GUIDELINE FOR WATER

QUALITY MONITORING IN
EMERGENCIES

WASH CLUSTER
TIGRAY REGIONAL STATE Mekelle
Table of Contents
I. Acronyms and abbreviations........................................................................................................................ 3
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4
2. Scope ............................................................................................................................................................. 4
3. Objectives ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
3.1 General Objective ................................................................................................................................. 5
3.2 Specific objective: ................................................................................................................................. 5
4. Drinking Water Quality Monitoring/Testing parameters ........................................................................... 5
4.1 Physical Parameters ............................................................................................................................. 5
4.2 Chemical Parameter ............................................................................................................................. 6
4.3 Bacteriological ...................................................................................................................................... 6
5. Drinking Water Minimum Standards ........................................................................................................... 7
6. Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Methods ............................................................................................. 7
6.1 Sanitary Survey ..................................................................................................................................... 8
6.2 Water Quality Testing........................................................................................................................... 8
6.2.1 Physical Water Quality Test........................................................................................................... 8
6.2.2 Chemical Water Quality Test ......................................................................................................... 8
6.2.3 Bacteriological Water Quality Test ................................................................................................ 9
6.2.3.1 Testing methods and choices ........................................................................................................ 9
6.2.3.2 Sampling Frequency for Drinking Water Quality Test .................................................................11
6.2.3.3 Location of sampling points ........................................................................................................11
6.2.3.4 Sampling methods for microbiological analysis ..........................................................................12
6.2.3.5 Storage of samples for microbiological analysis .........................................................................12
6.2.3.6 Sampling methods for physicochemical analysis ........................................................................12
6.3 Data analysis, interpretation and reporting ......................................................................................15
6.4 Remedial action ..................................................................................................................................16
7. Resources Required for Water quality monitoring .....................................................................................16
8. Roles and Responsibilities of Partners ........................................................................................................17
8.1 WASH Cluster ......................................................................................................................................17
8.2 Regional Water Bureau .......................................................................................................................17
8.3 Woreda Water Office ..........................................................................................................................18
8.4 Water Utility Office .............................................................................................................................18
8.5 Regional Health Bureau .......................................................................................................................18
8.6 Woreda Health Office..........................................................................................................................19
8.7 Health Extension Workers ...................................................................................................................19
 8.8 Water supply delivering partners and/or stakeholders ......................................................................19
8.9 Local communities (IDPs or Host communities) .................................................................................20
Annexes: Sanitary inspection tools ....................................................................................................................21
7 References ..................................................................................................................................................29
I. Acronyms and abbreviations
CFU colony forming unit
DPD diethyl-p-phenylenediamine
DWQM drinking water quality monitoring
E. COLI Escherichia coli
FRC free residual chlorine
HH household
IDP internally displaced people
JTU Jackson turbidity unit
MF membrane filter
MLSP membrane lauryl Sulphate broth
MPN most probable number
NTU nephelometric turbidity unit
TDS total dissolved solids
WASH water, sanitation and hygiene
WASHCOs water, sanitation and hygiene committees
WHO World Health Organization
1. Introduction

Following the onset of man-made conflict in Tigrai, over 2 million people are displaced from their
homes/villages and fled to different towns within the region. Those internally displaced people (IDPs)
are living in collection sites or with the host communities. Social infrastructures that provide basic
social services to the public have been damaged so as service provision is badly disrupted. Durable
water supply sources are among the gravely damaged social infrastructures and hence water supply
provision is highly interrupted. The entire population of the region (IDPs and host communities) have
faced a serious shortage of water supply for drinking and domestic use. Thus, drinking water provision
to the IDPs and host communities is among the priority ongoing emergency interventions for the
regional government and different humanitarian organizations are supporting the response. Water
trucking and fixed water tankers connected with emergency tap stand are the most common water
delivery system during this emergency. Maintenance and rehabilitation of water sources are also
among the undergoing interventions to resume service (UNHCR, 2020).

Water delivered for the public should be safe, shouldn’t pose a health risk to the consumers and must
fulfill the minimum water quality standards. Thus, quality monitoring system should be put in place
to ensure its quality is in line with the minimum drinking water standards set by different global
and/or national institutions (Sphere, Water supply standard 2.2).

Thus, government and WaSH partners engaged in water delivery service and regulatory institutions
need to have a water quality monitoring guideline to guide their work and they must reach a
consensus on the water quality monitoring parameters, minimum quality standards to meet and
monitoring frequency. Hence, WASH cluster has acknowledged a water quality guideline have to be
prepared and a team from partners (RHB, RWB, UNICEF, WHO, SNV, Oxfam, ZOA and CRS/ECC-
SDCoAd) are nominated to come up with a draft guideline to be presented to WaSH cluster for its
review and endorsement.

Therefore, this guideline is adapted by referring different global and national drinking water quality
monitoring guidelines.

2. Scope
This guideline mainly focuses on ensuring the water quality at all levels staring from water source to
delivery and point of consumption during emergency. The guideline is expected to comply with
National and International water quality guidelines in emergency. Sanitary Survey, Physical test
(Color, taste, Odor and Turbidity), Chemical tests (Alkalinity/acidity-pH, conductivity, free residual
chlorine) and bacteriological test (fecal coliforms) are the main parameters proposed for the water
quality monitoring during emergency in our regional context. However, comprehensive testing for
physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters must be conducted prior to commissioning a new
water source or selecting water filling station for water trucking. Where hydrogeological records or
knowledge of industrial or military action suggest, water supplies should be analyzed for chemical or
radiological public health risks.

3. Objectives
3.1 General Objective
 The main objective of this guideline is to provide guidance for professionals, sectors
and/or partners working in the water supply services and monitoring at different levels
with the responsibilities to ensure minimum drinking water quality standards are fulfilled
before delivering to consumers in emergency conditions.

3.2 Specific objective

 Ensure the physical, chemical and microbiological standards of drinking water being
delivered to the public are met;
 Generate evidence to inform relevant actors/sectors to take remedial measures to
improve the quality of water they delivered for the public;
 Advocate proper protection of community water sources and promote safe management
and storage of water at household level;
 Ensure partners who engage in drinking water delivery service have the capacity to assure
the quality of water they delivered is as per the minimum standard;
 Advocate partners to consider drinking water quality monitoring as part of their WASH
response
 Improve regular water quality monitoring reporting and documentation

4. Drinking Water Quality Monitoring/Testing parameters

The 3 categories of drinking water quality monitoring parameters; namely physical, chemical and
bacteriological are briefly described below.

4.1 Physical Parameters

Physical/aesthetic parameters are those detectable by human sense organs; namely turbidity,
color, taste, and odor. They are important in monitoring community water supplies because
they may cause the water supply to be rejected and alternative (possibly poorer-quality)
sources to be adopted, they are simple and inexpensive to monitor qualitatively in the field.
As a rule, drinking water should be color less, taste less and odor less.

a) Color
• Color in drinking-water may be due to the presence of colored organic matter, e.g. human
substances, metals such as iron and manganese, or highly colored industrial wastes.
• For the purposes of surveillance of community water supplies, it is useful simply to note
the presence or absence of observable color at the time of sampling.
 • Changes in the color of water and the appearance of new colors serve as indicators that
further investigation is needed.

b) Turbidity
• Turbidity is important because it affects both the acceptability of water to consumers, and
the selection and efficiency of treatment processes, particularly the efficiency of
disinfection with chlorine since it exerts a chlorine demand and protects microorganisms
and may also stimulate the growth of bacteria.

c) Taste and odor

• Odors in water are caused mainly by the presence of organic substances.
• Some odors are indicative of increased biological activity, others may result from industrial
pollution.
• Sanitary inspections should always include the investigation of possible or existing sources
of odor, and attempts should always be made to correct an odor problem.
• Taste problems (which are sometimes grouped with odor problems) usually account for
the largest single category of consumer complaints.

4.2 Chemical Parameters

a) Chlorine residual
• Chlorine in one or another form is the principal disinfecting agent employed for drinking
water treatment in most countries;
• Chlorine leaves a disinfectant residual (free residual chlorine/FRC) that assists in
preventing recontamination during distribution, transport, and household storage of
water;
• The absence of a chlorine residual in the distribution system may, in certain circumstances,
indicate the possibility of post-treatment contamination.

b) Alkalinity/Acidity pH
• It is important to measure pH at the same time as chlorine residual since the efficacy of
disinfection with chlorine is highly pH-dependent.

4.3 Bacteriological
• The organism of interest for bacteriological water quality testing are fecal coliforms or
thermotolerant coliforms (E. coli).
• Presence of fecal coliforms/thermotolerant coliforms (E. coli) in a water sample, indicates
faecal pollution and the possible presence of pathogenic types that often occur in the
intestines.
• The absence of fecal coliforms/thermotolerant coliforms (E. coli) from a sample shows that
the chances of faecal contamination of the water, and therefore of pathogens being
present, are low.
 • Faecal coliforms are a sub-set of total coliforms and typically found in faeces. It is a type of
bacteria that is found only in faeces of humans and other warm-blooded animals.
• However, it is important to realize that, fecal coliforms are only an indicator and its
absence cannot give complete assurance that water is safe.

5. Drinking Water Minimum Standards

A drinking-water quality guideline value represents the concentration of a constituent that does
not result in any significant health risk to the consumer over a lifetime of consumption. Drinking-
water should be suitable for human consumption and for all usual domestic purposes. When a
guideline value is exceeded, the cause should be investigated, and corrective action should be
taken. The amount by which, and for how long, any guideline value can be exceeded without
endangering human health depends on the specific substance involved.

Table 1: Guideline values for different water quality parameters

Guideline value
Indicator 1
Remark
WHO Sphere National
1. Physical/Aesthetic parameters
Color, taste Color, taste Color, taste
 Color, taste & Odor
and odor less and odor less and odor less
 Turbidity < 5 NTU < 5 NTU < 5 NTU
2. Chemical Parameter
 *Free Residual Chlorine/FRC, mg/l 0.2 to 0.5 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 Max.
 pH value, units 6.5 to 8.5 - 6.5 to 8.5
3. Bacteriological Parameter
Must not be <10 Must not be
For all water
 Fecal or thermotolerant coliforms detectable in CFU/100ml detectable in
intended for
(E. coli); CFU/100ml any 100 ml (unchlorinated any 100 ml
drinking
sample water) sample
Must not be
detectable in For treated
 Total Coliform - -
any 100 ml water only
sample

6. Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Methods

• There are four components of Drinking Water Quality Monitoring (DWQM)
1. Sanitary inspection/survey
2. Water quality testing

1
WHO water quality standards are recommended for this guideline as it clearly puts the range of parameters, however, the national and Sphere
standards have some limitations/clarity issues in setting FRC and total coliform standards
 3. Data analysis, interpretation and reporting
4. Remedial action
• There should be regular program and event based DWQM.
• Water quality monitoring is conducted to identify hazards at the source of water,
treatment plant (if available), storage/distribution system and household level.

6.1 Sanitary Survey

 A sanitary survey is an on-site inspection and evaluation of the physical environment and
practices in the water-supply system that pose an actual or potential danger to the health
and well-being of the consumer.
 Sanitary survey includes inspection of the water supply system; home, facilities,
equipment, operation and maintenance
 Sanitary survey has fundamental role in ensuring that consistent and safe drinking water
(DW) supply is provided to the community by identifying and correcting any deficiencies
in the system and helping to identify public health risks related to DW.
 A Sanitary survey is indispensable for the adequate interpretation of laboratory results. No
analytical, bacteriological, or chemical survey would substitute for comprehensive
knowledge of conditions at the water source and within the distribution system, the
adequacy of water treatment, and the qualifications and performance of the operators.
 Standardized questionnaire is used to conduct sanitary survey; the content of the
questionnaire varies for different water sources (see annex I)

6.2 Water Quality Testing

6.2.1 Physical Water Quality Test

a) Turbidity
 In all processes in which disinfection is used, the turbidity must always be below 5
NTU/JTU and ideally below 1 NTU for effective disinfection.
 Turbidity may change during sample transit and storage and should therefore be
measured on site at the time of sampling.
 Measurement of turbidities lower than 5 NTU will generally require electronic
meters/digital turbidity meter, while turbidities of 5 NTU upwards can be
measured simply by visual method using Jackson Turbidity Tube.

6.2.2 Chemical Water Quality Test

a) Free Residual Chlorine
 The disinfection of drinking-water supplies constitutes an important barrier
against waterborne diseases.
  Exposure to strong light or agitation will accelerate the rate of loss of free
chlorine. Water samples should therefore be analyzed for free chlorine
immediately on sampling and not stored for later testing
 Visual Chlorine comparator technique- is the most commonly used and highly
recommended for on-site field level measurements.
 Color disk comparators and Pool-Testers are the most common equipment used
for FRC testing worldwide. Different digital instruments are also available in the
market for FRC measurement
 The color generated following the addition of DPD to the water sample is
matched against standard colored discs or tubes (see annex v)

b) Water Alkalinity/Acidity pH
 It is important to measure pH at the same time as chlorine residual since the
efficacy of disinfection with chlorine is highly pH-dependent: where the pH
exceeds 8.0, disinfection is less effective
 pH tests may be conducted in the field using comparators such as that used for
chlorine residual (Pool-Tester).
 Alternatively, portable pH electrodes and meters are available.

6.2.3 Bacteriological Water Quality Test

 The fecal coliform/thermotolerant coliforms have been selected as the primary
indicator bacteria for the presence of disease causing organisms in drinking
water. It is a primary indicator of water source contamination by human or
animal feces.
 If large numbers of colony forming units of fecal coliforms are found in water,
there is a high probability that other pathogenic bacteria or organisms exist.
 The WHO and Ethiopian drinking water guidelines require the absence of fecal
coliform in public drinking water supplies.

6.2.3.1 Testing methods and choices

 There are different methods of bacteriological water quality testing either
laboratory centered, or field based. The advantages and disadvantages of each
method should be considered while a choice is made.
 The principal methods used in the isolation of indicator organisms from water are
a) The Membrane-Filtration (MF)
b) The Multiple-Tube (MT) or Most Probable Number (MPN)
c) Presence–Absence test

a) Membrane-Filtration method
 In the MF method, a minimum volume of 10 ml of the sample (or dilution of
the sample) is introduced aseptically into a sterile or properly disinfected
 filtration assembly containing a sterile membrane filter (nominal pore size 0.2
or 0.45m).
 A vacuum is applied, and the sample is drawn through the membrane filter.
 All indicator organisms are retained on or within the filter, which is then
transferred to a suitable selective culture medium in a Petri dish.
 Following a period of resuscitation, during which the bacteria become
acclimatized to the new conditions, the Petri dish is transferred to an
incubator
 At the appropriate selective temperature where it is incubated for a suitable
time to allow the replication of the indicator organisms.
 Visually identifiable colonies are formed and counted, and the results are
expressed in numbers of "colony forming units" (CFU) per 100 ml of original
sample.

b) Multiple-Tube method
 The multiple-tube method is also referred to as the most probable number
(MPN) method because-unlike the MF method-it is based on an indirect
assessment of microbial density in the water sample by reference to statistical
tables to determine the most probable number of microorganisms present in
the original sample.
 It is essential for highly turbid samples that cannot be analyzed by membrane
filtration.
 The technique is used extensively for drinking-water analysis, but it is time-
consuming to perform and requires more equipment, glassware, and
consumables than membrane filtration.
 However, the multiple tube method may be more sensitive than membrane
filtration.

c) Presence-Absence tests
 Presence-absence tests may be appropriate for monitoring good-quality
drinking- water where positive results are known to be rare.
 They are not quantitative and, as their name suggests, they indicate only the
presence or absence of the indicator sought.
 Such results are of very little use in countries or situations where
contamination is common; the purpose of analysis is then to determine the
degree of contamination rather than indicate whether contamination is
present or not.
 Thus, presence-absence tests are not recommended for use in the analysis of
surface waters, untreated small-community supplies, or larger water supplies
that may experience occasional operational and maintenance difficulties.
 Table 2: Comparison of methods for analysis of coliform bacteria
Most probable number method
• Slower requires 48 hours for a negative or
presumptive positive result
• More labor-intensive
• Requires more culture medium
• Requires more glassware
• More sensitive
• Result obtained indirectly by statistical
approximation (low precision)
• Not readily adaptable for use in the field
• Applicable to all types of water
• Consumables readily available in most countries
• May give better recovery of stressed or
damaged organisms under some circumstances
Membrane-filtration method
• Quicker quantitative results in about
18 hours
• Less labor-intensive
• Requires less culture medium
• Requires less glassware
• Less sensitive
• Result obtained directly by
colony count (high precision)
• Readily adaptable for use in the field
• Not applicable to turbid waters
• Consumables costly in many counties

6.2.3.2 Sampling Frequency for Drinking Water Quality Test

 The most important tests used in water-quality monitoring or quality control in small
communities are those for microbiological quality (by the measurement of indicator bacteria)
and turbidity and for FRC and pH where chlorination is used.
 These tests should be carried out whenever a sample is taken, regardless of how many other
physical or chemical variables are to be measured.
 The recommended minimum frequencies for these critical measurements in un-piped water
supplies are summarized in table 2 and minimum sample numbers for piped drinking-water in
the distribution system are shown in table 3
 A new water source should be tested for physical, bacteriological and chemical parameters
before commissioned.
 There are conditions where suppliers are obliged to collect water for drinking from unlicensed
private/public firms, in such a case the proposed sources should be assessed by a responsible
body for the physical, bacteriological and chemical quality. It is the authorized sector who will
recommend based on the test results and offer approval/license
 When there is a report of increasing number of waterborne disease cases in a given area, the
entire water supply chain of the affected community should be tested for bacteriological
quality and a sanitary survey should be done immediately

6.2.3.3 Location of sampling points

Samples must be taken from locations that are representative of the water source, treatment
plant, storage facilities, distribution network, points at which water is delivered to the
consumer, and points of use. In selecting sampling points, each locality should be considered
individually; however, the following general criteria are usually applicable:
• Sampling points should be selected such that the samples taken are representative of the
different sources from which water is obtained by the public or enters the system.
• These points should include those that yield samples representative of the conditions at
the most unfavorable sources or places in the supply system, particularly points of possible
contamination such as unprotected sources, loops, reservoirs, low-pressure zones, ends
of the system, etc.
• Sampling points should be uniformly distributed throughout a piped distribution system,
taking population distribution into account.
• Sampling points should be in such a way that water can be sampled from reserve tanks
and reservoirs, etc.
• In systems with more than one water source, the locations of the sampling points should
take account of the number of inhabitants served by each source.
• There should be at least one sampling point directly after the clean-water outlet from each
treatment plant.

6.2.3.4 Sampling methods for microbiological analysis

 Detailed methods for sampling for microbiological analysis are given in Annex. All
samples should be accompanied by an appropriate collection form; a model sample
collection form is annexed
6.2.3.5 Storage of samples for microbiological analysis

 Although recommendations vary, the time between sample collection and analysis
should, in general, not exceed 6 hours, and 24 hours is considered the absolute
maximum.
 It is assumed that the samples are immediately placed in a lightproof insulated box
containing melting ice or ice-packs with water to ensure rapid cooling. If ice is not
available, the transportation time must not exceed 2 hours. It is imperative that samples
are kept in the dark and that cooling is rapid. If these conditions are not met, the samples
should be discarded.
 When water that contains or may contain even traces of chlorine is sampled, the chlorine
must be inactivated. If it is not, microbes may be killed during transit and an erroneous
result will be obtained. The bottles in which the samples are placed should therefore,
contain sodium thiosulfate to neutralize any chlorine present.

6.2.3.6 Sampling methods for physicochemical analysis

 Results of physicochemical analysis are of no value if the samples tested are not properly
collected and stored. This has important consequences for sampling regimes, sampling
procedures, and methods of sample preservation and storage.
 In general, the time between sampling and analysis should be kept to a minimum.
Storage in glass or polyethylene bottles at a low temperature (e.g. 4 °C) in the dark is
recommended. Sample bottles must be clean but need not be sterile.
 Special preservatives may be required for some analytes.
 Residual chlorine, pH, and turbidity should be tested immediately after sampling as they
will change during storage and transport.
Table 3: Minimum frequency of sampling and analysis of un piped water supplies

Source and mode of Minimum frequency of sampling and analysis

Remarks
supply Bacteriological Physical/chemical
Sanitary protection measures,
Open wells for Once initially, thereafter
bacteriological testing only if Pollution usually expected to occur
community as condition demands
Situation demands
Situations requiring testing change in
Covered dug wells and Sanitary protection measures,
Once initially, thereafter environmental conditions, outbreak of
shallow tube wells bacteriological testing only if
as condition demands waterborne disease, or increase in incidence
w1th hand-pumps Situation demands
of waterborne diseases
Situations requiring testing change in
Deep tube wells with Once initially, thereafter as Situation Once initially, thereafter environmental conditions, outbreak of
hand-pumps demands as Situation demands waterborne disease, or increase in incidence
of waterborne diseases
Situations requiring testing change in
Periodically for residual
Once initially, thereafter as Situation environmental conditions, outbreak of
Protected springs chlorine if water is
demands waterborne disease, or increase in incidence
chlorinated
of waterborne diseases
Sanitary protection measures,
Community rainwater
bacteriological testing only if Not needed -
collection system
situation demands

Table 4: Minimum sample numbers for piped drinking-water in the distribution system

Population served No. of monthly samples

< 5,000 1
5,000- 100,000 1 per 5000 population
>100,000 1 per 10000 population. plus 10 additional samples
 6.3 Data analysis, interpretation and reporting

Data analysis and interpretation are fundamental components of the surveillance process. So,
analysis the link of the sanitary inspection (SI) findings with the water testing results. For each
water source assessed the result of the SI and water quality test can be analyzed to categorize
the risk level as indicated below.

Sanitary inspection risk scores

Risk score (not met) Risk
0-2 Low
3-5 Intermediate
6-8 High
9-10 Very High

Sample microbial testing (E. coli in 100 ml) result classification

Count per 100 ml Category Remark

<1 A Low
1-10 B Intermediate
11-100 C High
> 100 D Very High

The results of the SI and water quality testing risk score will be combined to decide on the risk level
for a tested water source.

Summary of the water source Risk Analysis (Shift to Annex)

Sampling point SI risk level Sample test risk Combined risk level Major hazards
1
2
Total

Example of assessment of priority of remedial actions by risk analysis

Sanitary Inspection Risk Score

0-2 3-5 6-8 9-10
A
Fecal
B
Coliform
C
Classification
D
No risk: Intermediate Risk: High risk: Very High risk:
No action Low action priority Higher action Urgent action
required priority Required
Analysis can be made to summarize all sampled source’s risk status for the inspection risk level,
testing risk level and combined risk level. The proportion of population in each risk category
will be identified to guide remedial actions. Also, the finding for each inspection questions of
the water source can be summarized to identify the prevalent hazard.

6.4 Remedial action

Based on the combined analysis finding the intervention targets can be identified. Analysis
of finding for each SI question to the water sources can help to identify the prevalent gap
or hazards and priority intervention. Interventions to address the hazards identified from
water supply system also need to be considered in the plan.

Sample Intervention planning format

Activity Timetable Responsibility Budget

7. Resources Required for Water quality monitoring

Water quality monitoring demands trained manpower, measurement instruments and
consumables and in fact institutional commitment. The basic resources required for water
quality monitoring are stated below.
 Human Resource: Well-trained personnel responsible to assure or regulate the quality of
water in line with the mandate of his/her organization
 Water quality measuring tools: equipment required for water quality monitoring such
as
 Portable Water Test Kit, a kit used for the quality test of physical, chemical and
bacteriological parameters stated in this guideline
 Electronic turbidity meter or Jackson Turbidity Tubes
 pH Meter to measure water alkalinity/acidity and temperature
 Conductivity meter to measure water salinity/TDS
 Contour Comparator such as color disk comparator or pool-tester for FRC
measurement
 Reagents and consumables such as
 Membrane Lauryl Sulphate Broth (MLSB)
 Absorbent Pads, 47mm Membrane Filters
 DPD 1&3 Tablets
 Materials for water sampling and transportation
 Sampling bottle (200 ml capacity)
 Vaccine carrier for sample transportation
 Ice pack
  fecal coliform/thermotolerant coliforms
 Autoclave/pressure cooker to sterilize MLSB, petri-dishes and sampling bottles

8. Roles and Responsibilities of Partners

Government and non-government organizations who are working in the emergency WASH response and
beyond have their own role and responsibility in ensuring the quality of drinking water

8.1 WASH Cluster

 Coordinate and lead water quality monitoring activities as part of the emergency WASH
response
 Support WASH partners to ensure the quality of water they delivered is as per the
national/global set standard;
 Ensure emergency WASH response plans have integrated water quality monitoring and
surveillance activities
 Follow up the implementation of remedial measures recommended to improve quality of water
by respective implementing partners;
 Ensure water quality monitoring activities are reported weekly and reviewed in the WASH
cluster weekly/biweekly coordination meetings;
 Mobilize resources to strengthen drinking water monitoring activities through training, availing
required water test kits, reagent, consumables, logistics and operational costs
 capacity building Facilitate and coordinate mobilizing budget for the water quality monitoring
and surveillance activities if required.
 Advocate the public health importance of water quality monitoring in different forums.

8.2 Regional Water Bureau

 Support woreda water offices and water utilities to assess and map all protected and
unprotected water sources being used for water supply and assist service providing
sectors/partners on how and which protected water sources or schemes to be used as
a reliable water supply source.
 Provide technical guidance and support to line water offices, water utilities and
community level water technicians for effective implementation of the guideline
 Strengthen the water quality monitoring capacity of water offices and water utilities
through training and provision monitoring equipment, reagents, consumables and
logistics;
 Ensure the physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of new water sources or
selecting water filling station for water trucking are in line with national and WHO quality
standards prior to commissioning
 Ensure WASH partners, water utilities and other organizations working in water service
delivery have the minimum capacity to assure water they deliver is safe and as per the
standard
 Provide technical support and do follow up the implementation of recommended
remedial measures by relevant sector to improve water quality
 Weekly reporting to the WASH cluster including all the water supply distribution
process, water quality finding, plan on target number of water supplies to be inspected,
sampled, and analyzed.
 Coordinate and facilitate the participation of all stakeholders in the water supply process
to improve quality.

8.3 Woreda Water Office

 Assess and map all protected and unprotected water sources being used for water
supply
 Support service providing sectors/partners on how and which protected water sources
or schemes to be used as a reliable water supply source.
 Provide support at different level for effective implementation of the guideline
 Train woreda staff and Kebelle level water technicians on basics of water quality
monitoring
 Ensure the office has the minimum capacity to do water quality monitoring on regular
base
 Make sure actions to improve and/or maintain water quality are taken when there is a
need
 Ensure water quality monitoring progress update is shared with line bureau in a pre-
determined schedule
 Coordinate and facilitate the participation of all responsible bodies in the water supply
process including community representatives.
 Provide technical guidance and support to water utilities and WASH partners working in
its woreda
 Capacitate WASHCOs to do at least sanitary survey to identify potential source of
contamination and take protective measures to prevent contamination

8.4 Water Utility Office

 Ensure the utility has a water quality monitoring activity integrated in its annual work plan
 Ensure the utility has the institutional capacity to assure the quality of water delivered for the
public
 Ensure the water distributed for the customers met the national/WHO quality standards
 Make sure water quality monitoring is conducted on regular base and remedial measures are
taken to fix quality problems if any

8.5 Regional Health Bureau

 Coordinate, inspect and monitor the distribution and quality status of the water supply
being delivered to the communities,
 Provide basic training for woreda experts and health extension workers on water quality
monitoring,
 Take random samples from collective sites and institutions to ensure minimum drinking
water quality standards are met,
 Take remedial measures in coordination with water office and utilities to avoid public
health risks,
 Mobilize resources (pool tester, water treatment chemicals, water containers of
different size etc.) and distribute to prioritized woredas and health institutions,
 Provide support at different level for effective implementation of the guideline,
 Monitor and evaluate drinking water quality monitoring activities at regional level

8.6 Woreda Health Office

 Coordinate, inspect and monitor the distribution and quality status of the water supply
being delivered at woreda level,
 Assess and map all protected and unprotected water sources being used for water
supply and assist service providing sectors/partners on how and which protected water
sources or schemes to be used as a reliable water supply sources,
 Provide basic training for woreda experts and health extension workers on water quality
monitoring,
 Take random samples from collective sites and institutions to ensure minimum drinking
water quality standards are met,
 Take remedial measures in coordination with water office and utilities to avoid public
health risks,
 Provide support at different level for effective implementation of the guideline
 Monitor and evaluate water quality monitoring activities at woreda level,

8.7 Health Extension Workers

 Conduct regular sanitary inspection on water points using checklists,
 Report sanitary survey results to woreda health office immediately, especially when the
sanitary risk score is high.
 Promote household water treatment and safe storage
 work in partnership with Kebelle water technician to protect community water sources
from possible contamination

8.8 Water supply delivering partners and/or stakeholders

 Assign a well-trained focal person responsible for the quality of water they delivered for
the needy
 Make sure their organization have the minimum capacity to do water quality monitoring
 Ensure the water they delivered meet the minimum national and WHO quality standard
 Make sure the water they distributed is properly disinfected on-spot if their source is
untreated water
  Make sure the water schemes or system they use is approved by the RBW or respective
woreda water office as a source of water supply for the target communities.
 Allow participation of local communities in all stage of water supply distribution process,
including its water quality control and possible remedial measures to be taken.
 Report the water quality monitoring activities to WASH cluster on weekly base
 Capacitate WASHCOs to do at least sanitary survey to identify potential source of
contamination and take protective measures to prevent contamination

8.9 Local communities (IDPs or Host communities)

Community participation is an essential component of the whole water supply process including
participation on activities of water quality controlling mechanisms. As primary beneficiaries of
improved water supplies, community members (WASHCOs):

 Participate in all the water supply process starting from plan to the water quality control
and any possible remedial measures to be taken.
 Responsible for controlling or scheduling the distribution and management of water
supply at IDPs or host community level.
 Daily and/or weekly reporting to the responsible water sector and water delivering
partners including all the water supply distribution process, water quality condition,
their participation, quantity supplied, remedial measures taken, any other issues needs
to be addressed.
 9. Annexes:
9.1 Sanitary inspection tools

A. Household water sanitary inspection form

Name of district/kebele/village______________ Household code ____________________

Code of water sample taken: from household___________ from source______________
No. Questions Yes No
1 Does the household regularly get water from improved source?
Does the household (HH) aware of water quality, treatment and safety
2
(access to information)?
3 Does the HH practice appropriate household water treatment?
Does the HH have safe storage container (narrow opening, suitable for
4
cleaning and covered)?
5 Does the HH have adequate safe storage container?
6 Does the HH practice HWT regularly?
Does the HH regularly (every week) clean water collection and storage
7
container (observe the cleanliness)?
8 Does the HH get water on premise?
9 Does the HH get water when needed from the source (last week)?
10 Does the HH have hand washing station?
Name of Inspection person/team______________Signature ___________ Date ___________

B. Sanitary inspection form – Borehole with hand pump

Name of district/kebele/village____________ Name/location of the scheme _____________
Code of water sample____________________
No. Questions Yes No
1 Is there a latrine within 15 m of the well and handpump?
2 Is the nearest latrine on higher ground than the handpump?
3 Are there any animal excreta or rubbish within 15 m of the handpump?
Does the drainage channel contain stagnant water within 2 m of the hand
4
pump?
5 Is the drainage channel broken allowing a pool of water to form?
Does the wall or fencing around the handpump have any breaks that
6
would allow animals in?
7 Is the cover of the well unhygienic (unclean)?
Are there any pools of water on the concrete floor around the
8
handpump?
Does the concrete floor around the handpump have any cracks that could
9
let water in?
Is the handpump loose at the point of attachment to the base which could
10
let water
 Name of Inspection person/team______________ Signature ___________ Date _________

C. Sanitary inspection form – Piped water supply system

Name of district/kebele/village______________ Name/location of scheme ______________
Code of water sample____________________
No. Questions Yes No
1 Do any tap stands leak?
2 Does surface water collect around any tap stand?
3 Is the area uphill of any tap stand eroded?
4 Are pipes exposed close to any tap stand?
5 Is human excreta on the ground within 10m of any tap stand?
6 Is there a sewer within 30m of any tap stand?
7 Has there been discontinuity in the last 10 days at any tap stand?
8 Are there signs of leaks in the mains pipes?
9 Do the community report any pipe breaks in the last week?
10 Is the main pipe exposed anywhere?

Name of Inspection person/team______________ Signature ___________ Date _________

D. Sanitary inspection form – Protected spring source

Name of district/kebele/village______________ Name/location of the spring ____________
Code of water sample____________________

No. Questions Yes No

1 Is the spring source open to any contamination?
2 Is the stonework protecting the spring broken anywhere?
3 Could contaminants get into the box through the inspection hole?
4 Does the spring box have any contaminating silt?
5 If the spring box has an air vent, could it let in any contaminants?
6 If the spring box has an overflow, is it unsanitary (unclean)?
7 Is the area around the spring unfenced?
8 Do animals have access to within 15 m of the spring source?
9 Is a diversion ditch above the spring absent or non-functional?
10 Are there any latrines uphill of the spring?

Name of Inspection person/team______________ Signature ___________ Date _________

Sanitary/Contamination risk score:

• 9–10 = Very high; 6–8 = High; 3–5 = Intermediate and 0–2 = Low
E. Sanitary inspection form: Filling Stations, Tanker Trucks and Household Tanks
Name of district/kebele/village_________Name/location of water filling station __________
Water truck Plate #: __________________Code of water sample____________________

No. Questions Yes No

I Tanker filling stations
1 Is the chlorine level at the filling station less than 0.5 mg/liter?
2 Is the filling station excluded from the routine quality-control
programme of the water authority?
3 Is the discharge pipe unsanitary?
II Tanker trucks
4 Is the tanker ever used for transporting other liquids besides Y/N
drinking-water?
5 Is the filler hole unsanitary, or is the lid missing? Y/N
6 Is the delivery hose nozzle dirty or stored unsafely? Y/N
III Domestic storage tanks
7 Can contaminants (e.g. soil on the inside of the lid) enter the tank during
filling?
8 Does the tank lack a cover?
9 Does the tank need a tap for withdrawal of water?
10 Is there stagnant water around the storage tank? Y/N
Total score of risks .................... /10

Name of Inspection person/team______________ Signature ___________ Date _________

Sanitary/Contamination risk score:

• 9–10 = Very high; 6–8 = High; 3–5 = Intermediate and 0–2 = Low
1.1 Annex 2- Water Sampling from a tap or pump outlet for bacteriological test

A. Clean the tap: Remove from the tap any

attachments that may cause splashing. Using a
clean cloth, wipe the outlet to remove any dirt.

B. Open the tap: Turn on the tap at maximum flow

and let the water run for
1–2 minutes.

C. Sterilize the tap: Sterilize the tap for a minute

with the flame from a gas burner, cigarette lighter,
or an ignited alcohol-soaked
cotton-wool swab.

D. Open the tap before sampling:

Carefully turn on the tap and allow the water to
flow for 1–2 minutes at a medium flow
rate. Do not adjust the flow after it has been set.

E. Open the sterilized bottle: Take out a bottle and

carefully unscrew the cap or pull out the stopper.

F. Fill the bottle: While holding the cap and

protective cover face downwards (to prevent entry
of dust, which may contaminate the sample),
immediately hold the bottle under the water jet,
and fill
 A small air space should be left to make shaking
before analysis easier.

G. Stopper or cap the bottle: Place the stopper in

the bottle or screw on the cap and fix the brown
paper protective cover in place with the string.

Annex 3- Sampling from a watercourse or reservoir

Open the sterilized bottle as described in section A4.1.

Fill the bottle Holding the bottle by the

lower part, submerge it to a depth of about 20cm,
with the mouth facing slightly upwards. If there is
a current, the bottle mouth should face towards
the current.

The bottle should then be capped or stoppered as

described previously.
Annex 4: Sampling from dug wells and similar sources

A. Prepare the bottle: With a piece of string,

attach a clean weight to the sampling bottle.
 B. Attach the bottle to the
String: Take a 20-m length of clean string rolled
around a stick and tie it to the bottle string.

C. Lower the bottle: Lower the bottle, weighed

down by the weight, into the well, unwinding the
string slowly. Do not allow the bottle to touch
the sides of the well.

D. Fill the bottle: Immerse the bottle completely

in the water and lower it well below the surface
without hitting the bottom or disturbing any
sediment.

E. Raise the bottle: Once the bottle is judged to

be filled, rewind the string on the stick to bring
up the bottle. If the bottle is completely full,
discard some water to provide an air space.
Stopper or cap the bottle as described
previously.

Annex 5: Colour match comparator method

The procedure employed when a colour-match comparator is used is summarized below. Some
comparators employ tubes or discs with the standard colours; the procedure is similar in all
cases.
A. Rinse the comparator thoroughly
in the water to be tested and then fill to the
specified lines on the test and control tubes.

B. Add tablet or liquid reagent and mix thoroughly

to dissolve. This may require the crushing of
the tablet with a clean glass rod.

C. Compare the pink colour in the test

compartment with the standards in the control
compartment by viewing the comparator in good,
transmitted natural light. Express the result as
mg/liter of free residual chlorine.
10. References
1. Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 1997. Second Edition, Volume 3, Surveillance,
and control of community supplies. World Health Organization, Geneva.
2. National Drinking water quality surveillance and household water treatment and
safe storage guideline, 2017. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of
Health.
3. Compulsory Ethiopian Standards, 2013. Drinking water specification, First Edition.
ICS:13.060.20, Published by Ethiopian Standard Agency.
4. The Sphere Handbook, 2018 Edition. Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards
in Humanitarian Response.
5. UNHCR WASH Manual, 2020. Seventh Edition. Practical Guidance for Refugee
Settings. UNHCR WASH Programme guidance.
6. Oxfam Guidance for Water treatment in Emergencies. Oxfam Humanitarian
Department (new Oxfam logo).