PGCE FT 2020 – 2021

Notes on Theories, Approaches, Methods, Strategies and Techniques

Educators often say that teacher education courses are quite theoretical and they need
practical tools to deal with the reality in classrooms. A point that requires reflection here is
the extent to which we can be on the same wavelength in our teaching if we do not base our
work on relevant theories that reflect the needs of society, are based on rigorous research and
that underpin best practices in any area of teaching/learning. Theories provide us with the
guiding principles that provide direction and currency to our pedagogy, and ensure that we
can provide informed justification for the way we choose to implement our lessons. Theories
do change with experience and evolution in society, hence insight into how teaching and
learning should be conducted evolves, giving rise to the need to keep updated with latest
theoretical understandings.

Some points to reflect on:

1. List the different theories that you have often used to underpin your pedagogical
choices in the teaching of languages. Explain in what way the theories have or have
not been helpful to you in your teaching of languages.
2. List the different approaches to language teaching that you know about from your
earlier learning.

Some useful Terminologies

Perhaps it would be helpful at this stage to differentiate between the following terms, though
they are sometimes used interchangeably, so as to be clear in our understanding of the
implications of each in the teaching/learning situation:
- Approach
- Method
- Strategy
- Technique

Reflection:
- What do you think is the difference between the terms listed above?

Read the following extracts from Herrera & Murry (2005), p. 170 – 174

Approach
 - An approach is a philosophical orientation to teaching
- Approaches are grounded in a research-based or theoretical frameworks
- Approaches to teaching reflect philosophies of human and educational development
- Approaches guide the choice of related methods that are consistent with the theory
and research that ground the philosophy.
As such, the pedagogical and related decisions an educator makes regarding the manner in
which to teach in the classroom ultimately find their rationale in the chosen approach.

Method
- Methods represent the practical or applied aspect of approaches
- A method constitutes one translation of an approach into professional practice (as
such, there may be a number of methods that help translate an approach into practice)

Strategy
- A strategy serves as an implementation component of a method
- For example, the use of hands-on activities is a strategy that educators employ when
using the sheltered instruction method
- Another strategy of this method is the use of cooperative learning

Technique
- Techniques are specific actions or action sequences that have been designed to
achieve a defined, strategic objective
- Techniques fall under the umbrella of chosen strategies, and represent action
subcomponents of strategies
- For example, if educators decide to use the strategy of cooperative learning, they may
decide to have students collaborate by doing think-pair-share or jigsaw grouping.
Actions such as these constitute the techniques with which educators put the
cooperative learning strategy into practice with their students.

Approaches to Language Teaching

Brainstorming

- Is second/foreign language learning a new phenomenon?

- For what purposes have people in the past learnt a second/foreign language?

- How were second/foreign languages taught in the past?

 - List some of the ways in which second/foreign language teaching is done
nowadays.

- Have there been developments in second/foreign language pedagogy?

- Why have such developments taken place?

As you may have mentioned above, language teaching, even second/foreign language
teaching, is not a new societal phenomenon. As far back as in the Greek civilization, there is
evidence of people engaging in second/foreign language learning, more particularly learning
of the most predominant language of education, politics and religion of the region.

Three major approaches have underpinned language teaching from the Greek to current
times, based on an understanding of and evolving from different distinct philosophies of
learning and human/societal development prevailing at the different periods of time.
These three approaches are:
1. The Grammatical Approach or Grammar-based Approach
2. The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Approach
3. The Cognitive Approach

Read the following information based on extracts from Richards & Rodgers (1994),
Lightbown & Spada (2003) and Herrera & Murry (2005).

1. The Grammatical Approach

- The grammatical approach is based on the philosophy that language is learnt most
efficiently by memorizing language rules and sentence patterns in a methodical,
sequenced way

- It is closely related to the tenets of Behaviourism that is based on the belief that
knowledge is acquired from the environment through the senses, and that language
learning experiences must emphasize the explicit (external) teaching of grammar,
through a teacher-centred mode

- It was believed that language does not develop through exposure alone; students learn
a language through teaching and reinforcement
- Error correction was essential to shape correct language

- Language learning was considered as a mental discipline

- Through the Grammar Approach, earners study the rules and patterns of the target
language in ways that can be isolated from a meaningful context, through drill and
practice exercises

- The Grammar Approach is teacher-centered

- The learners’ first and other languages are viewed as interfering with the learning of
the target language as differences in rules governing the different languages are
considered as confusing

- The methods used to implement the Grammar Approach include:

(i) Grammar-Translation, with emphasis on the development of reading, writing and

knowledge of grammar
(ii) The Direct Method, which emphasizes immersion in the target language; no use of
the L1 is allowed
(iii) The Audio-Lingual Method, which emphasizes language learning as the
memorization and recall of language patterns, the teaching of grammar structures,
error correction and feedback, pattern drills and repetitive practice based on
listening to audio materials

- The strategies generally used under the different methods include drills and repetitive
practice

- The techniques include memorization, repetition, mnemonics

- The focus is more on learning about a language than on learning a language for the
intended purposes of communication, social, academic and professional purposes

- The Grammar Approach originated in the teaching of classical Greek and Latin, about
2500 years ago, and was the prevalent approach to language teaching through to the
1950s

2. The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Approach

- The Communicative Approach emerged in the 1960s, based on concerns expressed
over the ineffectiveness of the Grammar Approach to develop the ability to use the
language in real-life situations

- The focus of CLT is communication for a purpose, where the role of the teacher is to
provide a context for authentic communication

- It is assumed that memorization and drills are ineffective to prepare language learners
for authentic use of the target language as language contains an infinite number of
possible combinations

- Language learning is not viewed as a sequential progression; language development

occurs alongside the learner receiving comprehensible input through interaction in
authentic, language rich and low-anxiety language environments

- It is based on second language acquisition/learning processes that closely relate to L1

acquisition

- CLT is based on the tenets of Constructivism, that views people as having the capacity
to acquire specific abilities such as language comprehension and production, and the
human brain as being capable of drawing meaning from experience

- CLT also draws from the tenets of Social Constructivism, that views learning to occur
as a result of interactions between the environment and the learner’s mind, and the
interaction between thought and language to lead to higher-order thinking, for,
according to Vygotsky, it is the environment that shapes the course of language and
cognitive development

- CLT also subscribes to the idea that people have the innate capacity to learn language,
and have a universal Grammar (a language logic), and that language acquisition and
language learning are natural processes that allow people to develop a particular
language of thought and communication (based on the work of Noam Chomsky)

- A language-rich classroom environment activates learners’ predisposition for

language development

- CLT is student-centred and students’ L1 is accepted as a facilitator for second/foreign

language learning

- Learners need meaningful social and communicative interaction in the target language

- Language, thought, meaning and use are all interconnected and integrated in the
progression of communication
- Errors are developmental in nature; learners do not need explicit error correction

- In its early stages CLT was a method of teaching which gained the status of an
approach given its revolutionary philosophical orientation

- The methods used to implement CLT emphasize on communication as the most

important purpose of language among the multiple functions of language, view
language as embedded in social contexts and the role of the educator as that of
facilitator of meaning construction

- Methods under CLT have seen an evolution with practice: the early methods consisted
of the Silent Way, the Natural Way and Suggestopedia and focused on social language
development; contemporary methods such as integrated Content-Based instruction
and the Sheltered Method emphasize interactive, communicative and contextual
language development

- Strategies used under the different methods include scaffolding, cooperative learning
and hands-on activities

- Techniques generally include, for example, story-telling, heterogeneous grouping

3. The Cognitive Approach

- The Cognitive Approach is based on the cognitive psychological understanding of
learning, language learning and language pedagogy, which considers learning as
knowledge construction
- It focusses on the nature of complex knowledge processes such as discovering,
recognizing, reasoning, judging and reflecting, and their effect on actions
- It considers learning as knowledge construction and a meaningful activity, and views
the learner as knowledge constructor
- It is child-centred
- It considers meaningful learning as a process that is all-encompassing, including the
cognitive, cultural, social, interactive, motivational and affective dimensions of the
learner
- The cognitive perspective relates to a number of educational interests relevant to the
learner, including, among others, literacy development, critical thinking, constructivist
learning environments, and the application of acquired knowledge in different
contexts
- The learning process is viewed as active and dynamic
- Assessment is based on an evaluation of merit
- The Cognitive Approach also involves ‘metacognition’ (thinking about thinking),
which is “higher order thinking that involves active control over the cognitive
 processes engaged in learning” (Livingstone, 1997, in Herrera & Murry, 2005) – that
is, thinking about the preparation and planning (learners think about what they need to
do in order to accomplish the set goals), selection and use of strategies for learning,
monitoring of whether strategies are working and evaluation of (reflection on)
learning, among others; this helps students to take control of their learning and
develop the skills required for independent learning
- The Cognitive Approach targets communication as the purpose of language and
motivation for language acquisition/learning
- The cognitive approach is based on Constructivist principles, that is, it emphasizes
elaboration of the student’s prior knowledge of cognitive academic language in both
L1 and L2 and meaning-focused teaching that targets cognitive academic language
proficiency (CALP)
- It emphasizes active, dynamic, learner-centred language teaching, integration of
content area with language teaching, thematic instruction, cooperative learning and
comprehensible input for language acquisition, among others
- It takes into consideration individual differences in learning styles by providing
alternative grouping arrangements, varying the type and use of teaching materials, and
modifying time frames for learning and response
- It recognizes the second/foreign language learner’s need for context rich and
meaningful learning environments
- The Cognitive Academic Language Learning approach (CALLA) is the dominant
contemporary method of language teaching grounded in the cognitive approach and
using communicative strategies; it targets all four literacy domains (listening,
speaking, reading and writing) (note that CALLA is called an approach but is a
method based on the Cognitive Approach)
- Cognitive methods share most of the characteristics of the Communicative Approach,
but emphasize the explicit teaching of higher-order thinking , the social/affective
dynamics of learning and metacognitive awareness and it has been seen that learners
also make use of cross-linguistic strategies
- Cognitive strategies involve manipulation of information, including classification,
linking new information to prior knowledge, and summarizing
- Metacognitive strategies involve deciding how to approach a task, self-monitoring of
language production and self-assessment; such strategies include skimming for
information and reflection on what one has learnt
- Social/affective strategies include collaborative learning and breaking down tasks into
smaller steps
- Cross-linguistic strategies include, for example, the use of cognates for facilitating the
learning of the target language and as a reading comprehension strategy
- Some examples of techniques used under CALLA oriented strategies are questioning,
word walls, charts and outlines
Based on your reading of the information on the 3 different approaches that have
underpinned the teaching of languages up to current times, answer the following
questions:

i. With close reference to the Grammar Approach, explain with justification

whether, according to their needs, our learners need to learn about the target
language or learn the target language at school?
ii. Reflect on the strengths and shortcomings of the Communicative Language
Teaching Approach.
iii. What elements of the Cognitive Approach do you consider to be striking and
why?

An overview of some Methods of teaching

Deductive v/s inductive methods of teaching

Brainstorming

- When you were at school, how was language teaching and teaching in general
conducted?

- Do you conduct your teaching of languages in the same or different ways?

- How would you qualify the difference, if any?

One of the main debates on teaching in general, and hence in language teaching, has been
whether to adopt a deductive or an inductive orientation to teaching.

A deductive method emphasizes learning of rules, structures and patterns of the target
language. A deductive method hence starts with an introduction to the rule, followed by its
use in relevant language structures/contexts, and practice in the application of the rule.
An inductive method, on the other hand, “emphasizes authentic uses of the (target) language
as a means of naturally acquiring the rules and patterns of the language. Inductive instruction
is meaning-based” (Herrera & Murphy, 2005 p. 174). Through the inductive method, the
language structure/pattern is explored and practiced, and learners are led to discover/explain
the rule underlying the usage. This final step may be skipped if emphasis is on usage only.

Product v/s Process methods of teaching and learning

Brainstorming

- When you were at school, how did teachers conduct reading comprehension
lessons?

- How were writing lessons conducted?

- On what principles were these pedagogical choices based?

- How do you conduct reading and writing lessons?

From your brainstorming above, you should definitely have seen a shift in reading and
writing lessons being treated as products in the past where the emphasis was on the output, as
compared to current times when pupils are taken through the process of reading and writing
as meaning-making and learning experiences, with the support and guidance of the teacher.
Reading is in itself a process, a highly cognitive activity from the initial stage of decoding to
reading with understanding, where learners engage with texts for maximum exploration of
the content and style of the text, simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through
interaction and involvement with written language. Reading involves the use of
metacognitive strategies as well, such as skimming for information, and evaluating one’s
reading strategies to redirect one’s reading. Hence treating reading as a process is a more
fruitful activity. Writing as process involves the construction of texts, from the generation of
ideas, to planning, drafting, revising/editing and publishing. Writing as well involves both
cognitive and metacognitive processes. Developing writing skills among learners requires
constant guidance and feedback from teachers. The process orientation to the teaching of
writing thus focusses on the act of writing as being a process, and thereby a more productive
activity.
Accommodating different learning levels, paces and styles - Differentiation

Brainstorming

- Do all your learners have the same level of language proficiency?

- Do all your learners learn at the same pace and in the same way?

- How do you manage with the different levels, paces and styles of learning of your
learners in your language lessons?

Learners do not necessarily have the same level, pace and style of learning, especially in
mixed ability classes. This can be compensated for to some extent through the use of
cooperative learning strategies, where learners help each other. However, the educator can
still better handle the learning of all levels and abilities through the use of differentiation.
Differentiation does not refer to scaffolding or individual attention, though all these strategies
are used in complementary ways.
Scaffolding refers to assistance provided to learners at different points in time to help them
tackle difficulties.
Individual attention is when the needs of specific learners are taken on board.
Differentiation refers to the modification of content, the process of teaching and/or
assessment, so that learners having different abilities are able to complete the same tasks set
for the whole class.
When content is differentiated, the requirements for what different students need to learn is
changed. Their materials are different, though the learning objectives are the same. For
example:

- the content is shortened or simplified, for instance, by the elimination of unnecessary

vocabulary or details, to suit the needs of different learners
- required vocabulary is taught beforehand
- additional or other types of materials such as charts and graphic organizers are used
instead of texts for specific learners having difficulty continuous prose
- different kinds of homework are given, eg. Cloze texts instead of essay type work.

Process differentiation occurs when teachers modify the way in which different students are
required to learn, based on their specific needs. Learners learn the same competencies but in a
different manner. Examples are:
 - by taking the different students through the task in manageable chunks rather than
having to go through the whole procedure at a time
- by paying attention to individual learning styles
- by allowing the use of the L1 as support language
- by considering the learners’ prior knowledge
- by using concrete examples and different kinds of teaching aids that can be useful to
the different learners

Product differentiation refers to the use of different means of assessing learning. For
example, some learners may use a collage, put on a performance or make a poster to illustrate
their mastery of concepts, rather than having a written test like their more capable peers.

Brainstorming:
Under which approach/es would you classify the inductive/deductive, process/product
methods of teaching and the use of differentiation?

Fill in the table below.

Approach Inductive/ Process/product Use of

Deductive methods method differentiation
of teaching
1. Grammar Approach

2. Communicative
Language Teaching
Approach

3. Cognitive Approach