someone
would come and complete the building. But how could he apply such
movement to architecture? This could only be possible with the forms
that make one think that the building is still under construction. They
91
“Frank Gehry and Peter Arnell: A Conversation” in Arnell, Peter and Ted Bickford eds. Frank
Gehry Buildings and Projects. New York: Rizzioli, 1985,p XIII/XIIII .
105
would necessarily look like the architect would complete the building
because according to Gehry, the production of a building is the only
time in which the building is in motion. He expressed his opinions on
this issue when discussing the Familian House that was constructed in
Santa Monica in 1978:
“This was a house for an art collector…I was interested in the immediacy of
the raw framing before it was covered up… How do you get that quality into
a building? That was the trust of the Familian House, to play with that
immediacy and see if it could be put under glass somehow.”92
The process of construction can easily be observed looking at the

façades of the Familian House. The covered parts are liberated by the
uncovered ones producing a different solid-void effect. Gehry states:
“I guess I was interested in the unfinished –or the quality you find in
paintings by Jackson Pollock, or de Kooning, or Cézanne, that looked like
the paint was just applied…I wanted to try that out in a building.”93
Figure 3. 33. Frank Gehry, The Familian House, model, 1978.
92
Haag Bletter, Rosemarie. “Frank Gehry’s Spatial Reconstructions” in The Architecture of Frank
Gehry, New York: Rizzioli, 1986, p 56.
93
Op.cit. Arnell, Peter and Ted Bickford eds,1985, p 128.
106
Figure 3. 34. Paul Cezanne, Mont Saint Victoire.
Movement in Painting – Movement in Architecture
The sense of movement in his designs is one of the most significant

characteristics of Gehry’s architecture. In order to explain the
significance of this concept in the way that he uses it in his projects,
Gehry gives the example of Marcel Duchamp’s painting “Nude
Descending a Staircase” by which he was influenced.94
For instance, in the design of the Telluride Residence (1995-), in

Telluride, Colorado, he related this painting with his design and “Nude
Descending a Staircase” became the starting point of this project.
94
Op.cit, Bechtler, C., 1999, p 34.
107
Figure 3. 35. Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase.
Figure 3. 36. Frank Gehry, Telluride Residence, Telluride, Colorado, 1995 -.
108
Frank Gehry stated:
“The house steps down the hill. Our inspiration was Duchamp’s
painting…It will have a concrete foundation, the frame will be very
sculptural, and it will be covered with black copper which is a roofing
material.”95
Another painter whose work inspired Gehry was Frank Stella. Being
one of the Minimalist artists, Stella was not only dealing with abstract
geometrical forms but also his reliefs and architectonic sculptures were
dominant with their three-dimensionality in his work. He also took the
commission of an art gallery and park in Dresden between 1990-1993.
In this architectural work, the clients were Rolf and Erika Hoffmann of
Cologne, real-estate developers and collectors of contemporary art,
who had in mind the creation of a public park in Dresden on land
donated by the German government. The Hoffmanns commissioned a
design from Stella, who wished to include within the park an art
museum and several other pavilions.96
In this case, Frank Gehry is not the one who learns the concept of
movement from the artist. Instead, the artist –Frank Stella- is the one
who used Frank Gehry’s forms in his commission in order to create this
sense. Gehry expresses how the relationship between himself and
Frank Stella affect their individual works:
“I have considered him an important source of information…He stops in

front of a painting and starts talking about my work in relation to his
paintings. He came to see me two years ago and showed me the project for
the Kunsthalle in Dresden, and said, “It comes from you Frank.” I said,
“No, it is you,” but it just happened that I was making shapes that looked
95
“Commentaries by Frank Gehry” in Friedman, Mildred. Architecture and Process. Gehry Talks.
New York: Universe Publishing, 2002, p 183.
96
Available on http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m1248/6_88/62685215/p4/article.jhtml?term=
(January 4, 2004)
109
like they came from him. Until I saw what he was doing, there was no other
architect working in a language that had anything in common with mine.”97
In my opinion, Frank Stella’s comments on Gehry’s architecture

summarize how two men are interactively sharing their disciplines with
a deep respect for each other’s work. Stella states:
“Clearly there is no better architecture being built or conceived in today’s

world than Frank’s.”98
As it is possible to see in the examples, Frank Gehry looks at a painting

and observes the shapes that are composed, sees beyond the canvas and
relates his construction processes with the creation period of a painting.
He learns from the expression of movement in order to use it in his
designs. However, painting is not the only art whose effect is
observable in his work. The other one that manipulates it is sculpture.
3.3.2. Interaction with Sculpture
To say that a building has to have a certain kind of architectural

attitude to be a building is too limiting, so the best thing to do is
to make the sculptural functional in terms of use. If you can
translate the beauty of sculpture into building…whatever it does
to give movement and feeling, that’s where the innovation in
architecture is.99
Frank Gehry, 1997
While trying to transform the beauty of a sculpture into a building,
Gehry follows the sculptors and learns from them. The three-
97
Opcit. Friedman, M, 1986, p 73.
98
Opcit. Bechtler, C., 1999, p 26.
99
Van Bruggen, Coosje, “Toward a Unity of Opposites: A Mere Building Versus Sculptural
Architecture” in Van Bruggen, Coosje. Frank O Gehry. Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. New York:
Guggenheim Museum Publications, 1997, p 119.
110
dimensionality in their work, the materials that they use, the large-scale
urban projects that share the same domain with architecture are the
main themes that Gehry follows in their work.
Gehry states that, “Crossing the line between architecture and sculpture
is something that has been difficult for me.”100 In creating his
characteristic forms, Gehry especially makes use of the innovative
conceptual and formal qualities of Minimalist sculpture. He claims that,
“[t]he artists whose work I loved most were Don Judd, Carl Andre and
the Minimalists.”101 For instance, Gehry expressed how the work of
Carl Andre titled Lever, 1966, amazed him:
“I was starting to work with chain link, and I was fascinated. I was
looking for an architecture that you could dial up, phone in. You could
call somebody and describe the coordinates and then you could build the
thing…But here there were these firebricks, and I thought, this artist is
smart…He doesn’t even come to the gallery. He gives them a coordinate
on the wall; he calls the brickyard and says, “Put in a hundred and
whatever firebricks, two layers, soldier course, perpendicular to the
wall.” I thought it was amazing.”102
In this example, it is possible to observe that Frank Gehry admires the

system of the artist in the process of creation. He intends to develop a
method inspired by the one of the artist.
Besides the conceptual give-and-take, the interaction between sculpture

and Gehry’s work is also based on formal characteristics. These
features can be examined under the title of material quality.
100
Opcit. Friedman, M, 1986, p 206.
101
Opcit. Bechtler, C., 1999, p 62.
102
Ibid.
111
Figure 3. 37. Donald Judd, Lever.
Material in Sculpture – Material in Architecture
Material is one of the most important issues that connect the works of
artists with the work of Frank Gehry. This is because, Gehry is an
architect who understands the nature and abilities of different materials
and who has the talent to transform them in a characteristic manner. He
uses steel, glass and stone as plastic elements and transforms their
weight into lightness in his buildings. But do artworks affect his
preferences in material?
Frank Gehry states that in the design of the Frederick R. Weisman
Museum, he looked at the sculptures of Ellsworth Kelly. He explains:
“By the time of the Weisman Museum, we could no longer use lead, copper
outside so I went to stainless. I’d seen a number of Ellsworth Kelly’s
sandblasted stainless sculptures, and I loved them because they looked like
suede. I was going to use it on the Weisman.”103
103
Op.cit.Friedman, M., 1986, p 132.
112
This means that, sculpture appears as a laboratory for the architect in
order to experience the application of the materials before their exact
usage as architectural elements. Therefore, it is possible to state that
large-scale sculptures have a direct effect on his material choices.
Figure 3. 38. Frank Gehry, Frederick R. Weisman Museum, 1990-1993.
Figure 3. 39. Ellsworth Kelly, Untitled, Stainless steel, Sand-blasted, 1986.
113
Due to the fact that Frank Gehry is curious about the origins of the
artworks, he captures diverse qualities of various materials. He
observes the works and starts to imagine them as architectural elements
with different features. However, as well as Frank Gehry, the artists
who have seen his work are inspired by their uniqueness. They start to
be interested in his approach and visualize his architectural elements as
pieces that inspire their art. This reciprocal relationship can be
exemplified with the comments of Rosemarie Haag Bletter. She
informs us that after Gehry used the chain link in his own house in
Santa Monica, Robert Irwin, an American artist and a close friend of
Gehry’s, came to his studio in order to study this new material.
However, the beginning of this interaction was Gehry’s influence from
Irwin’s use of scrim pieces in his work.104 Pieces of cloth that were
used by Irwin in his work inspired Gehry in the way that they easily
start moving with the blow of the wind. The kinetic condition of
Irwin’s sculptures was sourced in his preference of material.
At this point, it will be useful to quote from Francesco Dal Co’s
observations on Gehry’s contact with the artists. He specifies the
material concerns that are in exchange referring to Donald Judd’s and
Larry Bell’s sculptures in an implicit manner:
“There are obvious parallels, between the experimentation of Larry Bell

on the chromatic cohesion of surfaces and the research conducted by
Gehry for the facing and cladding of his architecture: how can we avoid
thinking of the sculptures of Bell and Judd, for example, when we look
at the façade on the freeway of the Team Disney Administration
Building (1978-1995)in Anaheim?”105
104
Op.cit, Haag Bletter , R.,1986, p 30.
105
Dal Co, Francesco. “The World Turned Upside Down: The Tortoise Flies and the Hare
Threatens The Lion” in Francesco Dal Co, Kurt Forster. Frank O Gehry. The Complete Works.
Milano, Electa: The Monacelli Press, 1998, p 42.
114
Figure 3. 40. Frank Gehry, Team Disney Administration Building, 1987-1996.
Francesco Dal Co ends with his belief that Gehry has learned a lot from
Claes Oldenburg’s structural compositions and from Richard Serra’s
spatial sculptures. Now, it would be proper to examine the
collaboration of Gehry with these artists.
Figure 3. 41. Claes Oldenburg, Balancing Tools.

Figure 3. 42. Richard Serra, Torqued Ellipses.
115
3.4. Frank Gehry’s Collaboration with Artists
If you see other people’s work constantly, if you keep you eyes open, and
you are influenced by other people’s work, it will happen over time. Ours
(with the artist friends) was a situation where we were playing, where there
was a contextual game, where one person was creating a context, and the
other person was responding to it. Then one person changed the context in
response to the other. And so on, I would love to figure out a way to keep it
going, because, in the end, it makes everything so much richer.106
Frank Gehry, 1999
The main aim of studying the collaboration of Frank Gehry with artists
is, to examine the effects of these team efforts on his architecture. The
importance of this collaboration and its material results on his work
were indicated in an articulate manner, by Michael Sorkin:
“After long session with artists, Gehry turned from the depersonalized
architecture of the corporate world, with its abstract, immaterial air, to an
architecture with which he was in direct emotional contact, the sort of
building you almost imagine yourself able to hand-build, certainly to fully
understand.”107
In a conversation between Peter Arnell and Frank Gehry108, the issue

comes to Gehry’s collaboration with artists. Arnell asks what kind of a
relationship leads to these team efforts. He wonders if there exists a
similar way of thinking among artists and architects that enabled them
to work in the same project together. Gehry answers Arnell’s questions
beginning with the common language that he uses with the artists. He
says that he is inspired from them and gets excited by the intensity of
their work.
106
Op.cit Bechtler, C.,p 90.
107
Sorkin, Michael. “Frozen Light” in Architecture and Process. Gehry Talks. New York: Universe
Publishing, 2002, p 32.
108
Op.cit. Arnell, Peter and Ted Bickford eds, 1985,p XIV/XV.
116
He states that he is interested in their way of thinking, their approaches
to the projects as well as their methods, and in this manner he sees
artists as role models for himself. Instead of being an architect who
designs museums for the artists’ work, he becomes one of them in his
discipline, which shares the practice of creation with them. Thus, it is
possible to state that the interrelationship affects his architecture
directly. Being influenced by their work and learning from their
approaches, he turns out to be an architect who performs architecture as
an artist.
Mildred Friedman’s article109 has vast importance in this survey with
respect to Gehry’s collaboration and the quality of his architecture.
Friedman’s article starts:
“Frank Gehry’s close friendship with many painters and sculptors, and his
unabashed admiration of their work have led some observers to suggest that,
at hearth, he regards himself more as artist than architect.”110
It would be proper to state that Gehry’s attitude towards design includes

both of the following conceptions: design as art and design for
architecture. As seen also in Kurt Forster’s observation, he is called an
artist in architecture. Forster remarks:
“Gehry touches on the vulnerable nature of his chosen identity as an artist in

architecture. His artistic goals, that is, his commitment to collaboration with
artists, remain phenomenal in a field that scarcely seems to tolerate such
adventures…Because the purpose of being an artist is to make something
that could not be brought into existence without art, Gehry’s desire to be
himself found its (wish) fulfillment in being an artist…It wasn’t really to be
an artist among artists that he strove over, but rather to become an artist in
the field of architecture…Because he tends to think of architecture as an art,
109
Friedman, Mildred. “Fast Food” in The Architecture of Frank Gehry, New York: Rizzioli, 1986.
110
Ibid. p 87.
117
he is inclined to see art within(not added to or subsumed by)
architecture.”111
Kurt Forster is a critic who explores Gehry’s collaboration with artists,

their sources and their products. He believes that what Gehry does
carries an intensive responsibility, because while Gehry steps into the
field of art and passes the boundaries that were placed by the artists; he
at the same time allows them to enter his field intensively. Forster
believes that in order to be so open to novelty, he needs to possess a
different identity, a personality that is involved with the work of the
artists without ignoring the fact that his duty is creating new
architectural artifacts.112 At this point it would be appropriate to
mention that the projects for the artists like museums, galleries and
exhibition areas, prepared Gehry for collaborating. As stated by
Friedman, Gehry started this collaboration by departing from the
projects that he constructed for the artworks. It is stated that:
“In exhibition design, the works of art become the client and the designer
provides an environment in the service of art. Because of his associations with
the artists, it was, inevitable that Gehry would move from the design of
exhibitions to collaboration with artists in the creation of works that
metaphorically bridge the gap between art and architecture.”113
There are several readings on Frank Gehry’s work togather with artists.
Some of them underline the fact that these works widen Gehry’s
horizons, while others accept them as bridges that connect the two
disciplines. Some of them can be exemplified as such; Rosemarie Haag
Bletter underlines the fact that Gehry’s work with contemporary artists
111
Op.cit, Bechtler,C. 1999, p 10-15.
112
Forster, Kurt W. “Architectural Choreography” in, Francesco Dal Co, Kurt Forster. Frank O
Gehry. The Complete Works. Milano, Electa: The Monacelli Press, 1998, p 13.
113
Op.cit Friedman, M,1986, p 97.
118
such as Richard Serra and Claes Oldenburg has kept him from staying
inside the borders of what she calls the formulaic approach to
architecture.114 Suggesting this idea, Dal Co stated that in recent years
the collaboration of Gehry with the artists and the relationship between
them was largely discussed. The names that were on the writings and
interviews were Donald Judd, Ron Davis, Larry Bell, Ed Moses,
Gordon Matta Clark, Robert Rauschenberg, Carl Andre, and, most
interestingly Cales Oldenburg and Richard Serra. He believes that
because Gehry was in contact with these artists, he found the
opportunity to look at art and his art of architecture from a different
angle in light of the materials and ideas that could improve his
architecture.115
Now, after examining the comments on his collaboration, it would be

appropriate to underline Gehry’s remarks on this issue. The project of
Lewis House, which was designed by Frank Gehry, Richard Serra,
Larry Bell, Claes Oldenburg, Coosje Van Bruggen and M.Keswich-
Jenks would be one of the most proper examples to discuss the issue of
collaboration. He claims:
“The collaboration takes a different form. It is another kind of interaction.

For the Lewis House, I made shapes that derive from my ING office tower
in Prague (1995). Richard Serra saw them, because he came here often
while I was working on it; he was intrigued and made two models of his
own. I was also looking back at Oldenburg’s knees (though I wasn’t
conscious of it), and then here in my studio, he started making bags for golf
clubs. He had begun to look at the same shapes Serra was interested in.
114
Haag Bletter, Rosemarie. “Frank Gehry’s Spatial Reconstructions” in The Architecture of Frank
Gehry, New York: Rizzioli, 1986, p 47.
115
Dal Co, Francesco. “The World Turned Upside Down: The Tortoise Flies and the Hare
Threatens The Lion” in Francesco Dal Co, Kurt Forster. Frank O Gehry. The Complete Works.
Milano, Electa: The Monacelli Press, 1998, p 42.
119
Actually it had all started with his knees, I guess. So there is a process of
fertilizing one another’s imagination. Nobody got in anybody’s way.”116
Figure 3. 43. Lewis Residence, Sketch by Frank Gehry, 1985-1995.
Figure 3. 44. Lewis Residence, Plans.
116
Op.cit, Betchler, 1999, p 84.
120
Figure 3. 45. Lewis Residence, Model.
Consequently, it would be accurate to state that collaboration enriches

the final product in the act of design. In order to examine the nature of
these team efforts in detail, the projects of Gehry with painters and
sculptors will be two subtopics in this section’s survey.
121
3.4.1. Collaboration with Painters
In this section, one project that enabled the process of collaboration

between Frank Gehry and painter Ron Davis was selected as the case
study: Ron Davis House.
Figure 3. 46. Ron Davis and Frank Gehry, Ron Davis House, 1972.
This project is one of the earliest examples of Gehry’s work. Their

teamwork affected the project entirely. But the only thing that was
affected was not the project. The individual attitudes and thoughts that
produced the design of the house started the interaction between
Gehry’s architecture and Davis’s art. Gehry explains this positive
relationship among them as such: “I’m idealistic in thinking that there’s
value in that interaction.”117 Pater Arnell and Ted Bricks said that:
“Gehry and Davis share an interest in manipulating perceptions of

perspective, a major focus of Davis’s paintings…Equally important was
Gehry’s idea that the collaboration with Davis should be ongoing, that
Davis’s use of the space –as artist, resident, a designer- would constitute a
117
Op.cit, Arnell, Bickford, 1985,p 58.
122
reaction which would in turn effect the way the architecture was
perceived.”118
In my opinion, this quotation signifies the facts that constitute the

nature of the professional relationship between an artist and an
architect. Gehry was learning from Davis’s profession, which would
directly have an effect on his architecture in the future. Initially, the
changes in Gehry’s style did not only appear conceptually. In order to
find the most proper expressions for his thoughts, from now on, the
appearance through material form developed with the help of this
interaction. Gehry states:
“When the sculptor Ron Davis wanted a studio, he bought land, and he came
to me. I made the site model and started to play with perspective. I made it
so that it fit the site, so that the site and the building became a sculptural
entity. I remember tipping the roof, because I had done the hay barn for
Donna O’Neill with a tipped-up roof. And he loved that. It was my first
metal building after the hay barn. I said, “This is interesting for me, because
I can now make a very tough sculptural shape.” The wall and the roof
became the same material and we could do it in metal. That’s when I started
using corrugated metal.”119
According to Rosemarie Haag Bletter, this studio has also acted as the
medium in which their relationship can be developed further. She states
that, “With his design of Malibu, California studio and residence for
Ron Davis (1970-1972) Gehry initiated his own startling commentary
on the convoluted relationship between art and architecture.”120 But in
which manner was Gehry affected from Davis’s work and in which
manner was Davis under his influence?
118
Ibid.
119
Op.cit Friedman, M,2002, p 45.
120
Op.cit, Haag Bletter, R.,1986, p 25.
123
Figure 3. 47. Ron Davis, Twin Wave, 1978.
Figure 3. 48. Ron Davis House, interior.
124
Haag Bletter explains that, “Gehry has taken Davis’s system of two-
dimensional optical illusions a step further into spatial artifice by
imposing forced perspective on a fully three-dimensional object.”121
She continues with affirming that the relationship between Davis and
Gehry had an influence on Davis’s work. It is stated that the geometric
illusionism that Davis uses was partly coming from Gehry’s effect on
his products.122 Thus, it is possible to observe a compositional and
geometrical give-and-take between Davis’s and Gehry’s work.
3.4.2. Collaboration with Choreographers
In examining the collaboration of Gehry with the dancer-choreographer

Lucinda Childs and the composer John Adams for a stage design
project for a musical performance of Available Light (1983), Friedman
brought into consideration numerous important issues. First of all, the
same kind of collaboration occurred before with Sol Le Witt, an
American artist whose works can be classified as Minimalist art, for
this performance in 1979.
Lucinda Childs explains in Friedman’s text that, doubling was the

dominant concept in both of the collaborations. The important fact is
that two men, Gehry and Le Witt, acted in different ways using their
own tools in order to reach the final aim of realizing the concern of
“doubling”. Sol Le Witt prepared a gigantic screen behind the stage on
121
Op.cit, Haag Bletter, 1986, p 28.
122
Op.cit, Haag Bletter, 1986, p 29.
125
which the figures of the dancers were projected at the same time of the
performance. The action was going to be doubled using a two-
dimensional screen and multimedia equipment. With this tool, the
image was going to be doubled with its virtual twin. Meanwhile Gehry
proposed a three-dimensional solution.
Figure 3. 49. Frank Gehry, Available Light, Stage Design, 1983.
He divided the stage into two parts; one was higher than the other. By
this way the dancers could use both parts of the stage doubling their
choreography. This example demonstrates the diverse methods of one
artist and one architect for the same conclusion.
This means, first, that an artist and an architect can be commissioned

for the same project, second, the collaboration that is done with a
dancer and a composer by Gehry shows us the wide range in which
these team efforts could be established, and finally, the important issue
turns out to be the two diverse methods directed to the same end from
126
the eyes of an artist and from the eyes of an architect. Gehry later stated
of this instance of collaboration:
“We wanted to make something that none of us would have done alone.
That is the essence of collaboration. When you agree to collaborate, you
agree to jump off a cliff holding hands with everyone, hoping the
resourcefulness of each will insure that you all land on your feet.”123
3.4.3. Collaboration with Sculptors
In the 1980s, Gehry’s horizons expanded, as did his awareness of artists

outside of Los Angeles and his references to diverse environments. In New
York, his friendships have evolved into memorable collaborations with
Richard Serra, Claes Oldenburg, and Coosje van Bruggen. At the same
time his office walls are covered with magazine clippings and post card
images of great historic works by such masters as Claus Sluter, Gentile
Bellini and Constantin Brancusi, artists who inspire him and, in subtle
ways, influence his architecture.124
Mildred Friedman, 2002
Collaboration with Richard Serra
As examined in the second chapter in detail, Richard Serra125 is known

as an American Minimalist sculptor. The collaboration of Serra and
Gehry are important because they were accomplished both in the fields
of art and architecture.
123
Op.cit., Haag Bletter, 1986, p 105.
124
Op.cit. Friedman, M., 2002, p 13.
125
Richard Serra was graduated from the University of California, Berkeley in 1961, and took his
BA in literature, and he finished Yale University in 1964 where he received his M.F.A.
127
Art Projects
Connections, New York, 1983
Figure 3. 50. Frank Gehry and Richard Serra, Connections.
According to Kurt Forster, the Connections project can be explained as:
“For an exhibition at the Architectural League of New York, Gehry and

Serra envisaged a link between the Chrysler Building and the twin towers
of the World Trade Center. A giant fish shaped pylon designed by Gehry
and the tilted pylon by Serra anchored this aerial bridge in the Hudson and
East Rivers.”126
126
Op.cit, Forster, 1998, p 11.
128
Frank Gehry states that for this exhibition Gehry and Serra have
decided to prepare a project together. He says, “After research and
discussion, we realized that everything was a bridge.”127 The design
process worked out with sharing ideas on different concepts and trying
to find out the counterparts of these ideas in the material world that
they work in. Gehry expressed:
“I am a great admirer of his work and have learned much from him. He, in
turn, has seemed curious about my work and occasionally appears to be
making gestures of approval as he wanders through my spaces.”128
In this collaboration the main aim was not producing an architectural

artifact. Instead, brainstorming on the possibilities of architecture and
combining it with sculptural shapes in realization was the main focus of
their work. Serra remarked:
“The structure spanned the skyline of Manhattan was puncturing the

Chrysler Building, which also functioned as its midway support. At the time
people called it utopian, Frank and I considered it to be practical. This was
one of the first examples of Frank using a fish to define structure.”129
Looking at two buildings from the eyes of an architect and an artist

made them re-evaluate these buildings in the urban fabric. The utopian
proposal was the most important outcome of this collaboration, which,
in my opinion, would not easily be accomplished without the teamwork
of an artist and an architect.
127
Ibid. p 194.
128
Op.cit, Arnell and Brickford, 1985, p 194.
129
Op.cit, Betchler, 1999, p 64.
129
Architectural Projects
Millennium Bridge, London, 1996
In October 1996, The Architect’s Journal announced the participants of

the competition for the Millennium Bridge, which was going to link the
City of London with the new Tate Gallery in Bankside.130The two
competing groups were composed of famous architects and sculptors.
Norman Foster collaborated with Antony Caro and Frank Gehry with
Richard Serra.
Figure 3. 51. Frank Gehry and Richard Serra, Millennium Bridge model, 1996.
130
“News In Pictures ”, Architect’s Journal, 1996, Oct.17,no.14,v. 204, p. 12-14.
130
Of their collaboration in the design of the Millennium Bridge across the
Thames River in London, Serra stated:
“We were asked to make a proposal for a footbridge across the Thames,
connecting St. Paul’s cathedral with the New Tate. We decided that the
main purpose of a footbridge across the Thames shouldn’t only be to
transport people from point A to point B. We proposed instead a bridge
where sociality was to be the dominant practical purpose.”131
“We curved the span of the bridge towards the New Tate and ended the
walkway of the bridge in a large-scale plaza above the river which would
permit for cultural and public events of all kinds.”132
Figure 3. 52. Millennium Bridge model.
Gehry stated that they have worked with Jörg Schlaich, who was a civil
engineer, for the design of the trusses. The importance of this
commission can be summarized as the teamwork of one artist, one
architect and one engineer in its design and realization.
131
Op.cit, Betchler, C., 1999, p 65.
132
Ibid.
131
Collaboration with Claes Oldenburg and Coosje Van Bruggen
The other artists who worked in art and architectural projects with
Frank Gehry are Claes Oldenburg and Coosje Van Bruggen. As stated
by Van Bruggen, Gehry believed in his collaboration with the artists.
The method that he believed in involved everybody putting an idea on
the table so that their collision in different contexts would produce the
most proper one.133 These artists also believed in the success of the
works that they produce in collaboration with Gehry. Van Bruggen
remarked:
“In our leap into the unknown, we relied on Frank to catch us if we fell…At
the same time we were determined not to set aside our personal interest in
fusing art and architecture, but to come up with the most challenging forms
we could, in the expectation that in the end this approach would yield the
most beneficial environment.”134
Oldenburgs see Gehry as an architect with a creative understanding of

art. Van Bruggen believes that he is working in the area that is located
at the intersection of science, art and architecture.135 She stresses that
Gehry is very open to changes and adjustments. His plastic forms can
be converted from one to another freely, just as the models of the artists
are open to transformation in every step of the design process.136
Due to the fact that they are also working on large-scale structures, their
work resembles that of architects due to considerations of material,
texture, color, structure, form and space.
133
Op.cit Van Bruggen, C., 1997, p 119.
134
Van Bruggen, Coosje, “Leaps Into The Unknown” in The Architecture of Frank Gehry, New
York: Rizzioli, 1986, p 133.
135
Ibid. p 125.
136
Ibid. p 129.
132
Figure 3. 53. Claes Oldenburg, Coosje Van Bruggen, Bottle, 1982.
Van Bruggen explains:
“Since 1976 Oldenburg and I have been working jointly on realizing large-
scale outdoor projects…Like architects, we had to take into account
building codes, earthquake and hurricane regulations, and questions of
structural design and engineering, all of which affected the sculpture we
wanted to make…In a process much like the one architects follow in
designing a building, models are constructed, then modified and often
discarded before the final design is achieved. Calculations by structural
engineers are needed, and because of the size and permanence, the pieces
must be fabricated by a contractor. At this stage the artist works through
other people, just as an architect does in overseeing the construction of a
house. However, there is a crucial difference: the artwork is not lived in.
Habitability, in fact, is the primary obstacle to the transformation of art into
convincing architecture.” 137
137
Ibid. 124-125.
133
According to Van Bruggen, the integration of art and architecture is
achievable on the common basis of scale and structure in their work.
Both Gehry and Oldenburgs use the CATIA computer program in order
to realize their work like Richard Serra. The design steps that are
followed in a comparable way could be interpreted as the work of the
artists that carry architectonic qualities that create spaces, that move
their art towards architecture. Meanwhile, architecture which is also
involved with form, structure and space, could learn from large-scale
sculptures.
Architectural Projects
Camp Good Times, Malibu, California, 1984-1985
Figure 3. 54. Frank Gehry, Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen, Camp Good Times,
Santa Monica Mountains, Malibu, California, 1984-1985.
134
Mildred Friedman points out to the active collaboration between
Oldenburg and Gehry. Examining the project of Camp Good Times
(1984-1985), for the design process of the project she quotes from
Gehry when he says:
“The Oldenburgs came to my office daily for two weeks. They just sat there
and watched me work, watched what an architect does. Claes made models
of his own. The question of whether the camp would be architecture or art
never was asked. We wanted to blur the lines.”138
She continues with the consequences of this teamwork, underlining the

fact that the Oldenburgs’ sculpture became architectural and Gehry’s
architecture became sculptural at the end of this collaboration. The
notions of architecture and sculpture were melted in the same pot in
order to reach a unity in their work. Van Bruggen stated:
“As we visited his office, we came to understand Gehry’s desire to make “a

stronger sculptural statement of the shell,” a concept which converged with
Oldenburg’s idea of enlarging stereotypical objects to an architectural
scale.”139
She specifies the keywords for their collaboration: the mediation

between “abstraction” and “thingness”.140 When they agree on common
facts, the most important part is the communication between Frank
Gehry and the Oldenburgs. The brainstorming on the forms and
functions enriches the final product. Gehry starts to see an everyday
object from a different scale, which makes him re-evaluate their forms
and ultimately gain inspiration from them.
138
Op.cit, Friedman, 1986,p 101.
139
Van Bruggen, C.,1986, p 128.
140
Ibid. p 140.
135
Figure 3. 55. Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen, Torn notebook, 1993.
An ordinary notebook page could thus turn out to be an inspiration for

using bending materials for the planes of his buildings. Similar to
Gehry, the Oldenburgs look at the technical process of structuring and
realizing the plastic forms that he had imagined.
The Chiat/Day Building, Venice, California, 1985-1991
Claes and Coosje came out to study it and felt very comfortable with it
there. So we are not working on the redesign of it, to incorporate the
binocular form into the entrance building, making it a functional, usable
space. It takes us back to the things we were working on in the Camp Good
Times, and continues the process of our working together.141
Frank Gehry, 1986

141
Ibid. p 153.
136
Figure 3. 56. Chiat/Day Building, plan.
Figure 3. 57. Claes Oldenburg designing the interior of the binocular.
Figure 3. 58. Chiat/Day Building, exterior.
137
The Chiat/Day Building is an office building, which is mostly known
for its binoculars. From the beginning of the project, Gehry was
planning to realize the project in three separate parts. When the middle
part was going to be designed, he wanted to create a striking entrance.
During his trials, he thought of Oldenburg to whom he might ask for a
proposal. He called Oldenburg and the collaboration has started. He
stated:
“We sent all the pictures to Claes and Coosje, and they loved it. Then they
started working on it…I helped them with the construction of it, how to do
it, and got it built as part of the building. At that time there were many
symposiums about art and architecture collaborations and nobody was really
doing anything. So this looked pretty interesting to me. I had headed the
public artist Siah Armajani talking about how artists are always in the
background and I thought it would be interesting to see what would happen
if an artist were really a part of the building process. We had all the interiors
designed by ten artists. We had Kenny Price doing the bathrooms and Billy
Al Bengston doing the carpets. Mike Kelly did two conference rooms.”142
This project, which is famous for its sculptural entrance, is an

interesting example to examine the relationship between art and
architecture in the late twentieth century. Even if the definition of
sculpture is not the same as it was in the beginning of this century in
today’s world, the process of unification between sculpture and
architecture is perceivable with an alternative method in this model.
142
Op.cit., Friedman, M.,2002, p 60.
138
CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION
In this thesis, the main objective was examining the interaction of three
arts: architecture, painting and sculpture. Starting with their locations in
the historical tree of knowledge and examining them in the historical
environment, their interaction was studied in detail. In search for a
dialogue between the arts, the dialogue between artists and architects
was elaborated.
Departing from the contemporary examples of “architectural sculpture”

and “sculptural architecture”, the status of the arts in the late twentieth
century was the center of discussion. Being aware of the fact that every
artwork is an object with design whereas every design is not
necessarily an artwork, the survey was based on the search for an
architecture which is created with an approach to design as art.
Frank Gehry’s work was selected as the case study because his
architecture is close to the condition of art with its expressive quality. It
reflects the spirit of its age through the senses of the architect.
139
He expresses that he wants to be the great master in architecture like in
the ancient times. Thus, the relevancy of starting with examples of
classical architecture in which buildings were artworks and finishing
with a contemporary architect’s work that is close to the classical
understanding of art should not be disregarded.
When Gehry’s architecture approached the realm of art, his

relationships with art gained importance. In the historical times, the
architect had to be an artist. Architecture, which was close to the
condition of art, was formed through intra-disciplinary studies, which
placed the architect at the center. Thus, the interaction of art with
architecture is different than its counterpart in the contemporary era. In
Frank Gehry’s case, the inter-disciplinary work creates the architect as
the coordinator of the projects instead of the one who is responsible
from the work alone. Therefore, being influenced from the artworks
and being in close relationship with the artists are the options of the
modern architect for designing his project as an artwork. In Frank
Gehry’s work, it is possible to observe the effects of collaboration with
artists that resulted in radical changes in his architecture.
Some of the artists who influenced his work were Robert

Rauschenberg, John Cage and Joseph Albers. These three artists were
together in the Black Mountain School in North Carolina. Founded in
1933 and continued its experimental education until early 1950s, the
school was a reaction to the traditional schools of the time. Its core was
the assumption that a strong liberal and fine arts education must happen
inside and outside the classroom. Black Mountain School created an
environment open to the interdisciplinary work that was to
140
143
revolutionize the arts and sciences of its time. The innovative
approaches of these artists had a deep effect on Gehry. When he
brought revolutionary approaches to his work -like in Guggenheim
Bilbao Museum-, Rauschenberg stated, “Tradition was his enemy.
Throughout the architectural challenges he confronts, the concepts and
results always are audacious and new.”144
In Gehry’s projects, the liberation from orthogonal, pure geometrical

forms is not only because of his interaction with art. Further, the
computer technology enables Gehry to create and realize his
characteristic forms which can be dispersed in all directions. Gehry’s
work became popular with the usage of CATIA computer program that
is commonly used by aircraft engineers. His spaces are enveloped by
planes, which do not only function as space enclosure elements but
also, give a conscious sculptural effect to the spectator. His aim is not
creating space due to its fundamental necessities. His spaces are
surrounded by organic planes –more than needed-, which are layered
onto each other. In order to generate a striking effect from the exterior
the architect uses clothing forming the boundaries of the building. In
the interior this dramatic effect is replaced by the free-flow among the
spaces from which the exterior cannot easily be perceived.
The complex forms that can easily be built with the help of the digital
technology enable Gehry to sculpt and construct his buildings both like
and artist and an engineer. Thus, the influences from art and science in
143
Available on http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/black_mountain_college.html
(January 11, 2004)
144
Op.cit. Betchler, C., 1999, p 39.
141
his work, affected the development of a unique, sculptural quality in his
work.
The consequence of interdisciplinary interaction is the improvement in

the quality of the product. The two values –one coming from art and
the other coming from the functional requirements of architecture- are
enhanced in the conclusion. For instance, in Gehry’s work, the
expressive quality that grows out of architecture as art is unified with
technical features that take root in architecture as a building science.
The architect is inspired from artists and from engineers in creating his
own vocabulary. Basically, the ideas, techniques and innovative
approaches of the artists were the main concerns that influenced his
architecture to assume a quality where categorical definitions melted
into each other. Thus, his architecture trespassed its boundaries and
interdisciplinary relations became productive activities.
Gehry’s architecture was compared to Mies van der Rohe’s work in the
third chapter. The main reason for this comparison was, demonstrating
the diverse approaches of two architects who cross beyond the
traditional definition of architecture and create a new way of design in
relation with the artworks. Beyond their different techniques and styles,
one issue was common in their work: the sculptural organization of
functional areas. The abilities of the construction materials and the
aesthetic quality of details in their products appear as facts to examine
these different examples together. Consequently it can be stated that
there are no rules in the art of architecture. There is not only one way
of approaching to the condition of art for architecture in relation with
art and science. Both Mies van der Rohe and Frank Gehry are artists in
142
architecture whose work carry different sculptural and technical
qualities.
Frank Gehry is an architect whose collaboration with artists has a deep

impact on his work. For instance, Thomas Fisher discusses the art
projects, which were handled by artists and architects including Antony
Caro, John Isherwood, Frank Gehry, Alison and Peter Smithson and
William McDonough in 1987, in The Triangle Workshop.145 Fisher’s
aim was examining the products of the collaboration when he noted:
“William McDonough imposed an architectural order on the art. He gave a

structure a program, a site reference…Frank Gehry on the other hand,
didn’t imposes his own order, but derived one from the art itself. Sculptors
Antony Caro and John Isherwood both described Gehry’s contribution as
one of taking the large-scale pieces that they and Sheila Girling had begun
to construct and arranging them as plastic sculptures, like in his buildings,
creating the individual spaces of the artworks relating to one another.”146
With the aim of underlining the success of this workshop in which

artists and architects are in direct contact on the creation and
production process, John Isherwood confirmed:
“We (artists) typically look at an object and the immediate space around it.
Frank Gehry showed our group how the objects related to each other and
the buildings and the landscape around them.”147
“The one common ground of the architects and artists was dealing with the
pure aspects of design, moving around forms and spaces. We have learned a
lot from the architects. Their practice informed us how creative an architect
145
Fischer, Thomas, “The (Dis)unity of The Arts”, Progressive Architecture, 1988, Feb., v.69, no.2,
p.25. Antony Caro and Richard Loder who invited the architects to work with the artists on common
commissions, were the founders of the Triangle Wrokshop, established in 1982 in America.
146
Ibid.
147
Ibid., p 26.
143
can be. There, we all spoke the same language and had the same
feelings.”148
In developing his characteristic forms, Frank Gehry is involved in a

process similar the one of the artist. He creates shapes out of paperback
models, wooden frames and clay samples, which are composed to form
harmonious masses. After the rational organization of the functional
areas, extra planes and surfaces are added to the composition, until he
feels that his design is mature enough. Thus it is possible to observe
that Frank Gehry is not designing in order to satisfy the needs of a
building in minimum. Instead, looking at the artworks and working
with their designers, he tries to depart from the conventional definition
and economy of architecture. Hence, due to the interaction with visual
arts, his architecture was transformed into sculptural architecture, an
urban artwork.
It can be concluded that, through the case study of Frank Gehry’s work,
the relationship between art and architecture came to light. It is obvious
that Gehry crosses the limits of his discipline with the guidance of art.
Disciplines interact and in the outcome boundaries are blurred into

each other. Limits are constrained and further steps are taken due to the
proficiencies of art and architecture that are in a close relationship with
each other. In light of the research that was conducted for this thesis, it
is determined that the disciplinary potentials are multiplied in the
dialogue between the arts.
148
Ibid.
144
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THE EFFECTS OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RELATIONS ON ARCHITECTURE:

A CASE STUDY FRANK GEHRY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

Prof. Dr. Canan Özgen

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Selahattin Önür

Prof. Dr. Jale N. Erzen

Examining Committee Members:

Prof. Dr. Jale N. Erzen

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Aydan Balamir

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nur Çağlar

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdi Güzer

Inst. Dr. Namık Günay Erkal

THE EFFECTS OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RELATIONS ON

January 2004, 151 pages

This thesis is an inquiry into the debates about the relationships

How does Frank Gehry’s architecture approach to the condition of art?

Key Words: Architecture, Painting, Sculpture, Minimalist Art,

DİSİPLİNLERARASI İLİŞKİLERİN MİMARLIK ÜZERİNDEKİ

Ocak 2004, 151 sayfa

Bu tez, mimarlık, resim, ve heykel sanatları arasındaki ilişkiyi,

Bahsedilen sanat eserlerinden etkilenen mimarlar arasında Frank Gehry

Frank Gehry’nin mimarlığı, sanat eseri olma durumuna nasıl

Anahtar Kelimeler: Mimarlık, Resim, Heykel, Minimal Sanat, Frank

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Jale N.

And finally, I would like to extend my deepest appreciation to my

2. IN SEARCH OF A DIALOGUE BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE

3. IN SEARCH OF A DIALOGUE BETWEEN ARCHITECTS AND

3.2. Case Study: Guggenheim Bilbao Museum…………………...82

3.3. Influence of Visual Arts on Frank Gehry’s Work…………..100

3.3.1. Interaction with Painting………………………………103

3.3.2. Interaction with Sculpture……………………………..110

3.4. Frank Gehry’s Collaboration with Artists…………………...116

3.4.1. Collaboration with Painters……………………………122

3.4.2. Collaboration with Choreographers…………………...125

3.4.3. Collaboration with Sculptors………………………….127

4. CONCLUSION: THE ARCHITECTURE OF INTERACTION.139

2.1.Francis Bacon’s Diagram, early 17th Century………………….. 11

2.2.Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert’s Diagram,

2.3. Santa Maria Novella Cathedral, Florence, c.1279-c.1470, exterior.

2. 4. Santa Maria Novella Cathedral, interior.

2. 5. Santa Maria Novella Cathedral, interior.

2. 6. Duomo, Siena, c.1250-c.1400, exterior.

2. 7. Duomo, Siena, interior.

2. 8. Duomo, Siena, ceiling.

2. 10. Duomo, Siena, stained glass windows, interior.

2. 11. Duomo, Siena, detail from the façade.

2. 12. Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, c.1299-1500s, exterior.

2. 13. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, courtyard.

2. 14. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, room.

2. 15. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, room.

2. 16. Palazzo Vecchio, interior, hall.

2. 17. Loggia Della Signoria, Florence, c.1376-c.1381, exterior.

2. 18. Loggia Della Signoria, exterior.

2. 21. Medici Chapel, interior.

2. 22. Medici Chapel, interior, detail.

2. 23. Medici Chapel, sketches of the statues.

2. 24. Medici Chapel, interior, detail.

2. 25. Piazza St Peter’s, Vatikan, Roma, c 1546-1590.

2. 26. Piazza St Peter’s.

2. 27. Piazza St Peter’s, detail from the colonnade.

2. 28. S Agnese Church, Piazza Navona, Rome c. 1653-c.1655,

2. 29. The façade of St Agnese with Bernini’s sculpture “The Four

2. 30. St Agnese, interior.

2. 31. Fountain of Trevi, Rome, c 1730-1740.