Acoustic Impedance

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Characterization of Liquids, Nano- and Microparticulates, and

Porous Bodies Using Ultrasound
Andrei S. Dukhin, Philip J. Goetz, in Studies in Interface Science, 2010

3.3 Propagation Through Phase Boundaries: Reflection

Acoustic impedance is a very convenient property for characterizing effects that occur when
the sound wave meets the boundary between two phases. There are certain similarities
between longitudinal ultrasound and light reflection and transmission through the phase
boundaries. For instance, the ultrasound reflection angle from a plane surface is equal to
the incident angle which is the same as for light (see Figure 3.2):

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Figure 3.2. Illustration of the sound propagation through a phase boundary.

(3.15) θi=θr
where the index i corresponds to the incident wave and index r corresponds to the reflected
wave.

The transmitted wave angle must satisfy wavefront coherence at the border. Again, this
yields the same relationship as with light transmission:

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(3.16) sinθisinθt=c1c2
where indexes 1 and 2 correspond to the different phases.

Propagation of the sound wave through the phase border should not create any
discontinuities in pressure or the particle's velocity. This condition yields the following
relationships for the pressure in the reflected and transmitted waves:

(3.17)PrPi=Z2cosθi−Z1cosθtZ2cosθi+Z1cosθt
(3.18)PtPi=2Z2cosθiZ2cosθi+Z1cosθt
In the case of normal incidence, when θi = θt = 0, these
equations simplify to:

(3.19)PrPi=Z2−Z1Z2+Z1
and

(3.20)PtPi=2Z2Z2+Z1
From these equations, an important relationship is derived between the
phases of the reflected and incident waves. If Z2> Z1, then the reflected
pressure wave is in phase with the incident wave; otherwise, it is 180° out
of phase.

The pressure value determines the intensity of the ultrasound, I:

(3.21) I=P22ρc
For normal incidence, we can use Equations (3.19) and (3.20) to obtain the ultrasound
intensity of the reflected and transmitted waves:

(3.22)IrIi=(Z2−Z1)2(Z2+Z1)2
and

(3.23)ItIi=4Z2Z1(Z2+Z1)2
At normal incidence, the reflected wave interferes with the incident
wave. This leads to the buildup of standing waves. For a perfect
reflector, the particle displacement in reflected and incident waves
compensate each other completely when they are out of phase. They add together when
they are in phase. This leads to a repeating pattern of nodes and maxima. Standing waves
do not transmit any power, since the power coming back equals the power going out.

Standing waves can superimpose with the traveling waves when the reflection is not
perfect. This effect occurs when ultrasound propagates through a multilayer medium. The
case of three phases is important and well characterized. A standing wave appears in the
first and the second layers. They superimpose here with traveling waves if reflection at the
phase boundaries is not perfect.
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In the case of normal incidence, it is possible to derive [ 5] an analytical expression for the
intensities of the incident and transmitted waves:

(3.24)It3Ii1=4Z3Z1(Z3+Z1)2cos22πl2λ2+(Z2+Z3Z1Z2)2sin22πl2λ2
where l2 is the thickness of the second layer.

One important conclusion follows from Equation (3.24). There are two cases when the
second layer becomes transparent for ultrasound propagation. The first one is rather
obvious; it happens when the thickness of the second layer is much less than the
wavelength (l2≪l2/4). The second case is related to the standing waves
built up in the intermediate layer, when l2= nλ2/2. These conditions are
important for designing acoustic and electroacoustic devices.

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Acoustic components
Leo L. Beranek, Tim J. Mellow, in Acoustics: Sound Fields and Transducers, 2012

4.6 Intermediate-sized tube—mixed mass-resistance element [a (in

meters) > 0.01/ [2] and a < 10/f] [2]

The acoustic impedance for a tube with a radius a (in meters) that is less than 0.002/
f was given by Eqs. (4.14) and (4.16). Here we shall give the acoustic impedance for a tube
whose radius (in meters) is greater than 0.01/ f but still less than 10/f. For a tube
whose radius lies between 0.002/ f and 0.01/ f interpolation must be used. The
acoustic impedance of the intermediate-sized tube is equal to

(4.22)ZA=RA+jωMA
where

(4.23)RA=2ωρ0μπa2(l′a+(2))N·s/m5
(4.24)MA=ρ0(l′+(2)l″)πa2kg/m2
a is radius of tube in m.

ρ0 is density of air in kg/m3.

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μ is viscosity coefficient. For air μ = 1.86 × 10−5 N·s/m2 at 20°C and 0.76 m Hg. This
quantity varies with temperature, that is, μ ∝ T0.7, where T is in °K.

l′ is actual length of the tube.

l′′ is end correction for the tube. It is given by Eq. (4.5) if the tube is flanged or Eq. (4.8) if
the tube is unflanged. The numbers (2) in parentheses in Eqs. (4.23) and (4.24) must be
used if both ends of the tube are being considered. If only one end is being considered,
replace the number (2) with the number 1.

ω is angular frequency in rad/s.

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Sound in Waveguides
Frank Fahy, in Foundations of Engineering Acoustics, 2001

8.6.2 Transmission of Plane Waves Through an Abrupt Change of Cross-

sectional Area and an Expansion Chamber
The acoustic impedance of a uniform tube that carries only progressive plane waves is
given by Eq. (4.17) as ± ρ0c/S, where S is the cross-sectional area of the tube. If this area
changes abruptly at some point, the associated change of impedance will cause incident
waves to be reflected. The acoustic flow field in immediate vicinity of the area discontinuity
cannot be one-dimensional and plane. Non-plane sound fields are generated but, at low
frequencies, they are confined to the immediate vicinity of the discontinuity, and only
plane waves can propagate and transport energy. The effect of the discontinuity is to
introduce an additional inertial impedance associated with the local kinetic energy of the
non-planar particle motion. It may be represented by a lumped acoustic element, as
explained in Chapter 4.

In the case of a junction between two circular section tubes of considerably different
diameter, as illustrated in Fig. 8.10, the inertial acoustic impedance of the junction is nearly
always much less than the plane wave impedance of the narrower of the tubes, and can
then be safely neglected. Consequently, plane wave pressures on either side of the junction
may be assumed to be equal. As shown in Chapter 4, the elastic impedance of this local
fluid region is relatively so high that it can be assumed that the volume velocities on either
side of the junction are also equal.

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Download full-size image
Fig. 8.10. Abrupt change in cross-sectional area.

For the purpose of studying the acoustic effect of a junction in isolation, it is assumed that
it joins two anechoically terminated tubes. The harmonic wave system shown in Fig. 8.10 is
represented by incident, reflected and transmitted waves of complex amplitudes
A˜,B˜andC˜ . The junction is at x = 0. Pressure equality gives

(8.40)A˜+B˜=C˜
Volume velocity equality gives

(8.41)(S1/ρ0c)(A˜−B˜)=(S2/ρ0c)C˜
The reason why wave reflection must occur is
now obvious: both equations cannot be
satisfied if S1 ≠ S2 and B˜ is zero. The
solution for the ratio of transmitted to incident wave pressure amplitudes is

(8.42)C˜/A˜=2/(S2/S1+1)=2m/(1+m)
where m = S1/S2. Note that the
pressure amplitude ratio is different
for sound incident from the two directions; it is greater than unity for sound incident upon
a contraction (m > 1) and less than unity for sound incident upon an expansion.
Consequently, care must be exercised in quantifying the effect of the impedance
discontinuity in terms of sound pressure levels. The reflected wave interferes with the
incident wave to produce a spatial variation of pressure amplitude on the incident side of
the area discontinuity. As explained above, it is safer, and less ambiguous, to define the
performance in terms of the ratio of transmitted to incident sound powers.

The ratio of power carried by the transmitted wave to that carried by the incident wave,
which is the sound power transmission coefficient of the junction, is given by the product of
the cross-sectional areas and the plane wave intensities as

(8.43)

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τ=[S2|C˜|2/2ρ0c]/[S1|A˜|2/2ρ0c]=4m/(1+m)2
Unlike the pressure ratio, it is less than unity in both cases and decreases with increase in
m. It is the same in both directions, or reciprocal. Since the area discontinuity is assumed
to dissipate no energy, the net powers are equal on both sides.

The reflecting effect of a change of section is exploited in the design of internal combustion
exhaust system mufflers, of which a major component is the expansion chamber,
illustrated in Fig. 8.11. The acoustic impedance at the left-hand inlet (F) to the expansion
chamber equals that of the larger diameter tube of length L terminated at G by that of the
smaller diameter tube (ρ0c/S1). The specific acoustic impedance transfer expression (8.24)
may be adapted for acoustic impedance by replacing z′t by the acoustic impedance ratio z′t
= Zt S0/ρ0c, where S0 is the cross-sectional area of the tube to which the transfer expression
applies. Hence, Z′G = (ρ0c/S1) (S2/ρ0c) and

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Fig. 8.11. Expansion chamber.

(8.44)

Z′F=ZFS2/ρ0c=(1+jmtankL)/(m+jtankL)
The acoustic impedance ratio presented to the incident wave in the smaller-diameter tube is
ZFS1/ρ0c = mZ′F. Now, B˜ /Ã = (mZ′F − 1)/(mZ′F + 1), giving the ratio of transmitted to
incident sound powers as

(8.45a)

τ=1−|B˜/A˜|2=4/[4cos2kL+(m+m−1)2sin2kL]
Values derived from Eq. 8.45a for an area ratio of ten are plotted in Fig. 8.12 in terms of
the sound power transmission loss. Frequencies for which sin kL = 0 are the natural
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frequencies of the closed expansion chamber at which the impedance at F equals that at G,
so that the expansion chamber is ‘short circuited’ and the transmission loss is zero. At
intermediate frequencies corresponding to cos kL = 0, the impedance ratio at F equals the
inverse of that at G and τ takes a minimum value given by

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Fig. 8.12. Transmission loss
produced by an expansion
chamber with an area ratio of
ten.

(8.45b)τmin=4/(m+m−1)2
The expressions derived above apply to an abrupt change of
section that joins ducts of any uniform cross-section. In
cases where the transition is less abrupt, such as a short conical adaptor for example, these
expressions only apply approximately if the transition length is much less than a
wavelength; otherwise, an acoustic horn model is required (see Section 8.11).

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Introduction and terminology

Leo L. Beranek, Tim J. Mellow, in Acoustics: Sound Fields and Transducers, 2012

Acoustic impedance (ZA). (American standard acoustic impedance)

The acoustic impedance at a given surface is defined as the complex ratio [6] of effective
sound pressure averaged over the surface to effective volume velocity through it. The
surface may be either a hypothetical surface in an acoustic medium or the moving surface
of a mechanical device. The unit is N·s/m5, or rayls/m2. [7]

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(1.9)ZA=p˜U˜N·s/m5(rayls/m2).

Specific acoustic impedance (Zs)

The specific acoustic impedance is the complex ratio of the effective sound pressure at a
point of an acoustic medium or mechanical device to the effective particle velocity at that
point. The unit is N·s/m3, or rayls. [8] That is,

(1.10)ZS=p˜u˜N·s/m3(rayls).

Mechanical impedance (ZM)

The mechanical impedance is the complex ratio of the effective force acting on a specified
area of an acoustic medium or mechanical device to the resulting effective linear velocity
through or of that area, respectively. The unit is N·s/m, or rayls·m2. That is,

(1.11)ZM=f˜u˜N·s/m(rayls·m2).

Characteristic impedance (ρ0c)

The characteristic impedance is the ratio of the effective sound pressure at a given point to
the effective particle velocity at that point in a free, plane, progressive sound wave. It is
equal to the product of the density of the medium times the speed of sound in the medium
(ρ0c). It is analogous to the characteristic impedance of an infinitely long, dissipationless
electric transmission line. The unit is N·s/m3 or rayls.

In the solution of problems in this book we shall assume for air that

ρ0c=407rayls
which is valid for a temperature of 22°C (71.6°F) and a static
pressure of 10 5 Pa.

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Horn loudspeakers
Leo L. Beranek, Tim J. Mellow, in Acoustics: Sound Fields and Transducers, 2012

Cutoff frequency
The special case of m = 4π/λ occurs at a frequency which we shall designate fc, where

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(9.49) fc=mc4π
This frequency fc is called the cutoff frequency because, for frequencies lower than this, no
power will be transmitted down the horn, i.e., the impedance at all positions along the horn
is purely reactive [see Eq. (9.46)]. The throat impedance of an infinite exponential horn is
plotted in Fig. 9.9.

To obtain the acoustic impedance at the throat of the horn in terms of the cutoff frequency,
we observe that fc/f = m/2k. Substituting in Eq. (9.45) yields

(9.50)

ZAT=ρ0cST(1−(fcf)2+jfcf)=RAT+jXAT
where

ST is throat area in m 2.

ρ0c is characteristic impedance of air in rayls.

fc is cutoff frequency.

f is driving frequency.

Graphs of two quantities A and B that are directly proportional to the resistive and reactive
parts of the acoustic impedance at the throat of an infinitely long exponential horn are
shown in Fig. 9.8. The quantities A and B also are directly proportionaf to the real and
imaginary parts of the acoustic admittance at the throat. The relations among A, B, RAT,
XAT, G AT, and BAT are given on the graph. When the frequency is greater than
approximately double the cutoff frequency fc, the throat impedance is substantially resistive
and very near its maximum value in magnitude.

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Fig. 9.8. Plot of the quantities A and B, which are defined by the relations given on the
graph.

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Linear Acoustic Equations

Roger Ohayon, Christian Soize, in Structural Acoustics and Vibration, 1998

Boundary conditions in terms of ψ

We express the boundary condition presented in Section 2.4in terms of field ψ(x, ω).

1- Neumann boundary condition on Γ. Substituting Eq. (78-2)into Eq. (14)yields the

Neumann condition on Γ,

(88)

(1+iωτ)∂ψ∂n=iωuwall⋅n−τc02ρ0∂∂n(Qiω).
2- Neumann boundary condition on ΓZwith wall acoustic impedance. Substituting
Eqs. (78-2)and (85)into Eq. (16)yields the Neumann condition on Γ Z,

(89)

(1+iωτ)∂ψ∂n=iωuwall⋅n−τc02ρ0∂∂n(Qiω)−iωρ0Zψ+π(ω)Z.
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3- Dirichlet boundary condition on Γ0. From Eq. (26), since p(x, ω) is equal to zero on Γ 0,
Eq. (85)yields π(ω) = iωρ0ψ(x, ω) for all x in Γ0, which shows that ψ(x, ω) is independent
of x on Γ0. Consequently, since ψ(x, ω) is defined to within an additive constant, this
constant is removed by choosing

(90)ψ=0onΓ0.
We then deduce that π(ω) = 0 in Eq. (85)and consequently,
p = -iω ρ0 φ.

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Ultrasonic Instruments and Devices I

Albert Goldstein, Raymond L. Powis, in Physical Acoustics, 1999

3 Acoustic Impedance Matching

An important feature of composite piezoelectrics is the reduction of element acoustic
impedance. If the composite substructure scale is small compared to the shortest
wavelength in the frequency bandwidth, the acoustic impedance of the composite
piezoelectric is the volume average of the piezoceramic and fill (or air) acoustic impedances
(Smith, 1992). This lowers the transducer element acoustic impedance and reduces the
required acoustic matching.

Acoustic matching technology has improved as well. New techniques such as acoustic
matching by micromachined graded volume fraction silicon structures (Haller and Khuri-
Yakub, 1992) and active piezoelectric layers (Hossack and Auld, 1992) provide improved
transmission and reception characteristics. Besides increased element sensitivity, the
improved acoustic impedance matching produces better near-field image quality (less
acoustic ring-down after transmission), broader bandwidth operation, and less energy
dissipated within the transducer. This latter factor is very important when the transducer is
pulsed rapidly — otherwise the transducer structure would soon become too hot to handle.

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Ultrasonic Instruments and Devices I

Lawrence C. Lynnworth, Valentin Mágori, in Physical Acoustics, 1999

8 Acoustic Impedance, Density, and Level Limit Monitoring

Consider the transmission of an ultrasonic signal between materials having different
acoustic impedance values. Only a part of the signal passes; the rest is reflected. Thus,
from the ratio of the incident signal amplitude and the reflected amplitude and the known
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impedance of one material, the other material’s impedance can be calculated. The
characteristic acoustic impedance is the product of density ρ and speed of sound c. In
principle, the density of liquids could be determined from the acoustic impedance
measurement at a known speed of sound, the measurement of which is not difficult. The
density determination could be of particular importance for volumetric flowmeters, often
blamed for not measuring the mass flow. By the combination of a volume flow sensor with
a density sensor, the desired mass flow sensor would be achieved.

Ultrasonic flow sensors have the advantage of delivering the speed of sound without
additional efforts. Apart from ultrasonic flow measurements, the speed of sound as an
indicator of density could be combined with other volume flow sensors, e.g., magnetic-
inductive devices. In spite of their high importance and several approaches (Lynnworth
and Pedersen (1972): Lynnworth (1979, pp. 507-510); Lynnworth et al. (1982); Fischer et
al. (1995); Puttmer et al. (1996); Van Deventer and Delsing (1997); Povey (1997);
Adamowski et al., (1998)), no successful commercial liquid impedometer–densimeter
(ρmeter) devices are presently known to the authors. (In flare gas flowmeters (Section
II.A.2), c after compensation for temperature yields molecular weight (MW); then MW
yields ρ. Of course, the conversion from MW to ρ requires pressure compensation, but this
is usually easy in this application as the flare exits to the atmosphere, so P usually is pretty
close to atmospheric pressure.) One likely explanation for the absence of Z-based ρmeters
is the necessary high accuracy, which is difficult to obtain for amplitude ratio evaluation,
especially considering industrial requirements that the wall material be stainless steel or
similar. In these cases, the reflection is almost total. Thus, only a small dependence on the
liquid acoustic impedance Z exists, and this is very difficult to evaluate with high accuracy
in the presence of superimposing spurious signals. Another reason is that the reflection
coefficient senses the fluid adjacent the wall, which may not be a good representation of the
fluid’s average density. Van Deventer and Delsing (1997) and Adamowski et al. (1998)
used plastic instead of stainless steel to increase the Z sensitivity of the reflection
coefficient measurement in their laboratory studies.

Much easier is the discrimination of whether the acoustic impedance prevailing at the
other side of a wall of known material impedance characterizes a gas or a liquid
(Figure 25). (See also Krautkrämer and Krautkrämer (1966, p. 423).) Using this principle,
Endress + Hauser (E + H) introduced the level limit sensor Nivopuls (Figure 25(b)), which
is clamped to the outside wall of a tank to recognize whether the liquid level inside has
reached the sensor position (Müller, 1996). Rather than measuring the amplitude ratio
between the incident and reflected wave, the so-called tank woodpecker evaluates the
ringing of the wall aider a pulse excitation, equivalently determined by the reflective
properties of the wall/interior material impedance ratio. The sensor consists of an
ultrasonic transducer made from a low-Q piezoceramic material and electronic circuitry at
the sensor’s position. An important advantage of this clamp-on sensor is that no aperture
in the wall of the vessel is necessary, and, further, that it does not come in contact with the
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fluid inside. The sensor can be used for liquids or liquefied gases. Material depositions on
the inner wall must be avoided at the sensor’s position. The walls can be of metal,
enameled metal, glass or plastic materials, or plastic reinforced with glass fiber. The
possible wall thickness range is from 2 mm to 12 mm for metal and 1 mm to 10 mm for
glass or plastic materials. The sensor operates at temperatures of the liquid to be detected,
ranging from –20 °C to 100 °C According to E + H, one of the first applications in the
United States was where fifty wort tanks at a brewery needed high and high-high alarms.
The signal was unaffected by the beer’s effervescence. In Europe, applications include
hydrochloric acid in a glass-lined steel tank; sulfuric acid and other liquids in plastic
vessels; and a water-plus-graphite mix in a plastic-lined steel tank. Nivopuls is TÜV-
approved for overspill protection.

A difficult development target of this innovative sensor was a long-term stable coupling
material that could be inserted between a sensor and a vessel’s wall. As auxiliary
information enhances the reliability of the sensor, the evaluation of possible echoes from
an opposite wall of the vessel (as explained in Section II.A.7) can be implemented.

Canongate Technology’s SpotCheck is another external point level sensor, similarly relying
on the ring-down to indicate liquid presence on the farside. Factors complicating the
application sometimes include a floating roof, whose seals might influence ring-down; and
regulations preventing on-site calibration or performance verification by actually raising
the liquid to the forbidden high or high-high level.

Let us return now to the general topic of liquid level. The time rate of change of liquid
level, dH/dt, compensated for the vessel’s cross-sectional area A, not only has the
dimensions of volumetric flow velocity, Q, but also has been used to measure flow (Rod,
1962). Also, dH/dt is one of the methods used for calibrating ultrasonic flowmeters. This
brings us to the second major measurand in process control, flow.

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Characterization of Liquids, Nano- and Microparticulates, and

Porous Bodies Using Ultrasound
Andrei S. Dukhin, Philip J. Goetz, in Studies in Interface Science, 2010

7.9 Measurement of Acoustic Impedance

Sound speed measurements, in principle, allow us to calculate the acoustic impedance of a
sample if the density of the slurry is known. However, there is an independent way to
measure acoustic impedance and thereby obtain additional data for the colloidal
dispersion.

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The acoustic impedance, Z, is introduced as a coefficient of proportionality between
pressure, P, and the velocity of the particles, v, in the sound wave. It directly follows from
this (see Chapter 3) that the acoustic impedance equals:

(7.9)Z=ρc(1−jαλ2π)
where the attenuation Z is in [nepers/m], the wavelength λ is in
[m], the sound speed of the longitudinal wave c is in [m/s], and
the density ρ is in [kg/m 3].

For most colloids, the contribution of attenuation to acoustic impedance in the ultrasound
range of 1–100 MHz is negligible. Thus we can simplify Equation (7.9) to obtain:

(7.10) Zs=ρscs
If sound speed, cs, is known, a measurement of the acoustic impedance allows us to
calculate an effective density of the slurry, which in turn can be used for monitoring the
colloid composition.

According to Equations (3.33) and (3.34), the acoustic impedance controls the propagation
of the ultrasound wave through phase boundaries. The intensity of the reflected and
transmitted waves depends on the relationship between the acoustic impedances of the
various phases. These intensities are measurable, which opens up the way to characterize
the otherwise unknown acoustic impedance of the colloid.

The design of the acoustic impedance probe is somewhat similar in design to that of the
CVI probe previously described (Figure 7.24). The difference between this device and the
CVI probe is the nature of the sound path and the reflections at the various interfaces.
These reflections and transmissions of the sound pulse are illustrated in Figure 7.26.

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Figure 7.26. Transmission of an ultrasound pulse through the acoustic impedance probe.

An electric pulse of intensity, Iin, is introduced to the piezoelectric crystal which converts it
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to an ultrasound pulse of intensity, Irod, This pulse propagates through the delay rod, and
eventually meets the boundary between the delay rod and the buffer rod. Part of the pulse,
Ir−br, reflects back to the piezoelectric crystal, and the other part, Ir−b−t,
transmits further to the boundary between the buffer rod and the colloid. The last part of
the pulse splits at this boundary, again into a reflected Ib−cr pulse and a transmitted
pulse. The reflected part comes back towards the piezoelectric crystal, experiencing one
more reflection-transmission split at the delay rod-buffer rod boundary. The last part of the
initial acoustic pulse, Ir−bt2, reaches the piezoelectric crystal, which converts it back
to the electric pulse with intensity Iout .

The experimental output of the impedance probe, Sexp, is the ratio of intensities of the
input and output pulses:

(7.11) Sexp=IoutIin
We can express Iout through Iin by following the pulse path, and applying reflection-
transmission laws (Equations (3.33) and (3.34)) at each border using the acoustic
impedances of the delay rod, Zr, of the buffer rod, Zb, and of the colloid, Zs. This gives us
the following set of equations:

(7.12)

Irod=CtrIin:conversion of electric pulse into ultrasound

(7.13)Ir−bt1=Irod4ZbZr(Zb+Zr)2=IinCtr4ZbZr(Zb+Zr)2:transmission delay rod-buffer

(7.14)

Ib−cr=Ir−bt1(Zb−Zc)2(Zb+Zc)2=IinCtr4ZbZr(Zb+Zr)2(Zb−Zs)2(Zb+Zs)2:reflection
buffer rod-colloid
(7.15)

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Ib−rt2=Ib−cr4ZbZr(Zb+Zr)2=IinCtr16Zb2Zr2(Zb+Zr)4(Zb−Zs)2(Zb+Zs)2:transmission
buffer-delay rod
(7.16)

Iout=CtrIb−rt2=IinCtr216Zb2Zr2(Zb+Zr)4(Zb−Zs)2(Zb+Zs)2:conversion of ultrasound
into electric pulse
Substituting the final equation for the intensity of the output electric pulse into the
definition of the experimental output of the impedance probe (Equation 7.11), we get the
following result:

(7.17)Sexp=IoutIin=Ctr216Zb2Zr2(Zb+Zr)4(Zb−Zs)2(Zb+Zs)2
There are two unknown parameters in this equation: the acoustic impedance of the colloid,
Zc, and the efficiency of the piezoelectric crystal for conversion of electric energy into
ultrasound, Ctr.

It turns out that we can eliminate the last parameter using the pulse reflected from the
delay rod-buffer interface during forward transmission [16]. The intensity of this pulse is
marked as Ir−br. This pulse returns back to the piezo crystal before the pulse
reflected from the colloid. The piezoelectric crystal converts it back into the electric pulse
with energy Ioutcal. We can measure the ratio of this intensity to the intensity of the
initial pulse:

(7.18)

Scal=IoutcalIin=CtrIr−brIin=CtrIrodIin(Zb−Zr)2(Zb+Zr)2=Ctr2(Zb−Zr)2(Zb+Zr)2
Substituting this equation into Equation (7.17), we obtain the following simple expression
for calculating the acoustic impedance of the colloid:

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(7.19)Zs=Zb1−SexpN1+SexpN
where

SexpN=SexpScal|Zb2−Zr2|4ZbZr
This calibration procedure minimizes the potential problem related to variations in the
transducer conversion efficiency.

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Loudspeaker systems
Leo L. Beranek, Tim J. Mellow, in Acoustics: Sound Fields and Transducers, 2012

Values of electrical-circuit elements

All the elements shown in Fig. 7.6 are in units that yield acoustic impedances in N·s/m5,
which means that all elements are transformed to the acoustical side of the circuit. This
accounts for the effective area of the diaphragm SD appearing in the electrical part of the
circuit. The quantities shown are:

e˜g is open-circuit voltage in V of the audio amplifier driving the loudspeaker.

B is flux density in the air gap in T (1 T = 104 gauss).

l is length of the wire wound on the voice coil in m.

Rg is output electrical impedance (assumed resistive) in Ω of the audio amplifier.

RE is electrical resistance of the wire on the voice coil in Ω.

a is effective radius in m of the diaphragm.

SD = πa2 is effective area in m 2 of the diaphragm.

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