Eleph Ant Carrying Capacity of Odisha's Forests: Asian Nature Conserva On Founda On

Elephant Carrying Capacity
of Odisha's Forests
Final Report submitted to Odisha Forest Department
Asian Nature Conserva on Founda on

c/o Centre for Ecological Sciences
3rd Floor, Biological Sciences Building
Indian Ins tute of Science
Bangalore-560 012. INDIA.
January 2018
Elephant Carrying Capacity
of Odisha's Forests
Principal Inves gator

Prof. R. Sukumar
Team members
Dr. Chanchal Kr. Sar,

Ratan Ku. Jena,
Sunipa Cha erjee,
S Ashisdan Francis Ishmael,
Dr. H S Suresh,
Aritra Kshe ry,
Beependra Singh
&
Dr. Muk Roy
Final Report Submitted to Odisha Forest Department
Asian Nature Conserva on Founda on

c/o Centre for Ecological Sciences
3rd Floor, Biological Sciences Building
Indian Ins tute of Science
Bangalore-560 012. INDIA.
January 2018
Suggested Citation:
Sukumar, R., Sar, C.K., Jena, R. K., Chatterjee, S., Ishmael, S. A. F., Suresh, H. S., Kshettry, A.,
Singh, B., and Roy, M. (2018). Elephant carrying capacity of Odisha’s forests. Final report
submitted to Odisha Forest Department. Asian Nature Conservation Foundation. c/o Centre for
Ecological Sciences, 3rd floor, Biological Sciences Building, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560012. INDIA.
© ANCF and Odisha Forest Department

Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the Forest and Environment Department, Government of Odisha, for awarding
the Research Project to us. We wish to record our thanks to the staff of Odisha Forest
Department; particularly the staff of Wildlife Wing for the help and cooperation extended by them,
during the field study and in collecting official data from the different state government offices. We
would like to express our deep gratitude particularly to Dr. Sandeep Tripathi, PCCF (Wildlife)
and Chief Wildlife Warden, Govt. of Odisha; Mr. J D Sharma, Ex PCCF, Odisha Forest
Department; Mr. S S Srivastava, Ex PCCF, Odisha Forest Department; Mr. Siddhanta Das, DG-
Forest, Govt. of India, and Ex PCCF (Wildlife), Govt. of Odisha, Mr. H K Bisht, Addl. PCCF
(Wildlife), Govt. of Odisha, Dr. S Panda, RCCF Angul, for their help during the course of the
study. We are thankful to Dr. Debabrata Swain, ADG (Project Tiger) and Member Secretary,
National Tiger Conservation Authority, New Delhi, for his encouragement during the study. We are
thankful to all the Divisional Forest Officers for their help in collecting field information.
We are also thankful to the staff of the forest department who accompanied us on our field trips.
We also express our thanks to Mr. Nimain C Palei and Mr. Bhakta P Rath of Wildlife Office,
Bhubaneswar, for their help. We thank Ms Lata Iyer for her guidance in the GIS component of the study
and to Ms Upasana Sarraju for her help in editing this report. We would like to express our thanks to our driver
Mr. Deepak Behera for driving us for long hours safely through the roads and forests of Odisha.
- AUTHORS
- DISCLAIMER
The maps and computed areas in this report are not always based on geo-referred sources or
shape files. They are meant to be indicative rather than accurate spatial representations of
geographical areas.
i
Contents
Sl. No. Chapter Page

Number
Acknowledgments i
Disclaimer i
Contents (Chapters, Tables, Maps & Figures) ii
Chapter - 1 Introduction 1-2
Chapter - 2 The Study Area 3-23
Chapter - 3 Elephant Population and Distribution Patterns 24-54
Chapter - 4 Vegetation of Elephant Reserves in Odisha 55-70
Chapter - 5 Elephant Corridors in Odisha 71-92
Chapter - 6 Intra and Interstate Movement or Range Shift of Elephant Herds 93-97
Chapter - 7 Elephant-Human Interactions in Odisha 98

- 106
Chapter - 8 Elephant Feeding Habits 107-125

Chapter - 9 Recommended Extension of Elephant Reserves in Odisha 126-134
Chapter 10 Carrying Capacity of Elephants in Odisha's Forests

and Recommendations for Management 135-142
References 143-151
ii
Contents
List of Tables
Table No. Page
Number
2.1 Land–use pattern of Odisha based on FSI reports 7

2.2 Total extent of different forest types in Odisha (Reddy et al. 2009) 9
2.3 Supervised classification of different land-use systems in Odisha
(data from PS Roy, IIRS, Dehradun) 9
2.4 Area under different forest density categories, according to
estimates of Forest Survey of India 10
2.5 Vegetation types of Odisha (based on Forest Survey of India classification) 11
2.6 Summary of the NDVI trends inside the forested areas of Odisha 16
2.7 Summary of the NDVI trend outside the non-forested region of Odisha 17
2.8 Summary of fire datasets used for Odisha 17
2.9 Structure and comparative decadal growth of human population in Odisha 19
3.1 Elephant population distribution since inception of census in Odisha 24
3.2 Percentage of changes & growth rate of East-Central Indian elephant population. 26
3.3 Changes in elephant presence in the East-Central Indian landscape
during 2001-2017 28
3.4 Elephant population in Chhattisgarh. 28
3.5 Elephant population in Jharkhand 29
3.6 Elephant population of South Bengal. (R-Resident, M-Migratory) 29
3.7 Elephant presence in relation to vegetation cover types in different
Forest Divisions of Odisha. 30
3.8 Details of Elephant Reserves in Odisha with elephants covered in
2015 & 2017 Censuses 33
3.9 Details of notified & proposed Elephant Reserves, with area and elephant
numbers -2015 34
3.10 Details of notified & proposed Elephant Reserves, with area and elephant
numbers -2017. 34
3.11 Forest Division wise elephant distribution in Odisha since 1997 to recent census. 36
3.12 Summary of elephant deaths in Odisha from 2011-12 to 2015-16 41
3.13 Summary of elephant deaths in Odisha based on causes of death from
2011-12 to 2015-16 41
iii
Contents
List of Tables
Table No. Page
Number
4.1 Area under different vegetation types in the three notified Elephant
Reserves of Odisha. Figures in parenthesis indicate the percent area
occupied to the total forested area. (Data from LISS III) 56
4.2 Dominant species at the Mahanadi Elephant Reserve (Data from field sampling) 57
4.3 Dominant species at the dry deciduous forests of Mahanadi ER
(Data from field sampling) 58
4.4 Dominant species in moist deciduous forests of Mahanadi ER
4.5 Dominant tree species at the Mayurbhanj ER (Data from field sampling) 59
4.6 Dominant tree species at the dry deciduous forests of Mayurbhanj ER
4.7 Dominant tree species at the moist deciduous forests of Mayurbhanj ER
4.8 Dominant species at the Sambalpur Elephant Reserve (Data from field sampling) 61
4.9 Dominant species at the dry deciduous forests of Sambalpur ER
4.10 Dominant species at the moist deciduous forests of Sambalpur ER
4.11 Community level diversity parameters of the three Elephant Reserves
4.12 Diversity parameters of dry deciduous forests of different elephant reserves
4.13 Diversity parameters of moist deciduous forests of the three Elephant Reserves
4.14 Top ranking families in floristics of elephant reserves in Odisha. 66
4.15 Elephant forage species in different reserves (data from field sampling) 66
4.16 Abundance, basal area & biomass of dominant elephant forage tree species
in Sambalpur elephant reserve. Figures in parenthesis indicate % contribution 67
4.17 Abundance, basal area and biomass of dominant elephant forage species in the
Mahanadi Elephant Reserve. (Figures in parenthesis indicate % contribution) 67.
4.18 Abundance, basal area & biomass of dominant elephant preferred species in the
Mayurbhanj elephant reserve. (Figures in parenthesis indicate % contribution). 68
iv
Contents
List of Tables
Table No. Page
Number
4.19 Abundance, Basal area and biomass of elephant forage species from different
elephant reserves of Odisha (species are arranged in alphabetical order
irrespective of their abundances) (Abundance is number of individuals
encountered during enumeration). 69
5.1 Elephant corridors with their functional existence and ecological feasibility. 72
5.2 Corridors listed in the Right of Passage. 80
5.3 Elephant population of Parlakhemundi Forest Division since inception
of elephant census. 83
6.1 No. of elephants invaded from West Bengal into Odisha in different years. 97
8.1 Top 20 plant species consumed by elephants in forests
(Mahanadi, Similipal and Khurda forest areas) of Odisha, based on 3595
observations / bite records of feeding on any plant part 109
8.2 Plant species most consumed by elephants in Odisha forest areas
(Mahanadi, Similipal and Khurda Forest areas) during the summer season 110
8.3 Plants consumed by elephants during wet and dry seasons at Mahanadi WLS 111
8.4 Fruits eaten by elephants as recorded from presence of seeds in elephant dung 112
8.5 Browse and Grass ratio in the diet of elephants recorded from feeding trails 114
8.6 Details of vegetation plots sampled, extent of area and tree species density,
diversity, richness, biomass, & basal area of ERs in addition to bamboo
abundance. 121
8.7 Details of shrub plots sampled, extent of area and frequency of shrubs per
10 square metres. 121
9.1 Details of notified & proposed Elephant Reserves, with area and
elephant numbers -2017. 126
2
9.2 Notified & recommended area in km (by ANCF) with numbers of elephant
(2017) in Mahanadi & Sambalpur Elephant Reserves 127
9.3 Division-wise breakup of recommended extension area (km2 ) for
Sambalpur & Mahanadi ERs with elephant population. 127
10.1 Decision making matrix. 140
v
Contents
List of Maps
Map No. Page
Number
2.1 Location of Odisha in India with notified Elephant Reserves. 3

2.2 Elevation of Odisha with notified Elephant Reserves 4
2.3 Average maximum temperature map of Odisha -2015. 5
2.4 Average rainfall map of Odisha -2015. 5
2.5 Vegetation covers of Odisha (Ref. Vegetation and Land-use cover –IIRS,
Dehradun) 7
2.6 Vegetation types and Land-use classes of Odisha, 2011(IIRS, Dehradun). 10
2.7 Spatial distribution of vegetation anomalies for each year (during 1999-2013)
in Odisha 14
2.8 Spatial distribution of NDVI change in the forested areas between 1999 & 2013
based on the slope of 1-km SPOT VGT 15
2.9 Spatial distribution of NDVI change in the non-forested area between 1999 and
2013 based on the slope of 1-km SPOT VGT 16
2.10 Spatial pattern of forest fire incidents in Odisha (2001-2016) 18
2.11 Concentration of human population and the distribution of elephants. 20
3.1 Ecological density of elephants from 2007 -2015 censuses. 25
3.2 Ecological density of elephants, 2017 Census 25
3.3 Spatial distribution of elephants in the East-Central Indian landscape 27
3.4 Distribution of forest fragmentation in Odisha. 35
3.5 Changes in elephant population distribution from 1979 to 2017 38
4.1 Supervised classification of vegetation of Mahanadi Elephant Reserve
(Data from LISS III) 57
4.2 Supervised classification of vegetation of Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve
(Data from LISS III). 59
4.3 Supervised classification of vegetation of Sambalpur Elephant Reserve
(Data from LISS III). 61
5.1 Location map of identified corridors in Odisha –
(Source: - Odisha Wildlife Department) 72
vi
Contents
List of Maps
Map No. Page
Number
5.2 Vegetation cover and Land use pattern in the landscape between Mahanadi
and Sambalpur ER (LISS-III 2015, NRSC) 73
5.3 Fragmentation index map between Mahanadi and Sambalpur ER
(LISS-III, 2015, NRSC) (Soft “CLER TOOL” Univ. of Connecticut, USA) 74
5.4 Location of surveyed grids between Mahanadi and Sambalpur ER 74
5.5 Elephant distribution pattern in different grids based on signs / km 75
5.6 Elephant crossing locations on SH-62. 75
5.7 Elephant crossing points near Manjhor irrigation project area. 76
5.8 Elephant crossing locations near Kiakata area. 76
5.9 Elephant crossing locations near Madhupur area. 77
5.10 Elephant crossing locations on NH-42 (55) and on rail track in between
Rairakhol & Charmal 77
5.11 Elephant crossing locations on NH-42 (55) and on rail track in between
Rairakhol & Bamur 77
5.12 Location of Hadgarh – Kuldiha corridor and presence of stone quarries 79
5.13 Surveyed grids on elephant corridor with presence & absence of elephant signs 80
5.14 Location of Lakhary Valley WLS and Mahendragiri hills in Google Earth map 82
6.1 Recorded elephant movements inside Odisha 93
6.2 Interstate elephant movement in the East-Central Indian landscape 96
7.1 Percentage of crop damaged by elephants in the forest divisions of Odisha 104
7.2 Forest Fragmentation in the high conflict region of Central Odisha 105
7.3 Comparison of intensity of crop damage and elephant density in the high
conflict landscape of central Odisha; green areas represent varying densities
of elephants within forested areas, gradient from yellow to brown
represent increasing quantum of crop damage due to elephants 106
9.1 Notified area and recommended area of extension for MER and SER with
the connecting landscape 128
9.2 Notified area and recommended area of extension with locations of
forest beats of S.E.R 128
9.3 Notified area and recommended area of extension with the locations of
forest beats of M.E.R 129
vii
Contents
List of Figures
Figure No. Page
Number
2.1 Annual average rainfall of Odisha during 1999-2013

(Source: IMD and Directorate of Statistics & Economics) 15
2.2 Incidents of fire in entire Odisha (2001-2016) 18
3.1 Relationship between % of recorded forest area and density of elephant 32
3.2 Relationship between % of vegetation cover and density of elephant 32
3.3 Relationship between % of Moist Deciduous vegetation and density of elephant 32
3.4 Relationship between % of Dry Deciduous vegetation and density of elephant. 33
3.5 Elephant population trend in Angul area 37
3.6 Elephant population trend in Baripada area 37
3.7 Elephant population trend in Bamra (Sambalpur) area 38
3.8 Elephant population trend in Odisha from 1979 to 2015 38
3.9 Trend of elephant population in Odisha from 1999 to 2017 39
3.10 Elephant deaths during 2011-12 to 2016-17 (n=435) 41
4.1 Frequency of individuals and basal area across different size classes
in the Mahanadi Elephant Reserve 64
in the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve 65
in the Sambalpur elephant reserve 65
7.1 Year-wise human casualty due to elephants in Odisha 101
7.2 Year-wise crop damage (acres) and house damage (number of buildings)
due to elephants in Odisha 102
7. 3 Comparison of elephant population size, human mortality due to
elephants and elephant mortality in Odisha 102
7.4 Mean number of annual human casualties due to elephants between
2011 and 2016 in the forest divisions of Odisha 103
7.5 Mean annual acreage of crop damaged by elephants between
2011 and 2016 in the forest divisions of Odisha 104
8.1. Percentage of plant parts consumed by elephants at Mahanadi WLS,
Similipal National Park and Khurda FD during the dry season 111
8.2 Percentage of plant parts eaten by elephant during the wet and dry
seasons at Mahanadi WLS 112
8.3 Tree density (number per ha) recorded in ERs of Odisha with respect to
abundance of elephant forage plant. 122
8.4 Tree biomass (ton /ha) recorded in ERs of Odisha with respect to
abundance of elephant forage plants 122
10.1 Carrying capacity as an asymptote to a logistic curve 135
viii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
The state of Odisha, covers an area of 1,55,707 km2 (amounting to 4.74% of India's landmass),
and is home to 4,19,74,218 people (Census Organization of India 2011). The state also shelters an
estimated 1976 Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), accounting for 7% of India's elephant
population (Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (MoEF & CC 2017). Within the
state's forested area of 58,136 km2, this genetically viable population is distributed over an area of
about 15,000 km2 This comprises of forested lands under the control of forest and revenue departments,
as well as forested or cultivation lands that are privately owned. The recorded forest area in
Odisha forms 37.3% of the state's geographical area and 7.6% of the country's total forested area.
For the administrative organisation, Odisha is divided into 30 civil districts, with forest
administrative divisions comprising of 37 Territorial Forest Divisions and 13 Wildlife Divisions. Of
these 50 administrative forest divisions, elephants were reported in 37 of them, spread over 28 civil
districts of Odisha (MoEF & CC 2017). The state also has 19 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 13 of which
harbour elephants.
Elephant-human conflicts have been on the rise in Odisha in recent times. Between 1995–96 and
2004–05 human casualties of elephant-human conflict averaged 28 people per year, while area of
crop damage (of crops like paddy, banana, sugar cane and finger millet) due to the conflict
averaged 2016 acres per year. In the past decade (2006–2015) however, about 50 human lives have been
lost annually due to elephant attacks and, a similar number of retaliatory elephant deaths have
occurred. Additionally, about 3300 acres of paddy crop were damaged by elephants each year.
This kind of conflict has increased further in the past five years (2011–12 to 2015–16) resulting in
about 65 deaths annually due to elephant attacks; 32 out of 71 reported annual elephants deaths
were caused by poaching, poisoning, electrocution and other unknown reasons. Crop damage
increased to 13,632 acres per year between 2011–12 and 2015–16. Conflict has increased due to
various causes like extensive mining (which boomed 2004–2010 periods), infrastructure
development, and implementation of Forest Rights Act (2006) leading to forest fragmentation.
With the exception of Similipal Biosphere Reserve, most forested areas of Odisha are severely
fragmented and impacted by human activities. Management and conservation of this long-
ranging mega-herbivore thus poses a great challenge to the forest administration. To address the
issue of severe elephant-human conflicts, the state government commissioned a study on 'the
elephant-carrying-capacity of Odisha's forests', to improve measures for habitat management,
identification of corridors, conflict mitigation, and elephant management at the landscape-level.
1.1 Background of the Project and TOR with the Forest Department
At the 2nd meeting held on 6th December 2011, the Odisha State Board for Wildlife desired that a
study of 'elephant carrying-capacity of elephant habitats of the state' be carried out to address the
sharp increase in human-elephant conflict (loss of human life, crop damage, damage to houses,
and elephant deaths) in the recent years and the range extension of elephants to where they were not
previously present. Accordingly, the state forest department announced an open call for
proposals in May 2012 for such a study. Following up on the proposal after several negotiations on
budgets and other working modalities the project was finalized in 2013. Based on the technical
merits of the proposals received, the Odisha State Government signed an MoU with Asian Nature
Conservation Foundation (based at Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560012) on 22 February 2014 with the following Terms of Reference. Both parties agreed
that the following objectives were to be addressed in this assignment.
1.2 Objectives
1. To assess the elephant carrying-capacity of the forests of Odisha in terms of viable
1
habitats, corridors, and approximate elephant densities and data that can be supported.
2. To map in detail the forests of Odisha where elephants are distributed, especially the
forested landscapes of the following declared Elephant Reserves: Mayurbhanj Elephant
Reserve, Sambalpur Elephant Reserve, and Mahanadi Elephant Reserve, as well as make
a probable map of the Brahmani-Baitrani and South Odisha elephant landscapes.
3. Characterize patterns of vegetation and land-use as well as extent of habitat
fragmentation within these landscapes.
4. Identify the major and minor elephant corridors within and across these landscapes with
special reference to the Lakhery Valley – Mahendragiri region.
5. Assess vegetation status with respect to the common forage species used by elephants
from existing knowledge of elephant feeding-preferences as well as from field data.
6. Study the patterns of elephant densities and numbers across the forests of Odisha, and
interpret the major large-scale movements in recent decades, including the dispersal of
elephants from south of the Mahanadi to the north, and from Chandaka to the Behrampur
Forest Division.
7. To map the intensity of elephant-human conflicts across Odisha.
8. To suggest the measures to improve the carrying-capacity to support optimum population
of elephants in the state.
1.3 Deliverables
1. Recommendations for management of the elephant populations of Odisha based on
assessment of habitats, corridors and carrying-capacity.
2. A GIS database of the elephant habitats and reserves of Odisha.
3. An assessment of habitat viability for elephants and ground- truthing of important
corridors.
4. Detailed documentation of and recommendation for restoration of the region between
Lakhery Valley and Mahendragiri corridor.
1.4 Carrying-capacity
The main objective of the project is to assess the elephant carrying-capacity of the forests of
Odisha in terms of viable habitats, corridors and elephant densities that can be supported. It is,
therefore, important to understand the concept of carrying-capacity of a particular environment
or habitat for a species. In the present study, the species is the elephant, a national heritage animal
and a flagship species for conservation of landscapes. Broadly, the number of elephants that can
be sustainably supported within the forest areas of Odisha without negative transformation of the
natural habitat and with minimal levels of conflict with humans outside forests represents the
carrying-capacity of the region. This issue is addressed in the last chapter along with broad
recommendations for the management and conservation of the elephant population of Odisha.
1.5 Interim reports
In accordance with the terms of the MoU, at the end of the first year of the project in February 2016,
an interim report was submitted that described the work completed in the period April
2014–March 2015. PCCF (Wildlife) in this letter dated 2 April 2016 noted some deficiencies in
the interim report and requested that these points be addressed in the report. Accordingly, a
revised interim report was submitted on September 2016, that described the field work carried
out between April 2015 and January 2016.
2
CHAPTER 2
The Study Area
2.1 Location
Odisha is situated in the east-central region of India within 170 47' to 220 34' N and 810 22' to 870
29' E (Census of India, 1991), bounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east, Andhra Pradesh in the
south and south-east, Chhattisgarh in the west, Jharkhand in the north and West Bengal in the
north-east corner and is located in the northeast of peninsular India (Map 2.1).
Map 2.1 Location of Odisha in India with notified Elephant Reserves
2.2 Area
The State has a geographical area of 1,55,707 km2 with a recorded forest cover of 58,136 km2
(Odisha Forest Department 2016) (36.73% forestcover of the total geographical area). Out of the total
area 97.85% is rural and 2.15% is urban, according to 2011 census (Census of India, 2011). The
state had 223 towns in 2011, whereas it had only 14 in 1901. The State's geographical area
constitutes 4.7% of the country's total geographical area. Since 1951 the boundary (jurisdiction) of
the State has been changed several times. Since 1981 the area is constant at 1,55,707 km2. The
state is divided into 30 Civil Districts, and according to the forest administration it has been divided
into 37 territorial Forest Divisions (FDs), 13 wildlife Divisions, and two Tiger Reserves and one
zoological park at Nandankanan under a separate administrative set up, one National Park at
Bhitarkanika (Odisha Forest Department 2016). There are 19 Wildlife Sanctuaries (Protected
Areas) in the state comprising of 10% of the forest area of the State, which is 5.36% of the State's
geographical area.
The river Mahanadi flows from west to east dividing the State into almost two equal halves. The
northern part of the river has 44% of the geographical area of the State and the southern part
56%. Details of the river system are given in a separate section below.
2.2 Geomorphology
Considering the elephant distribution in India, the elephant landscape of Odisha is a single
entity, comprising of Chhattisgarh – Jharkhand – South Bengal and Odisha. However, we are
restricted to the state of Odisha only. Geomorphologically, the State is divided into five distinct
regions: the costal plans, the middle mountainous region, the rolling uplands, the river valleys,
3
and the subdued plateaus (Sinha 1981). According to Dalua, 1991 the State is divided into four
physical regions: the Northern Plateau (districts of Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar and Sundargarh),
Central Table Land (districts of Bolangir, Subarnapur, Bargarh, Dhenkanal, Angul, Jharsuguda,
Deogarh and Sambalpur), Eastern Ghats (districts of Koraput, Malkangiri, Nawarangpur,
Rayagada, Kalahandi, Nuapada, Boudh, Phulbani, Gajapati and Nayagarh) and the Coastal
Plains (districts of Cuttack, Jagatsinghpur, Jajpur, Kendrapada, Puri, Khurdah, Ganjam,
Balasore and Bhadrak). Elephants are well-established in Northern Plateau, Central Table Land
and parts of Eastern Ghats. In the “Oriental Zoo–geographical Realm of the world” the State
belongs to “Indian Peninsular Sub-region” (Prater 1980). The elevation of the state varies from
sea level to highest point at Deomali mountain peak (1672 m) of district Koraput in the Eastern
Ghats. The second highest peak is Mahendragiri (1501 m) is in Ganjam district, near
Parlakhemundi. The elevation across Odisha is presented in Map 2.2.
Map 2.2 Elevation of Odisha with notified Elephant Reserves
2.3 Geology
The State is a part of the peninsular shield, which is one of the oldest stable landmasses in the
world, mostly comprising of Pre-Cambrian rocks (three billion years old). Around 25% of
the State is Phenomozoic rocks, Quarternary formations and the recent to sub-recent alluvium
of coastal plains and valleys of the Mahanadi and Brahmani.
2.4 Climate
The climate of the State is tropical, with high humidity. Temperatures range from a
minimum of 12°C to a maximum of 39°C. The mean annual rainfall is 1482.2 mm/year with a
considerable variation in both space and time. About 85% of the rainfall occurs during the period
from June to September. Although, the mean annual rainfall in the State is 1482 mm, it has
become erratic over the years. As a result, floods and drought are common, with these two
4
opposite phenomena occurring in the same year in two regions of the State (Dalua 1991).
Average annual maximum temperature and average annual rainfall maps of 2015 are given in
Maps 2.3 & 2.4 (Ref. WorldClim 2015).
Map 2.3 Average maximum temperature map of Odisha -2015
Map 2.4 Average rainfall map of Odisha -2015.
2.5 River Systems

The Rivers of Odisha can be divided into three groups according to the size of their catchments
as described below.
A. Large rivers (River basin with catchments of 20,000 km 2 and above)
a) Mahanadi river: Flows from west to east dividing the State into two almost equal halves:
43.93% of the geographical area of the State is on the north bank and 56.07% on the south. Basin
5
area of 65,580 km2 lies within Odisha, and holds Mahanadi elephants and Chandka (Chandaka)
elephants. The elephant population shows increasing trends only on the left bank of the river.
Relevant Forest Divisions in this river basin are Bolangir, Deogarh, Subarnapur, Rairakhol
(part), Boudh, Sambalpur, Jharsuguda, Sundergarh, Phulbani, Athmallik, Angul (part),
Nayagarh, Athgarh , Dhenkanal (part) and Chandka. It includes Satkosia Gorge WLS, Baisipali
WLS, Chandka–Dampara WLS (Elephant Reserve) and Debrigarh WLS. However, the
Debrigarh WLS had no elephants till 2010; however, from 2012 elephants were reported from
this WLS (Hirakud Wildlife Division).
b) Brahmani river:The basin area of 22,620 2km lies within Odisha and holds elephants of Bonai,
Bamra, Rourkella, Deogarh, Rairakhol (part), Angul (part), Dhenkanal (part), and Keonjhar
(part) Forests Divisions. It includes Usakothi (Badrama) and Khalasuni Wildlife Sanctuary.
Elephant numbers show an increasing trend only in the upper basin, while Angul to downstream
areas are affected by many irrigation projects and mining activities.
c) Indravati and Kolab: The basin area within Odisha 74002 km and 103002 km respectively.
Elephants were absent in the catchment area up to 2007.
B. Medium rivers: River basin with catchments of 2000 km2 to 20000 km2:
a) Baitarani river: At delta head, it drains an area of 10,360 km2; holding elephants from
Keonjhar and Karanjia Forest Divisions. It includes Hadagarh WLS and parts of Similipal Tiger
Reserve. Elephant habitat is badly affected by mining and irrigation projects. The Highest
conflict–prone areas are in the state of Odisha.
b) Budhabalaga river: It drains an area of 4837 km2; holding elephants of Baripada Forest
Division and Similipal Tiger Reserve.
c) Subernarekha river: Holding elephants of Baripada Forest Division. Irrigation projects
affected the catchment area of the river, where elephants are losing their corridors.
d) Rusikulya river: It drains an area of about 8900km2; holding elephants of Ghumsur North,
Ghumsur South, Phulbani (part) and Nayagarh (part) Forest Divisions. Elephant population is
showing a decreasing trend.
e) Vansadhara river: Catchment area within Odisha is about 9400 km2; holding elephants of
Parlakhemundi, Balliguda and Raygada (part) Forest Divisions. It includes Lakheri Valley WLS
and Kotgad WLS. Elephants are fast disappearing from this area.
f) Nagavali river: Catchment area within Odisha is about 4500 km2; concerned forest division is
Raygada. Permanent elephant population has completely disappeared from this area, whereas
25 years ago around 100 elephants were present.
C. Minor rivers: River basins with catchments of 2000 km2 or less, such as Bahuda, Salia,
Hoskura, Jambhira, Panchpara rivers.
a) Bahuda river: Very small portion of its basin is in Odisha in the Parlakhemundi Forest
Division. Details of elephant habitat is not available to us.
All the major rivers with the vegetation cover of the state are presented in Map 2.5.
6
Map 2.5 Vegetation cover of Odisha (Ref. Vegetation and Land-use cover – IIRS, Dehradun)
2.6 Land-use pattern and vegetation

2.6.1 Land-use
The land-use pattern of the state is collected from the FSI report, which is given in Table -2.1. The
land –use details given in “Odisha at a Glance -2016” does not match with figures in the FSI
report and it appears that there is some printing mistake in the latter's report.
Table 2.1 Land–use pattern of Odisha based on FSI reports
Land Use Pattern

Land Use Area in km2 Percentage
Total Geographical Area 157510

Reporting area for land utilization 155020 100.00
Forests 58140 37.54
Not available for cultivation 24090 15.54
Permanent pastures and other grazing lands 5360 3.46
Land under Misc. tree crops and groves 1980 1.28
Cultivable waste land 5510 3.56
Fallow lands other than current fallow 6590 4.25
Current fallow 9490 6.12
Net area sown 43860 28.29
(Source: land-use statistics, ministry of Agriculture,GoI,2012-13)- in FSI 2015
Details of land –use pattern of the Elephant Reserve areas and its surroundings are presented
in Chapter -4.
7
2.6.2 Vegetation
The state is divided into ten agro-climatic zones; these are i) North Western Plateau, ii) North
Central Plateau, iii) North Eastern Coastal Plain, iv) East and South Eastern Coastal Plain,
v) North Eastern Ghat vi) Eastern Ghat High Land, vii) South Eastern Ghat, viii) Western
Undulating Zone, ix) Western Central Table Land and x) Mid Central Table Land. All the agro –
climatic zones are affected by elephant depredation.
There have been several classifications of the vegetation cover and types in Odisha. Along with
the forest cover classification given by Champion and Seth (1968) and other ancillary
information such as rainfall, mean temperature, soil layer, geological information, Reddy et al.
(2009) identified 19 different landscape elements (vegetation types) based on satellite data (IRS
P6 LISS III) taken during both wet and dry seasons of 2003-04 at 1: 50,000 scale. Reddy et al
(2009) have used the differences in spectral radiance of each forest category as the basis for
classification of different land use systems (Table 2.2).
The topographic diversity including the coastal plains, inland plains and hills, and the rainfall
pattern that includes both southwest and northeast monsoons, have given rise to a diversity of
habitats. Odisha has three distinct phytogeographical zones of India. They are: 1. The Eastern
Ghats, 2. Deccan plateau and 3. Coastal plains, with major landscape elements that include
tropical forests, mangrove formations, wetlands, and agriculture lands. This state is a land of rich
floral diversity. More than 2630 species of angiosperms under 194 families have been recorded in
the state (Sahoo et al. 1999). These include several plants of commercial significance such as
Teak, Bamboo, Sal, Haldi, Rosewood, Paisal and Sanghvan (see chapter 4).
Natural vegetation cover occupies 43.67% (68002.8 km2) of the total geographical area which
includes scrub formation and grasslands along with forests (Reddy et al. 2009). Forest cover
alone is estimated at 48,703.4 km 2, accounting for about 31.28% of the total geographical area
(estimates have improved during the year 2015). Sahu et al (2015) have estimated the total carbon
stock in the forests of Odisha; based on IPCC 2006 guidelines. They estimated that the total carbon
stock was 444.05 Mt (Million tons) with 159.76 Mt in biomass and 284.29 Mt in the soil up to 30 cm
depth.
Among forest types Sal (Shorea robusta) dominates the forests and occupies about 29471 2
km . Reddy et
al (2009) have identified three types of Sal formations of which Sal mixed moist deciduous forest
was the largest forest type. P S Roy (IIRS – Dehradun ) classification was used for this study
(table 2.3 and map 2.6).
According to the most recent estimate by the Forest Survey of India, the total forest area of the
state of Odisha was 50,354 km2 (32.34% of the total geographical area), of which 7023 km2
(4.51% of geographical area) was “very dense” category, 21,470 km 2 (13.78% of the
geographical area) was “moderately dense” and 21,861 km2 (14.03% of the total geographical
area) was “open forest” category (FSI, 2015). There was net 7% increase in the forest area with
respect to assessment in the year 1991 (Table 2.4). Very dense forest type accounted for 13.94%
of the total forest area while moderately dense and open forests account for 42.63% and 43.41%
of the forest area, respectively (FSI, 2015).
8
Table 2.2 Total extent of different forest types in Odisha (Reddy et al. 2009)
Table -2.3: Supervised classification of different land-use systems in Odisha (data from PS
Roy, IIRS, Dehradun)
9
-
Map 2.6 Vegetation types and Land-use classes of Odisha, 2011(IIRS, Dehradun).
Table -2.4: Area under different forest density categories, according to

estimates of Forest Survey of India (in km2).
10
There are differences in the total forest area estimates of Reddy et al. (2009) and FSI (50585 km2)
(2015) as compared to P.S. Roy's estimate. According to Reddy et al. (2009) total forest area is
68003 km2. We computed the forest area of Odisha to be 57185 km2 based on the IIRS data and the
shape files provided by the forest department. This discrepancy may be due to the definition of
“forest” and with inclusion of vegetation cover irrespective of its ownership.
Ecologically, forests of the state belong to four major types. According to Champion & Seth
these are (1) NorthernTropical Semi-Evergreen, (2) Northern Tropical Moist Deciduous,
(3) Northern Tropical DryDeciduous, and (4) Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous. However,
Reddy et al 2009 classified the forest of Odisha into 15 vegetation types. In the FSI report 2015
the forest of Odisha has been classified into the following forest types including their percentage
among all vegetation types (Table-2.5).
Table 2.5 Vegetation types of Odisha (based on Forest Survey of India classification)
11
In Odisha, according to FSI reports, the last survey shows an increase of forest cover . It appears
from our visual assessment that the increase of forest cover is due to plantation work taken up by
various agencies in the state. In the plantation work emphasis has been given to plant species not
browsed by elephants, as indicated by the observations of elephant feeding. This is not amiable to
habitat improvement and requires further in-depth study.
2.6.2.1 Description of forest types
Tropical semi-evergreen forests: This forest type is classified as Orissa semi-evergreen forest
under the Northern tropical semi-evergreen forest type by Champion and Seth (1968). This type
of forest is found in the permanently moist valleys of the hills and areas close to the coast. They are
characterized by large evergreen trees and some deciduous trees in the canopy. The deciduous
species remain leafless for a short time and therefore appear almost evergreen in nature. This type is also
characterized by many large climbers (lianas) and luxuriant epiphytic growth on tree trunks.
Soil is fertile, rainfall is about 1500 mm and humidity is high under the oceanic influence.
Important canopy species include Diospyros malabarica, Michelia champaka, Garcinia
xanthochymus, Mangifera indica, Firmiana colorata, Aphanamixis polystachya, Mesua ferrea,
Syzygium cumini and Dillenia pentagyna. The second story consists of Polyalthia spp.
Macaranga peltata, Phoebe lanceolata, Litsea spp. and Glochidion spp. and shrubs such as
Ardisia solanacea, Flemingia spp. and Rubus elepticus. Ground flora is rich during monsoon
period with many zingers, though grass growth is poor. Epiphytes are common with many
orchids, ferns, lycopods and mosses.
Sal dominated moist deciduous forest: Champion and Seth (1968) have identified two types of
Sal forests under the broad categoryof North Indian tropical moist deciduous forest. They include
moist peninsular Sal forests and coastal Sal forests. Sal-mixed moist deciduous forests are
mainly found in Mayurbhanj, Phulbani, Angul, Nayagarh, Nabarangapur and Kalahandi
districts. For this forest type, Champion and Seth (1968) differentiate two sub-divisions based on
geology and density of undergrowth: moist peninsular high level Sal, and moist peninsular low
level Sal. Sal (Shorea robusta) is the predominant species in the canopy associated with
Terminalia alata, T. bellirica, Pterocarpus marsupium, Haldina cordifolia, Bombax ceiba,
Dillenia pentagyna, Mangifera indica, Mitragyna parvifolia, Mallotus philippenensis,
Pterocarpus marsupium and Hyminodictyon orixense. Dalbergia paniculata, Mallotus
philippenensis and Careya arborea form the understory trees while Cippadesssa fruticosa,
Woodfordia fruticosa and Clereodendron viscosum form the shrubby layer. Bamboo species such
as Dendrocalamus strictus are present. Climbers such as Bauhinia valhii, Ziziphus oenoplea and
Combretum sp. are also reported.
Coastal Sal forests: In certain areas close to the coastline, Sal trees attain large heights because
of favorable edaphic and climatic conditions. Establishment of this forest type is believed to be
due to fire protection measures (Champion and Seth, 1968). Main associates of Sal in this forest
type are Elaeocarpus tectorius, Dillenia pentagyna, Terminalia crenulata, Syzygium cumini,
Polyalthia cerasoides and Aphanamixis polystachya. Bamboos are also present, represented by
species such as Bambusa arundinacea, Dendrocalamus strictus and Oxytenathera sp. The
understory is dense with Leea sp., Ardisia solanacea, and Strobilanthus species. Climabers
include Bauhinia vahlii, Zizphus oenoplia, Butea superba and Combretum spp.. Other species
include Piper spp., Amomum spp., and several fern species.
Tropical dry deciduous forest: This type of forest occurs in dry conditions. Sal may not always
be a predominant species in this type of forest. Both canopy and understory are made up
of deciduous species along with Sal. Important species of this forest type include Sal (Shorea
robusta), Anogeissus latifolia, Bombax ceiba, Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia alata, Callicarpa
12
arborea, Grewia tiliifoia, Firmiana colorata and Hymenodictyon orixense. The understory
include species such as Cassia fistula, Randia dumetorum, Boswellia serrata. The bamboo
species here is Dendrocalamus strictus. Climbers in this forest include Bauhinia vahlii,
Combretum sp., Acacia sp. and Ventilago sp. Herbaceous growth is good and grass is
abundant.
Mangrove forests: Mangrove forests are classified under Tidal swamp forest category in
Champion and Seth Classification and are typically closed evergreen forests with trees adapted to
salt water. Stilt roots are a common adaptation and vivipary is also seen. Mangrove forests are
seen in the coastal districts of the state such as Balasore, Bhadrak, Kendrapada, Jagathsinghpur
and Puri districts. Recent estimates of mangrove forest cover in Odisha is 228.59 km2 which is
0.34% of the total forest cover (Reddy et al. 2009). Mangrove cover in the state has increased
from 195 km2 in 1999 to 228.6 km2 in 2016. Mangrove forests in Odisha constitute the second
largest formation of mangals next to the Sundarbans in the country (Panda et al. 2014).
Mangroves of Odisha are classified as tide-dominated allochthonus type, characterized by
high tidal range with strong bi-directional current, river channels with extensive tidal-flat
colonized by mangroves (Selvam, 2003). Bitharkanika mangrove complex formed by Brahmani
and Baitarani rivers is the biggest in Odisha occupying 130 km2. Other mangrove formations are
seen along the river Mahanadi. Mangroves in Odisha, like in the mangroves on the west coast,
have been subjected to high biotic pressure. Potential threats for mangrove survival are land
reclamation for urban and industrial development. Fire wood extraction, dumping of pollutants
and shrimp farming are other major threats.
2.7 Changes in biomass as reflected through NDVI patterns- A critical analysis
Vegetation dynamics can provide useful and valuable information on the phenological cycle of
the different forest types and seasonal changes, growth status of crops, land degradation
and desertification (Erasmi et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2015). Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI) which is derived from the measurements of red and near-infrared wavelengths of
the spectrum (Tucker, 1979) is commonly used for measuring the spatial patterns of green
biomass in ecosystems (Rosental et al. 1985), and can be used to detect the patterns of primary
productivity (Sellers et al 1992). NDVI can be used as a proxy for greening (NDVI increase) and
browning (NDVI decrease) trends in vegetation (Alcaraz-Segura et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2015).
The spatial patterns of NDVI trends may vary due to the heterogeneity of the landscape at
different locations and time periods. NDVI trends are also affected due to the large interannual
variability of climate and their drivers, this requires utmost care while analysing the spatio-
temporal patterns of a region (Erasmi et al., 2009). Anthropogenic factors significantly
influence the vegetation dynamics spatially and hence the NDVI values. Increasing NDVI trends
are typically linked to increased precipitation and decreasing trend is related to human activities
from land conversion (Piao et al., 2005; Mueller et al., 2014).
In this study, we analyzed the spatio-temporal patterns of vegetation trends for 15 years and
address the geographical distribution of greening and browning trends across the state of Odisha
that may be influencing the distribution, movements and dispersal of elephants with
consequences for conflicts with agriculture. In particular, we investigated the following
questions:
a. Are there significant trends in greening (as determined by NDVI) of forest areas versus
non-forest areas in the state of Odisha?
b. What are the regional or landscape differences for greening or browning trends across the state?
c. Could these trends in NDVI explain the large scale movement of elephants in the state in the
recent decades?
13
2.7.1 Materials and Methods
The French Earth observation SPOT Satellite data at a spatial resolution of 1km2 is used here. The
dataset consisting of 579 images extending from 1st May 1998 to 31st May 2014 was
downloaded from VITO, the S10 NDVI continental extract product. The SPOT VEGETATION
(VGT) sensor has four spectral bands: Blue, red, near-infrared (NIR) and middle infrared/short-
wave infrared. Two bands are used to generated the NDVI index.This was developed by Rouse
et al. (1974) as follows:
NDVI= NIR-RED/ NIR+RED
The NDVI time series allows monitoring of the seasonal and inter-annual changes in vegetation
growth and activity. While NDVI normally ranges from -1 (for water) to
about 0 (bare soil) to 1 (green vegetation), SPOT-VGT NDVI was rescaled to 8-bit format, i.e.
from 0 to 255. To convert these digital numbers (DN) to NDVI, the following equation was used:
NDVI = 0.004*DN – 0.1.
Each image is a composite of the daily images and three images are produced for a month. SPOT-
VGT NDVI images also supply quality records that label cloud-free pixels and those with cloud
cover are discarded during analyses. The spatio-temporal variation of vegetation across Odisha
was characterized using NDVI anomalies Defined as the departure from the 1999-2013 mean
), normalized by the standard deviation (σ). NDVI anomaly was calculated on a pixel-
(NDVI 1999-2013
by-pixel basis annually. Trend analysis was performed using the mean of all NDVI values at a
given pixel for each of the 15 years of analysis (De Jong et al., 2012). The slope of the
regression indicates an increase or decrease in vegetation cover at the pixel level, with positive
values indicating an increase and negative values a decline in the vegetation cover. The forested
and non-forested areas were demarcated using landuse/landcover of 2012 IRS classified data
(See Appendix 2.1).
2.7.2. Results and Discussion
NDVI anomalies were analysed to understand the annual variation and long-term change in
vegetation cover over forested and non-forested regions of Odisha. The spatial pattern of
anomalies varies across the Odisha landscape (Map 2.7).
Map 2.7 Spatial distribution of vegetation anomalies for each year (during 1999-2013) in Odisha.
14
Fig. 2.1 Annual average rainfall of Odisha during 1999-2013
(Source: IMD and Directorate of Statistics & Economics)
Fig. 2.1 Annual average rainfall of Odisha during 1999-2013 (Source: IMD and Directorate of Statistics &
Economics)
Vegetation stress is seen after droughts in 2000 and 2002. In both the years, the stress was seen the
following year - in the northern regions in the year 2001 and in the southern parts of the state in 2003. The
rest of the anomalies do not seem to be clearly related to the rainfall distribution (Figure 2.1). The
long-term trend for the forested areas is shown in Map 2.8, which was classified into five sections
where the negative trend is found in the northern part of the state with minor areas in the
southwestern side of the state also showing browning.
Map 2.8 Spatial distribution of NDVI change in the forested areas between 1999
and 2013 based on the slope of 1-km SPOT VGT
15
Table 2.6 Summary of the NDVI trends inside the forested areas of Odisha
SL. Value Range Total No. Area 2in Area

No. Status of Forest of pixels km in %
1 -0.0207 - -0.0008 Severe Browning 1611 1547.45 2.55
2 -0.0008 - 0 Moderate Browning 2867 2753.90 4.54
3 0 - 0.0034 No change 39994 38416.24 63.29
4 0.0034 - 0.0054 Moderate Greening 15921 15292.92 25.20
5 0.0054 - 0.0358 Severe Greening 2796 2685.70 4.42
Total - - 63189 60696.19 100.00
Table 2.6 shows the summary of the area statistics of the classified NDVI trend of Odisha state for
the areas with forest cover. Around 30% of the total area seems to be showing greening. On the
other hand, around 7.1% or 4301 km2 of area shows browning especially in areas with mining. A
major part of the forested area (63.3%) shows no change or very minor change; this area is limited
and falls within the core areas of the protected forest and reserves.
Map 2.9 Spatial distribution of NDVI change in the non-forested area between 1999
and 2013 based on the slope of 1-km SPOT VGT
Map 2.9 shows the long-term trend of NDVI for the non-forested areas of Odisha. A strong
positive trend is seen across the entire landscape. A negative trend is found in some minor areas
along the coastal regions and in the northern regions where mining is taking place. The major part
of the non-forested landscape seems to have experienced greening which might be caused by
expansion of agriculture land, plantations and horticulture.
16
Table 2.7 Summary of the NDVI trend outside the non-forested areas of Odisha
Area 2in
km
Table 2.7 shows the summary of the area statistics, of the classified NDVI trend of Odisha state for
the non-forested areas. Around 50% of the total area seems be showing greening; these might be
under horticulture, agriculture (multiple cropping with the aid of irrigation) and tree plantations.
On the other hand, 5% or 3834 km2 of the area is showing browning in areas under mining and
water bodies. The rest of the area (45%) shows no change or very minor change.
In conclusion the status of forest with “No change” class seems widespread across Odisha but on
the other hand, a positive change in NDVI is seen across the state especially in the non-forested
areas.
2.8 Fire
The spatial pattern of fire in the Odisha was mapped using MODIS data which was available from
Nov 2000 (Terra) and from July 2002 (Aqua), respectively. Active fire data was downloaded from
MODIS (MCD14DL) and VIIRS 375 m which is active fire product providing data for 24, 48 hours
and 7 days in four different file formats which store information about the fire location with a
spatial accuracy of 1 km. Here, we used the 24 hours data for 16 years from 2001-2016
downloaded from the NASA website. i.e. h ps://earthdata.nasa.gov/earth-observa on-data/near-
real- me/firms/ac ve-fire-data (Table 2.8).
Table 2.8 Summary of fire datasets used for Odisha
Download Id 4892:59:00
Data Source : MODIS C6
Start Date : 2001-01-01
End Date : 2016-12-31
Output Format : Shp
Area of Interest: POLYGON 80.94286 88.105952 87.75439

17.47556 17.69529 22.88084
80.67919 80.94286
22.70506 17.47556
17
The spatial pattern of fire incidents is shown below (Map 2.10) for the years 2000 to 2016
Map 2.10 Spatial pattern of forest fire incidents in Odisha (2001-2016)
The total number of fire incident for each category is shown in the figure below. The minimum
number of incidents is seen in 2002 and the maximum in 2016.
Fig. 2.2 Incidents of fire in entire Odisha (2001-2016)
18
The total fire incidents (TFI) which are low in 2001 and 2002, rise in 2003 and again since 2009.
The total fire incidents inside the forest (TFIIF) remain steady since 2003, but there is a steady
increase in fires recorded outside the forest areas (Figure 2.2), thereby contributing to the overall
steady increase in fires recorded across the state. The relationship between fire incidents and
environmental conditions, especially rainfall patterns requires separate analysis.
2.9 Fauna
Odisha harbours a rich diversity of terrestrial, fresh water, brackish water and marine fauna. As
many as 27 species of amphibians, 131 species of reptiles, 524 bird species and 87 species of
mammals have been recorded in the state. Based on the data from IUCN Red Data Book, the state
is home to 54 threatened species: 17 reptile species, 15 bird species, and 22 mammal species.
The prominent fauna of the state include Elephas maximus (Asian elephant),Pantheratigris(tiger),
Orcaella brevirostris (Irrawddy dolphin), and Lepidochelys olivacea (Olive Ridley turtle). The
rich faunal diversity in the state can be attributed to protected habitats spread over three different
biogeographic zones. Many other mammals such as Panthera pardus (leopard), Antilope
cervicapra (blackbuck), Amblonyx cinereus (Asian small-clawed otter), and Tetracercus
quadricornis (Four-horned antelope) are also seen in the state. The notable reptiles and
amphibians are Python molurus (Indian rock python), Crocodylus porosus (Saltwater crocodile),
Gavialis gangeticus (Gharial), and Varanus bengalensis (Monitor lizard). Additionally, out of
1303 bird species reported in India, nearly 524 are found in the state, including the endangered
Athene blewitti (Forest owlet), Calidris pygmaea (Spoon-billed sandpiper) and Aythya baeri
(Pochard).
2.10 Human Population
The population of the State is 41.97 million (2011 census), which is (3.47%) of the country's
population.Of this 85% is rural and 15% urban. The average population density is 270 persons
per km2. The state has a sizeable population of tribal people who mostly live in the forested areas
Scheduled Tribes (ST) population constitute 22.8% of the state's population according to the 2011
census). Details of population of the State from last four censuses and their rate of growth are given
in Table 2.9. The concentration of human population and the distribution of elephants is
presented in Map 2.11.
Table -2.9: Structure and comparative decadal growth of human population in Odisha
Population details 1981 census 1991 census 2001 census 2011 census
Total population 26370271 31659736 36804660 41974218

Decadal growth
of total population 20.17% 20.06% 15.94% 14.01%
Urban population 3110287 4234983 5496318 7003656
% of urban
population 11.79 % 13.38 % 14.94 % 16.69 %
Decadal growth of –
urban population 36.16 % 29.78 % 27.42 %
Total rural population 23259984 27424753 31210602 34970562

% of rural population 88.21 % 88.21 % 85.06 % 83.31 %
Decadal growth of – 17.91 % 13.80 % 12.04 %
rural population
S.T. population 5915067 7032214 8145081 9590758
% of S.T. population 22.43 % 22.21 % 22.13 % 22.80 %
(Source: Census of India 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011)
19
Map 2.11 Concentration of human population and the distribution of elephants.
The population growth rate of the state for the last three decades was below the national average.
However, within the state the growth rate of the ST and SC population was higher in compression
to the growth of the total population. According to 2011 census, the percentage of agricultural
workers was 16.06 % and the cultivators 9.8% of the total population. About 80% of the total
population of the state depends on agriculture. The density of the population is not homogenous
across the state and the elephant-bearing areas were thinly populated in comparison to other areas
as seen in Map 2.11.
The concentration of ST people was more in the villages located within and on the periphery of
forests.They live in areas where the depredation by elephants is higher,consequentially the major
costs of elephant depredation is borne by the weakest section of society. Most of the tribal people
do not have economically viable traditional professions to fall back on to make up for the
loss in agriculture caused due to crop damaged by elephants. Considering these facts, the status
of STs is discussed below.
2.10.1 Scheduled Tribes
The State has the second largest tribal population in India (next to Madhya Pradesh) with at least
65 different Tribes. Their distribution in the State is not uniform across all districts. They are about
57.9% of the total population in Mayurbhanj District, the highest, and comprise only 3.3% of the
total population in Cuttack District, the lowest concentration. About 53.8% of the ST population
are workers against the State average of 43.6% and the non-tribes figure 40.4 % of their population
as workers (1991 Census). Their lower economic standing and higher percentage of workers compared
to other communities, forced them to depend more on their manual professions and daily labour
work for their livelihood. The tribal economy is by and large based on activities around the
forests. Food gathering, hunting and fishing continue to be the main source of livelihood, though
at present some of the larger tribes such as the Santals, Munda, Savara, Kondh, Gond have
become agriculturists. The Juang, Bhuyan, Bondo (Bonda), Saora, Paraja, Koya and Dharua
tribes follow the practice of shifting cultivation. The Koya tribes are cattle breeders while the
20
Mohali and Lahore are simple artisans involved in basket- weaving and tool making (iron-work).
The Santal, Munda and Ho tribes have now also become involved in mining in the industrial belts
of Odisha. Behera (2000) mentioned “Amongst the tribes 61% is engaged in cultivation, 21% as
agricultural labourers, and 18% in forestry, mining, fishing and hunting etc”. Most of the tribes in
Orissa also follow an annual ritual of wild animal hunting during the first month of the every
Oriya New Year (month of April). In North Orissa, it is called “Akhanda Shikar” and in the South
it is “Pantho”.
2.11 Cattle population
The total bovine population (cattle and buffalo) of the state was 1.2 crore in 2012, a reduction
from the 1.35 crore recorded in 2007. Odisha had 6.1% of the total cattle population of the country
in the year 2012. This high population of livestock suggests that a significant portion of human
livelihood depends on livestock. The livestock population of the villages situated on the fringe of
forests depends on the forests for fodder. Grazing by livestock has the potential to transmit
diseases to wildlife species.
2.12 Urbanisation
Among the 29 states of India, Odisha is the 5th least urbanized with only 15% living in urban areas.
While the state has vast resources of mineral deposits, it has proved costly to the forests and
wildlife. Since the enactment of Forest Conservation Act-1980 by the centre, about 41,891
hectares of forest land have been diverted for other purposes until 2013. The forest land diversion
has been effected for various sectors like mining, dams, irrigation, power, roads, railways,
industries and defence. While mining activities have resulted in direct loss of at least 1,082
hectares of forest land, industrial projects have affected over 1,749 hectares until 2013.
According to all India Mineral Resources Estimates, the mineral deposits of Odisha in respect of
the total deposits of India constitute Iron-ore 33.4%, Bauxite 52.7%, Cobalt 77.5%, Nickel 95%
and Chromites 98%. Apart from minerals, Odisha's contribution to the coal reserve is 24.6% of
the country's resources. These reserves, as well as stone quarries, are mostly located in prime
elephant habitat. There are also many stone quarries located close to the elephant habitats.
According to government reports, in 2017 there were 603 mining lease, of which 202 were
associated with functional mines. Total leased land for mining covered 999.32 km2 in 2006;
extensive mining has caused significant damage to elephant habitats, without any reclamation.
Diversion of minimum forest area under FC Act is around 235 km2 (2016). Mining is one of the
major causes of forest depletion and change in water regime in Odisha affecting elephant habitat.
.
21
APPENDIX
Appendix-2.1: Landuse/landcover of 2012 IRS classified data
22
An Odisha village inhabited by tribes
23
CHAPTER 3
Elephant Population and Distribution Patterns
3.1 A Historical Perspective
In historical times, the region of Odisha was very important for the abundance of its wild elephant and
was the source for the armies of the rulers. In the Kautilya Arthashastra it is mentioned that the
elephants of Kalinga was the best type in the country for use in war (Kautilya, c. 300 B C). As
mentioned by Das (1986), the king of Kalinga and its standing army consisted of sixty thousand
infantry, one thousand cavalry and seven hundred war elephants. There are records of elephant's
capture from Orissa both by lassoing and by kheda (Patnaik 2004). So far, the oldest elephant
stone sculpture available in Odisha, circa 272 to 36 BCE, is a carved head of a tusker at the top of
the boulder containing Ashoka's rock edicts at Dhauli (Bhubaneswar) (Mitra 1966). In the caves
of Khandagiri and Udayagiri (1st century BCE) the rock-cuts depict the use of elephants (Mitra
1992). The 13th century CE Konark rock–cut temple represents many details of elephant's life
and the uses (Mitra 1998). Odisha was the main source of war elephants for the Sultanates of
Delhi (Digby 1971). The king's title of one of the native states was Gajapati Maharaj (Lord of
elephants). Chodaganga Deva (A D 1078 – 1147), the founder father of the imperial Ganga
dynasty of Kalinga (presently Odisha) had a considerable number of elephants as did Kapilendra
Deva (AD 1435–1467) the founder of Gajapati dynasty at the time of his accession to the throne
(Das 1986). The numbers of elephants quoted in these reports are obviously very highly
exaggerated.
3.2 Population Estimation
The first systematic elephant census in Odisha was carried out in 1979; following this, there have
been seven elephant censuses in Odisha—in 1999, 2002, 2007, 2010, 2012, 2015 and 2017. All
censuses conducted were based on the direct count method. In 2017, it was decided to apply both
direct and indirect methods of elephant population estimation in the state, similar to those used in
the All-India Synchronised Elephant Census. The details of the reports of all 8 censuses for the
entire state is given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Elephant population distribution since inception of census in Odisha
Year Male
Male :
Tusker Makhna Female female Unknown Sex Young Total
ratio
1979 439 5 1124 2.53 476 (+calf) - 2044
1999 400 - 1044 2.61 383 (+calf) - 1827
2002 370 - 940 2.54 531(+calf) - 1841
2007 387 16 973 2.41 71 415 1862
2010 332 1064 3.20 42 448 1886
2012 334 - 1087 3.25 46 463 1930
2015 341 - 1096 3.21 27 490 1954
2017 329 15 1092 3.17 38 502 1976
24
Apart from these Odisha Forest Department censuses, there have been various other official and
unofficial Orissa elephant population estimates (Shahi & Chowdhury 1985; Orissa Forest
Department 1991; Orissa Forest Department 1994; Singh 1995; Ministry of Environment and
Forest, Govt. of India 1999). The much lower estimate from 1983 (1300 individuals) by Shahi &
Chowdhury (1985) has not been included, as the census was attempted only in Similipal Tiger Reserve
and some Protected Areas such as Satkosia Wildlife Sanctuary. In 1977, S.R. Choudhury
attempted the first estimation of elephants from Similipal Tiger Reserve in Orissa (present
Odisha) (Srivastava and Singh 2001). Details of ecological densities and distribution of elephant
from the censuses of 2007 to 2017 are given below in Maps 3.1 and 3.2.
Map 3.1 Ecological density of elephants from 2007 -2015 censuses.
Map 3.2 Ecological density of elephants, 2017 Census
25
Over a period of two decades, a reduction of elephant number in the state (by 217 individuals or
about 10%) was observed during 1979–1999 according to the census. Based on the 1999 census
report and 2017 census report (direct count results), it is evident that there has been a gradual
increase in the elephant numbers in the state. Elephant numbers range from 1827 to 2044
elephants, with most of the estimates suggesting around 1900 elephants. Overall, this indicates that
there have been no drastic change in the number of elephants in the state in the past four decades,
i.e. from the inception of state-wide elephant census in 1979. The Odisha elephant population is a
part of the East–Central Indian population, and its movement is not restricted by political or
administrative boundaries of the region. The elephant carrying-capacity of a particular region not
only depends on the quality of the natural habitat in that area, but also of the surrounding areas
including human-production areas where the elephants venture. Hence, we have to consider the
entire east-central Indian landscape as a unit for management.
The East-Central Indian elephant population is distributed over Odisha, Jharkhand (southern part
of old Bihar), Chhattisgarh, Southern West Bengal and to a small extent Bihar, Madhya Pradesh
and northern Andhra Pradesh (adjacent to Odisha). It is, therefore, important to discuss the
elephant population of the entire east-central Indian region. The population of East India (Central
India) was 2480 according to the 2001 census report and was distributed across South Bengal (35
elephants), Jharkhand and Bihar (618 elephants), Odisha (Orissa) (1827 elephants) (Bist 2002).
This has increased to 2633 elephants in 2007 (South Bengal-25, Jharkhand -624, Chhattisgarh-
122 and Odisha- 1862) (Baskaran 2011). Further, a recent 2012 MoEF reported 2968
elephants (South Bengal-135, Jharkhand - 688, Chhattisgarh- 215 and Odisha- 1930). Details of
this census data with percentage of change and growth rate of the population is given in Table-3.2.
The distribution of elephants in 2017 census in East-Central India is presented in Map 3.3.
Table 3.2 Percentage of changes and growth rate of East-Central Indian elephant population.
26
Map 3.3 Spatial distribution of elephants in the East -Central Indian landscape
Normally, Asian elephant populations can experience a growth rate of 1-2% per annum
(Sukumar, 1989); this also appears to be true for the East-Central Indian region when we look at
elephant numbers over the region as a whole based on the forest department census records that
have followed the same direct count method over several decades. However, there are clear
differences in population trends observed in the various states. Odisha appears to have a fairly
stable population. On the other hand, elephant numbers in southern West Bengal have increased
from the late 1980s; the same is true of elephant numbers in Chhattisgarh from 2001. We can be
certain that the growth in elephant populations in the two neighbouring states of Odisha is not
only due to intrinsic population growth through births and deaths, but also due to migration of
elephants from other parts. Originally, wild elephants were distributed in Odisha and south Bihar
(present Jharkhand) in East-Central India during the 1970s and early 1980s. Due to a number of
climatic and anthropogenic factors during the mid-eighties, wild elephants start migrating from
these two states towards the East (into southern West Bengal) and the West (present-day
Chhattisgarh); many of them finally settled permanently in these states. Why they suddenly
migrated out is not very clear to us, but a number of factors may have played a role including the
1986 drought (Sukumar, 1995), and the disturbance to habitat in (present-day) Jharkhand through
mining, conversion of natural Sal forests to teak plantations, and deforestation. In protest against
forest conversion, the 'Jungle Bachao Andolan' movement took shape in the early 1980s when the
government proposed to replace the natural sal forest of Singhbhum District, Bihar, with
commercial teak plantations. In 2003 (Down to Earth) the former vice chancellor of Ranchi
University, Ram Dayal Munda commented "Saranda is finished", squarely blaming timber-
smuggling, political games and iron-ore mining. At some point the original habitat of elephants in
Jharkhand could not meet their biological requirements forcing the dispersal of the species. Also
27
the settlement of land in Odisha during the Eighties, and the thrust to agriculture, conversion of
patit lands (fallow land) from scrub forests to agricultural land were other major contributing
factors toward forest loss. For example, during the years 1974-75 to 1984-85 a total of 2601 km2
of land area was distributed to landless people, particularly to those from Scheduled Tribes and
Scheduled Castes who were mostly living in and around the forest (Orissa State Gazetteer, 1991.
Vol-I, page 388-89).
It is not clear where the present-day elephants of the East-Central Indian landscape have migrated
from, but we certainly know where they settled. From the analysis of distribution-percentage of
elephant in the East-Central Indian landscape we observed the changes in regional occupation.
Details of percentage of elephant presence in different states during 2001–2017 in the East-
Central Indian landscape is given in Table- 3.3
Table 3.3 Changes in elephant presence in the East-Central Indian landscape during 2001- 2017
Change in region
Elephant Population In 2001 In 2007 In 2012 In 2017 %age from 2001-17
% in Odisha 73.67 70.72 65.03 63.60 -10.07

% In Jharkhand 24.92 23.70 23.18 21.80 - 03.12
% in Chhattisgarh Nil 4.63 7.24 8.00 + 08.00
% in South -Bengal 1.41 0.95 4.55 6.25 + 04.84
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 99.65
One can argue that these changes are natural; however, we are interested in explaining the change in
the places associated with the negative or positive change. Odisha's contribution of elephants to
central Indian population has reduced, while the contribution of Jharkhand remains stable. From
different census / estimates the distribution of wild elephants in other East-Central Indian states are
discussed below:
3.2.1 Elephant numbers in Chhattisgarh
We collected elephant population information from the PCCF Wildlife Office, Chhattisgarh from
the beginning of the immigration of wild elephant into the state. During the initial years (1988
and 2001) these elephants did not reside in Chhattisgarh, but ranged there only during the crop-
raiding season. From 2005, these elephants seem to have begun to reside permanently in the state.
Their numbers have also rapidly increased due to immigration from neighbouring states (Table -
3.4).
Table 3.4 Elephant population in Chhattisgarh
Year 1988 2001 2005 2007 2012 2015 2017
Number 18 24 123 122 215 MoEF, 256 247

(247 State report)
28
3.2.2 Elephant numbers in Jharkhand
We collected population information from different sources; the details are given in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5 Elephant population in Jharkhand.
Year No. Source
1978 460 Nigam, 2002
1986 310 Shahi, 1980

1993 752 Nigam, 2002
2001 618 Bist, 2002

2002 772 Sivalingam, 2014
2007 624 Baskaran et al. 2011
2012 688 MoEF
2017 678 MoEF
We have collected the information of elephant population of Jharkhand state (this area was within
Bihar state before November 2000) since 1978. There are variations in elephant numbers reported
in different years. The lowest number was 310 and the maximum 772.
3.2.3 Elephant numbers in southern West Bengal
According to records, wild elephants first moved deeply into Southern West Bengal in October
1987 (in numbers >50). Elephants were not previously present here for at least 100 years (Lahiri-
Choudhury-2007). Our enquiry in the villages of Chilkigarh, Jambani, Bhaluka and Belia, and
around Dulung river in Jhargram sub-division of Paschim Medinipur, revealed that wild
elephants intermittently visited these areas during paddy crop harvesting season (December and
January), but their numbers were 6–8 in one herd. These villages are located along the border of
West Bengal and present Jharkhand State. It is certain that the 1987 elephant immigration was in
large numbers in an eastward direction. The details of elephant numbers in southern West Bengal
are given below. These elephants enter the Baripada Forest Division of Odisha every year
through Deuli and Rasgobindapur Forest Ranges during crop raiding season. The details are
given below in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Elephant population of South Bengal (R- Resident, M- Migratory)
Year 1987 2002-03 2005-06 2007-08 2010-11 2012 2017

Elephant 50+ 36 (R) 33 (R) + 63 (M) 25 (R) (M-not 118 (R+M) 135 194
No. recorded)
Source Lahiri- * * * * MoEF MoEF
Choudhury-2007
* Subhamay Chanda, Man - Elephant Conflict in South West Bengal
29
3.2.4 Elephant numbers in parts of Andhra Pradesh adjacent to Odisha area
In 2007 (most probably February) a herd of 10 to 12 elephants moved out from the Lakhery Valley
area of Odisha and went to the bordering state of Andhra Pradesh. Another herd of elephant came
from Raygada Forest Division to Andhra Pradesh during July 2007. These elephants move
between Srikakulam of Andhra Pradesh and Parlakhemundi and Rayagada area of Odisha. Only
4 elephants presently (2017) remain in Andhra Pradesh (adjacent to Odisha area).
3.3 Patterns of elephant distribution in respect to vegetation and land-use
To understand the influence of vegetation on the distribution of elephant population, we analyzed
the vegetation of Odisha based on LISS-III of P S Roy 2011. Accordingly, the state has 60369 km2
(38.77% of the geographical area) of permanent vegetation cover, comprising of Moist Deciduous
Forest (31.29%), Dry Deciduous Forest (37.79%), Evergreen Forest (2.64%), Scrub Forest
(20.33%), Bamboo (1.10%) and Orchards (6.85%). Forest division wise the % of vegetation cover
of the geographical area, and % of different types of vegetation cover along with the average
number of elephants present in that particular FD during the last eight elephant censuses are
presented in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 Elephant presence in relation to vegetation

cover types in different Forest Divisions of Odisha.
% of Veg. % % % Average Elephant

Name of cover to Moist Dry % % % no.of density /
Divisions Evergreen Shrub Bamboo Orchards elephants km2 *
Geo. area Decidous Decidous
(from 8 censuses)
Angul 36.62 26.47 62.84 0.00 6.41 1.87 2.41 77.01 0.072
Athgarh 32.15 44.17 14.71 0.00 34.95 3.10 3.08 27.1 0.262
Athmallik 57.85 29.34 67.23 0.00 1.17 1.79 0.47 30.9 0.029
Balasore WL 21.64 8.72 14.90 4.76 10.41 5.14 56.07 65.5 0.083
Balliguda 70.45 10.65 59.76 16.50 13.09 0.00 0.00 36.4 0.012
Bamra WL 49.14 70.33 14.66 0.16 13.33 1.06 0.47 160.1 0.123
Bargarh 18.59 11.34 37.91 13.92 16.96 1.40 18.47 2.1 0.002
Baripada 43.42 39.11 24.64 1.58 22.23 1.05 11.39 35.8 0.015
Berhampur 24.97 15.21 19.50 4.14 35.46 3.49 22.21 14.0 0.017
Bhadrak WL 13.33 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.35 0.00 99.62 0.30 0.001
Bhubaneshwar
City & 28.32 2.32 1.03 0.00 9.18 0.00 87.47 0 0.000
Nandankanan
Zoo
* Elephant density is expressed as per km2 of vegetation cover area Table 3.7 Continued
30
Table 3.7. (Continued from previous page)
% of Veg. % % % Average Elephant
Name of cover to Moist Dry % % % no.of
Divisions Evergreen Shrub Bamboo Orchard density /
Geo. area Decidous Decidous elephants km2 *
(from 8 censuses)
Bolangir 13.32 29.17 27.78 0.47 40.91 0.05 1.62 11.5 0.013
Bonai 73.80 61.24 33.65 1.73 3.31 0.04 0.03 55.0 0.025
Boudh 49.08 13.31 81.88 0.54 4.02 0.21 0.03 8.3 0.005
Chandaka 71.95 48.60 0.23 0.00 40.08 0.00 11.09 33.5 0.179
Chilka 1.36 0.76 0.00 0.00 1.81 0.00 97.43 0 0.000
Cuttack 21.42 6.03 11.64 0.98 9.80 2.66 68.89 14.5 0.014
Deogarh 61.68 42.31 43.36 0.00 13.45 0.28 0.61 30.0 0.013
Dhenkanal 39.66 44.20 27.77 0.00 18.75 1.53 7.76 131.4 0.072
Ghumsur North 33.87 16.20 45.76 10.80 20.37 2.70 4.17 15.4 0.019
Ghumsur South 39.64 37.73 32.51 0.58 22.51 2.02 4.65 14.8 0.013
Hirakund WL 90.82 24.19 62.05 0.00 7.58 5.19 0.99 6.9 0.016
Jeypur 27.60 24.82 29.31 0.08 35.81 4.37 5.62 0 0.000
Jharsugurah 21.52 22.62 64.67 0.00 9.56 0.48 2.67 0.8 0.002
Kalahandi North 15.70 30.68 35.70 9.44 22.20 1.95 0.03 16.3 0.025
Kalahandi South 23.61 25.42 24.04 3.83 43.93 2.73 0.05 26.4 0.027
Karanjia 39.32 44.49 38.91 0.19 12.04 0.33 4.04 33.3 0.027
Keonjhar 51.58 27.96 60.55 0.02 10.59 0.00 0.88 63.9 0.020
Keonjhar WL 50.79 20.10 64.89 6.93 5.53 0.84 1.71 25.3 0.024
Khariar 27.46 23.52 61.65 0.00 14.61 0.23 0.00 0 0.000
Khurdah 32.85 20.87 7.35 1.10 46.07 2.92 21.69 18.6 0.016
Koraput 44.57 20.71 10.18 0.63 66.34 0.14 2.00 2.8 0.002
Mahanadi WL 76.20 46.30 46.80 0.00 4.59 2.08 0.24 27.4 0.083
Malkangiri 30.20 16.64 25.71 10.43 46.59 0.64 0.00 0 0.000
Nabarangpur 35.74 27.99 28.70 0.00 40.75 1.51 1.05 0 0.000
Nayagarh 48.50 50.03 32.45 1.78 11.40 2.38 1.95 13.1 0.009
Parlakhemundi 43.43 10.28 60.00 1.52 27.32 0.07 0.81 59.6 0.028
Phulbani 69.66 36.06 36.48 3.45 23.94 0.00 0.07 22.8 0.010
Puri WL 15.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0 0.000
Rairakhol 79.18 63.37 22.91 0.00 10.47 3.18 0.07 55.5 0.037
Rairangpur 42.65 38.77 30.58 0.00 23.26 3.51 3.87 29.6 0.028
Rajnagar WL 66.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.17 0.00 93.83 0 0.000
Rayagada 51.35 36.10 40.12 1.97 21.32 0.07 0.41 22.1 0.006
Rourkela 41.91 51.68 43.50 0.00 4.74 0.00 0.09 12.0 0.010
Sambalpur 48.72 27.18 31.90 0.00 31.90 6.81 2.21 45.9 0.086
Satkoshia WL 85.25 38.82 58.96 0.00 1.38 0.81 0.03 136.9 0.245
STR 91.81 76.75 14.76 6.14 1.67 0.64 0.04 401.0 0.486
Subarnapur 12.93 2.98 41.55 0.00 53.59 0.97 0.90 20.6 0.059
Sunabeda WL 85.75 25.46 68.76 0.00 5.79 0.00 0.00 0 0.000
Sundargarh 48.10 38.62 25.94 0.00 34.87 0.16 0.41 11.4 0.006
Total 38.77 31.29 37.79 2.64 20.33 1.10 6.85 1915.4 0.032
2
* Elephant density is expressed as per km of vegetation cover area
31
In analyzing the relationship between the type of vegetation cover in %; percentage of recorded
forest cover and presence of elephants in different forest divisions, we found the following
relationship as is presented in the figures (Fig.3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4) below.
Fig. 3.1 Relationship between % of recorded forest area and density of elephant
Fig. 3.2 Relationship between % of vegetation cover and density of elephant.
Fig. 3.3 Relationship between % of Moist Deciduous vegetation and density of elephant.
32
Fig. 3.4 Relationship between % of Dry Deciduous vegetation and density of elephant.
From the above figures it appears that elephant density is positively correlated with recorded
forest cover, vegetation cover, and moist deciduous cover, but not with dry-deciduous cover,
bamboo cover and scrub cover.
3.4 Elephant Reserves in Odisha
The State Government has notified three Elephant Reserves (ERs) in the state for better
management of wild elephants. These are Mayurbhanj ER, Mahanadi ER and Sambalpur ER.
Details of the date of notification, notification number, area and elephant population (2015 & 2017
elephant censuses) of these three Elephant Reserves are given in Table - 3.8.
In these three Elephant Reserves a total of 969 elephants, or nearly half of Odisha's elephant
population, range within an area of 8509 km2. All three Elephant Reserves have perennial water
sources. There are seven Wildlife Sanctuaries located within the Elephant Reserves (including
Similipal National Park): Similipal, Hadgarh, and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuaries in Mayurbhanj
ER (including Tiger Reserve), Satkosia and Baisipalli Wildlife Sanctuaries in Mahanadi ER, and
Badrama and Khalasuni Wildlife Sanctuaries in Sambalpur ER. Within the total 8508.95 km2 of
notified Elephant Reserves, 4597.71 km2 (c. 54%) area is under Protected Area network as
Wildlife Sanctuaries mentioned above (including Similipal Tiger Reserve). These three Elephant
Reserves were notified during 2001 and 2002. However, considering the biological requirements
and known ranging patterns (from other states in India) of this mega-herbivore, the state Wildlife
Department proposed a larger area for these three ERs and also intended to notify two more
Elephant Reserves in the state. Accordingly, the state wildlife department prepared a perspective
plan for all existing and proposed Elephant Reserves in the year 2005. Based on the perspective plans
33
of these existing and proposed Elephant Reserves, state Wildlife Department requested the
Government of Odisha for notification of two new Elephant Reserves and for increase of area
under the three existing Elephant Reserves. Odisha state government, however, accepted the
request for increase of area only for Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve. Details of existing and
proposed area of the state government, along with elephant numbers from 2015 and 2017
censuses are given in Tables 3.9 and 3.10.
All notifications of Elephant Reserves are enclosed in annexure (3.1) with boundary descriptions
available.
In Odisha, a wild elephant within the notified Elephant Reserves has on an average 8.8 km2 of
space (8509 km2 and 969 elephants in 2017). Within the three notified Elephant Reserves of
Odisha, an estimated 969 wild elephants reside, that is about 50% of wild elephants of Odisha
have a secure area as their habitat. It is not pragmatic to accommodate all wild elephants by
securing their habitats as Elephant Reserve. The other two proposed Elephant Reserves, namely
South Orissa and Baitarani Elephant Reserves, if notified, hold only c.132 (c.7%) elephants of the
1976 elephants of the state (according to 2017 census) within the area of 18234 km2. Thus, we
would not recommend the creation of these two Elephant Reserves. At the same time we strongly
recommend the extension of area for Mahanadi ER and Sambalpur ER, details of which are
discussed in Chapter -9.
The three notified Elephant Reserves are located north of the river Mahanadi. Around 78% of
Odisha's elephant population is also found to the north of the river Mahanadi (though not all of
them within the three ERs), even though only 44% of the state's geographical area lies to the
north. Why is elephant concentration higher on the North Bank of the river Mahanadi? Upon
analyzing various habitat conditions we observed the following: i) On the north bank of the river
34
Mahanadi, two major perennial rivers flow. These are the rivers Brahmani and Baitarani. Apart
from these two major rivers, three perennial rivers originate from Similipal hills: East Deo, West
Deo and Burhabalanga. The water regime on the north bank of the river Mahanadi creates
favourable conditions allowing elephants to concentrate here. ii) The Reserve Forests on the
north bank are 71% larger than the south bank area, another major factor for elephant
concentration in the north; iii) On the north bank, out of the total forest area dense forest area is
62%, whereas, on the south bank it is only 54% (FSI Reports). iv) Further, the analysis of fire
incidents for the period 2001–2016 pointed to constant higher incidents of fire on the south bank
of the river Mahanadi, as presented in Chapter 2.
When we analysed the forest fragmentation of the state, we found that the south bank of the river
Mahanadi has higher forest fragmentation index in comparison to the north bank, as presented in
Map 3.4.
Map 3.4 Distribution of forest fragmentation in Odisha.
3.5 Division-wise summary of elephant population size, structure & trends

We have collected information on the elephant numbers of each forest division of Odisha since the
inception of elephant census. But understanding the elephant distribution is difficult owing to the
reorganisation of the divisions in 2003. We have tried to present the division-wise elephant
population since 1979. For better understanding of elephant distribution across forest divisions in
the period between 1979 and 2015, we clubbed the new divisions into old division
boundaries/elephant distributed areas and calculated the number of elephants accordingly. Each
coloured row represents the elephant distribution of combined area ( Table 3.11).
35
Division 1979 1999 2002 2007 2010 2012 2015 2017 Average SD CV
*= 2 elephants of Bhadrak Wildlife Division.

NA= Where division area was not created and was part of other division.
36
Since the inception of elephant census in Odisha, there has been no report of elephants in Jeypore,
Malkangiri, Khariar, Nawarangapur, City (Bhubaneswar), Sunabeda Wildlife, Chilika Wildlife,
Rajnagar Wildlife and Puri Wildlife Divisional areas. In only one instance two elephants were
reported from Bhadrak Wildlife Division during the census operation of 2007. Elephant population
growth in the State shows stagnation and fluctuates between 1800 and 2000.
In analyzing the division wise elephant distribution of the state we found a concentration of
elephants in three distinct regions. These are in Angul Circle (consisting of Angul, Satkosia.
Athmallik, Athgarh and Dhenkanal Divisions) with an average of 500 elephants in these 7 censuses;
in Baripada Circle (consisting of Baripada, Similipal Tiger Reserve, Balasore, Karanjia and
Rairangpur Divisions) with an average of 562 elephants during the same census; in Sambalpur
Circle (consisting of Bamra and Rairakhol Divisions) and Rourkella Circle (consisting of Bonai
and Deogarh Divisions) an average of 315 elephants were present during this period. Together these
three regions (includes 3 Elephant Reserves) on an average shelter around 1377 elephants or
around 70% of the total elephants in the state. Therefore, only 14 divisions out of 50 divisions of
Odisha state need special attention as far as elephant conservation / management is concerned.
However, protection to wild elephants is essential outside these 14 forest divisions. Within these
14 divisions Dhenkanal, Balasore and Rairangpur Divisions are the most disturbed. In Dhenkanal
Forest Division it is the thrust towards irrigation that is fragmenting the habitat; in Rairangpur F D
mining is the problem while in Balasore it is migratory elephants from West Bengal. In two cases
it is habitat degradation and in one it is population pressure on habitat.( These issues are
discussed in other chapters). The trends of population in these three areas as well as for the state
are given below in figures 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8 & 3.9. The changes in the concentration of population
since inception of elephant census are also presented in the maps (Maps 3.5, 3.6 & 3.7).
Fig. 3.5 Elephant population trends in Angul area
Fig. 3.6 Elephant population trends in Baripada area
37
Fig. 3.7 Elephant population trends in Bamra (Sambalpur) area
Map 3.5 Changes in elephant population distribution between 1979 and 2017.
Fig. 3.8 Elephant population trends in Odisha from 1979 to 2015.
38
Map. 3.6 Changes in elephant population distribution between 1999 and 2017
Fig. 3.9 Trends of elephant population in Odisha from 1999 to 2017.
Map. 3.7 Changes in elephant population distribution between 2007 and 2017
39
Chandaka Wildlife Sanctuary: Chandaka Wildlife Sanctuary warrants special mention for
conservation of elephants in Odisha. This sanctuary was the first Elephant Reserve in the state
without any notification, and came into existence in 1982. The first elephant census was carried
out in this sanctuary in 1991, which reported 72 elephants. This number increased marginally to
83 in the 1999 census report. It was with Khurda (Puri) F.D. in 1979 when first elephant census
was carried out and reported 57 elephants. The presence of elephant in Chandaka is
counterbalanced by the reduction of numbers in Puri (57 in 1979 census and nil in all other
censuses in the state) and Nayagarh (51 in 1979 census and nil in both 1999 and 2002 censuses).
These two Forest Divisions are situated south and west of Chandaka respectively. The 2002
census in Chandaka WL reported 62 elephants, a reduction of 25% from the 1999 census
numbers. The population was 67 in the 2007 census, but after 2007 the number reduced to 23 in
2010. In 2009, a group of elephants moved to Berhampur Forest Division from Chandaka, while
simultaneously another group moved to Athgarh Forest Division from Chandaka. In the 2015
census, only 8 elephants were reported from the Chandaka Wildlife Division. In the 2017 census
the population is represent by only one individual.
3.6 Lacuna in census reporting
The census data does not provide information on the age structure of populations, and only
provides information about an individual's gender and if it is a calf. In addition, there is confusion
in identifying and reporting makhnas. It is not possible to determine the sex of adults that were
categorised as 'extra' or 'unattached' in the census reports. These individuals may have been males
outside family groups and likely were makhnas. Also, small groups of adult animals
unaccompanied by calves or juvenile are most likely to be male groups. Hence within adult
groups, individuals without tusks were suspected to be makhnas. We realise that the makhnas can
be definitely identified only among unattached adult males. This aspect needs attention in future
census operations.
3.7 Elephant mortality
In any population mortality is a natural process, but how it occurs is unclear. There is little
information on whether mortality is caused by a normal aging process or a catastrophic event
(like epidemic, cyclone, flood, drought, fire) or by human activity (poaching, electrocution,
poisoning, hunting, etc.). It is also not clearly understood if mortality is sufficient to control the
population. We are most concerned by human activity as they can be more easily regulated.
Hence we have discussed human-induced mortality in the population. In Odisha, during period
from 2011-12 to 2015-16, approximately 55.4% elephants died due to natural causes and 19.5%
from unknown causes. Additionally, 12.87% died from electrocution, 3.9% were killed in train or road
accidents, 6.4% were killed by poaching and 1.8% killed by poisoning (table 3.12). Details of
deaths due to natural, un-natural and deaths due to un-known reasons are presented in figure 3.10.
Analysis of the population must consider the death of calves and adults separately, along with
their gender to understand the trajectory of the population. Where high mortality of calf is
recorded, or if sub-adult and adult female mortality exceeds 3% per annum it can be inferred that
the population is declining. Of the total mortality in Odisha from 2011-12 to 2015-16, 37.29%
was of females, 36.96% was of males, 15% was of calves (table-3.13). The cause of death was
unknown in 10.56% cases. Of the total elephant deaths reported in Odisha, 28% were from
Athgarh, 9% from Dhenkanal and 8% from STR. Of the elephant deaths in Athgarh, 27% were
40
calves, while in Dhenkanal and STR, calf deaths were 22% and nil, respectively (which is
unlikely). The recorded data on elephant deaths does not allow for any clear inference to be drawn
on population trends.
Fig. 3.10: Elephant deaths during 2011-12 to 2016-17 (n=435)
Table 3.12 Summary of elephant deaths in Odisha from 2011-12 to 2015-16
Unknown (sex & age)
Table 3.13 Summary of elephant deaths in Odisha based on causes of death 2011-12 to 2015-16
41
ANNEXURE
Annexure 3.1
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Eleph Ant Carrying Capacity of Odisha's Forests: Asian Nature Conserva On Founda On

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Elephant Carrying Capacity

Final Report submitted to Odisha Forest Department

Asian Nature Conserva on Founda on

Principal Inves gator

Dr. Chanchal Kr. Sar,

Final Report Submitted to Odisha Forest Department

Asian Nature Conserva on Founda on

© ANCF and Odisha Forest Department

Sl. No. Chapter Page

Contents (Chapters, Tables, Maps & Figures) ii

Chapter - 1 Introduction 1-2

Chapter - 2 The Study Area 3-23

Chapter - 3 Elephant Population and Distribution Patterns 24-54

Chapter - 4 Vegetation of Elephant Reserves in Odisha 55-70

Chapter - 5 Elephant Corridors in Odisha 71-92

Chapter - 7 Elephant-Human Interactions in Odisha 98

Chapter - 8 Elephant Feeding Habits 107-125

Chapter 10 Carrying Capacity of Elephants in Odisha's Forests

2.1 Land–use pattern of Odisha based on FSI reports 7

2.1 Location of Odisha in India with notiﬁed Elephant Reserves. 3

2.1 Annual average rainfall of Odisha during 1999-2013

Map 2.1 Location of Odisha in India with notiﬁed Elephant Reserves

Map 2.2 Elevation of Odisha with notiﬁed Elephant Reserves

Map 2.3 Average maximum temperature map of Odisha -2015

Map 2.4 Average rainfall map of Odisha -2015.

2.5 River Systems

2.6 Land-use pattern and vegetation

Table 2.1 Land–use pattern of Odisha based on FSI reports

Land Use Pattern

Total Geographical Area 157510

(Source: land-use statistics, ministry of Agriculture,GoI,2012-13)- in FSI 2015

Table -2.4: Area under different forest density categories, according to

SL. Value Range Total No. Area 2in Area

Total - - 63189 60696.19 100.00

Table 2.8 Summary of ﬁre datasets used for Odisha

Area of Interest: POLYGON 80.94286 88.105952 87.75439

Map 2.10 Spatial pattern of forest ﬁre incidents in Odisha (2001-2016)

Fig. 2.2 Incidents of ﬁre in entire Odisha (2001-2016)

Total population 26370271 31659736 36804660 41974218

Total rural population 23259984 27424753 31210602 34970562

Table 3.1 Elephant population distribution since inception of census in Odisha

Map 3.1 Ecological density of elephants from 2007 -2015 censuses.

Map 3.2 Ecological density of elephants, 2017 Census

% in Odisha 73.67 70.72 65.03 63.60 -10.07

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 99.65

Table 3.4 Elephant population in Chhattisgarh

Year 1988 2001 2005 2007 2012 2015 2017

Number 18 24 123 122 215 MoEF, 256 247

Table 3.5 Elephant population in Jharkhand.

Year No. Source

1978 460 Nigam, 2002

1986 310 Shahi, 1980

2001 618 Bist, 2002

2012 688 MoEF

2017 678 MoEF

Table 3.6 Elephant population of South Bengal (R- Resident, M- Migratory)

Year 1987 2002-03 2005-06 2007-08 2010-11 2012 2017

Table 3.7 Elephant presence in relation to vegetation

% of Veg. % % % Average Elephant

Fig. 3.2 Relationship between % of vegetation cover and density of elephant.

Map 3.4 Distribution of forest fragmentation in Odisha.

3.5 Division-wise summary of elephant population size, structure & trends

*= 2 elephants of Bhadrak Wildlife Division.