Original Article

Proc IMechE Part M:

J Engineering for the Maritime Environment
1–12
Standard operating procedure for Ó IMechE 2019
Article reuse guidelines:
loading/unloading operations and sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/1475090219875860

navigational safety of bulk carriers as journals.sagepub.com/home/pim

per charter party requirements

Lu Pie-Ya1 and Chou Chien-Chang2,3

Abstract
According to the Review of Maritime Transport published by the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development in 2018, 53.57% of total global seaborne trade volume was transported by bulk carriers in 2017. Bulk
cargo shipment is one of the major modes of transportation in the international trade. Many bulk carrier marine acci-
dents each year are caused by inappropriate cargo loading/unloading operation procedures. Therefore, the main purpose
of this article is to establish a standard operating procedure for cargo handling and navigational safety management guide-
lines for bulk carriers. The standard operating procedure proposed in this article is developed based on loading/unload-
ing theories, international rules and regulations, case studies, a literature review, expert opinions, and practical
experience from some captains, as well as the author who has worked as a bulk carrier captain for more than 20 years.
The developed standard operating procedure can be offered to bulk carrier captains, ship owners and charterers, and
ship safety management companies for improving navigational safety and avoiding cargo damage.

Keywords
Bulk carrier, cargo loading/unloading, standard operating procedures, charter party, navigational safety

Date received: 11 February 2019; accepted: 21 August 2019

Introduction management to meet the responsibilities and obliga-

The various modes of transportation have been intro-
duced by the researchers, that is, seaside, roadside, and
airside, and among these, seaside is the cheapest mode
of transportation for global bulk cargoes.1 According
to the Review of Maritime Transport, published by the
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD)2 in 2018, 53.57% of total global seaborne
trade volumes were transported by bulk carriers in
2017. This shows the proportion and importance of
bulk carrier shipment to the global seaborne trade.
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping3 reported that a pri-
mary cause of a high proportion of losses was a combi-
nation of corrosion, physical damage sustained during
cargo operations, and ship design. In order to avoid
cargo damage, ship structure damage, and even total
loss due to improper loading and unloading per year, it
is necessary to conduct in-depth discussions regarding
the cargo loading/unloading operations of bulk
carriers.4 Therefore, the purpose of this research is
to provide the standard operating procedure (SOP)
for cargo handling and ship navigational safety
tions of the ship owner and the captain per the request
of the charter party.
According to the cargo loading/unloading theories
of Bending Moment (BM), Shear Force (SF),
Metacentric Height (GM), and the international regula-
tion/rule requirements of International Maritime Solid
Bulk Cargoes Code (IMSBC Code), International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS),
Bulk Cargo Shipping Name (BCSN), and the practical
case studies, this study provided practical and
feasible bulk cargo loading/unloading SOPs and safety
1
Chinese Maritime Transport Co. Ltd., Kaohsiung city
2
Department of Shipping Technology, National Kaohsiung University of
Science and Technology, Kaohsiung
3
Chou’s Science Research Center, Kaohsiung
Corresponding author:
Chou Chien-Chang, Department of Shipping Technology, National
Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology 482, Chung-Chou 3rd
Road, Chi-Chin District 805, Kaohsiung.
Emails: ccchou@nkust.edu.tw; chiench1@ms58.hinet.net
2 Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 00(0)
Table 1. A list of terms and abbreviations.
Abbreviations Terms
BCSN Bulk Cargo Shipping Name
BLU Code Code of Practice for the Safe
Loading/Unloading of Bulk Carriers
BM Bending Moment
GM Metacentric Height
IMDG Code International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code
IMO International Maritime Organization
IMSBC Code International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes Code
ISM Code Internal Safety Management Code
ISPS Code International Ship and Port Facility
Security Code
MT Metric Ton
NOR Notice of Readiness
PSC Port State Control
SF Shear Force
SOLAS International Convention for the Safety
of Life at Sea
SOP Standard operating procedure
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development
management of the cargo on board for the captain, the
crew, and the shipping company to comply with the
company’s Internal Safety Management Code (ISM
Code). This research aims to achieve no cargo damage
during the voyage at sea, no loading shortage at load-
ing ports, no unloading shortage of cargoes at the dis-
charging ports, the ship safe arrival at the discharging
ports, and thus, transport safely cargo and meet per-
fectly the requirements of the charter party.
Various research methods are applied to the study,
including the loading/unloading theories, international
rules/regulations, case studies, a literature review,
expert opinions, practical experience from some cap-
tains, and the author’s navigational experience. Based
on various research methods, a practical and feasible
cargo loading/unloading SOP for bulk carriers is suc-
cessfully developed. The rest of this article is organized
as follows. Section ‘‘Literature review’’ is the literature
review. Practical case studies are discussed in section
‘‘Case studies.’’ The SOP for loading/unloading opera-
tions of bulk carriers is proposed in section ‘‘SOP for
loading/unloading of bulk carrier,’’ followed by conclu-
sion in section ‘‘Conclusion.’’ First, a list of terms
and abbreviations used in this article are given in
Table 1.
Literature review
This review is divided into the following eight parts: (1)
ship navigational safety and the cargo loading/unload-
ing risk of bulk carrier; (2) relevant provisions on cargo
and special requirements for various minerals, coals,
and grains; (3) ship strength theories; (4) three-
dimensional (3D) Load Master Cload computer
software for cargo operations of bulk carriers; (5)
requirements of the Safe Transportation of Coal in
Bulk Instructions; (6) Rightship and Port State Control
(PSC); (7) charter party; and (8) weather route. In addi-
tion, basic information and theoretical basis of the
above literature can be combined with the practical
experience of the authors to achieve the purpose of this
study.
Ship navigational safety and the cargo loading/
unloading risk of bulk carrier
Roberts and Marlow5 indicated that in recent years,
bulk carriers have been identified with high risks of cat-
astrophic structural failure and sinking and with the
loss of human life. They identified four risk factors that
had significant independent effects on the likelihood of
a bulk carrier sinking based on Lloyd’s of London’s
casualty records. The risk of sinking increased with the
age of the ship and was related to the ship’s flag of reg-
istration. Most importantly, however, increased risks
were found for heavy cargoes of iron ore and scrap
steel or iron, and for trading and sailing routes. The
Australian government’s regular PSC and Rightship
inspections have decreased the number of lower-quality
bulk carriers and have improved maritime safety in dry
bulk shipping. Most bulk carrier accidents occur in
storms or typhoons. These concepts of Rightship and
PSC give a basis for the procedure 1 of the SOP in
Table 2. The concept of sailing route and weather con-
ditions give a basis for the procedure 2 of the SOP in
Table 2. The nature and property of the bulk cargo
give a basis for the procedure 10 of the SOP in Table 2.
Wu et al.6 indicated that bauxite in fine particles with
high moisture has a high risk of liquefaction during the
maritime transportation process, which is harmful to the
ship’s stability and navigation safety. To ensure safe
navigation, it is necessary to pay attention to the whole
transportation process, including the operation of cargo,
the ship’s maneuvering, and the ocean environment.
That study used the Markov Chain method to examine
the transportation stages of a bauxite carrier, including
loading, unberthing, departure, and sea navigation, and
then used a cloud simulation model to analyze the risks
for each transportation stage. The results showed that
the risk values for the loading operation at the wharf,
unberthing at wharf apron, port sailing at harbor basin,
departing at inner channel, departing at outer channel,
and sailing at coastal sea are 1.9–2.5, 1.8–1.9, 1.8–2.0,
2.0–2.5, 2.5–3.1, and 3.1–4.0, respectively. Liu7 believed
that the dangerous period for the cargo is within 8–16 h
after departure, and the high probable time for liquefac-
tion is within 3–5 days at sea. The concept of liquefaction
gives a basis for procedure 17 of the SOP in Table 2.
Munro and Mohajerani8 pointed out that liquefac-
tion resulting from a combination of cyclic loading, fine
particles, and moisture within bulk cargoes may cause
the bulk carriers to capsize or sink. In addition, the
effectiveness of determining the transportable moisture
limit using the modified proctor/fagerberg test for iron
Pie-Ya et al. 3

Table 2. SOP for loading/unloading of bulk carrier.

Start

Preparation
1. Check the draft limits of loading/unloading ports and seasonal loading zones
Get Rightship and prepare PSC documents for inspection if necessary
2. Make a sailing plan and calculate the total navigation distance
3. Calculate the required oil and Cargo Deadweight Calculation
4. The Pre-Stowage Plan will be finalized after the charterer reviews and agrees
5. The Loading Sequence Plan of cargo operation is created for confirmation
At the loading port
6. Tender the NOR and confirm the time of shipper’s acceptance when arriving at the loading port
7. Cargo holds are inspected by the cargo inspector before loading
8. Pay attention to the procedure of Loading Sequence and pumping ballast water in time
9. Last trimming is used for the final loading adjustment. Sagging should be avoided.
10. Avoid overweight and pay attention to the cargo Repose Angle in IMSBC Code
11. For the Cape Size bulk carrier, the alternating loading is no longer allowed.
12. The final adjustment in the last trimming step should be calculated jointly by the Chief and the cargo surveyor, and
double-checked by the Captain.
13. The cargo loading at the loading port is as many as possible, and less loading is not allowed by the owner or charterer.
14. If the less loading was caused by the shipper’s cargo shortage, complaint should be made immediately and sent to relevant
parties before departing from the loading port.
15. Loading grain on Panamax at Australian ports should refer to the Australian Calculation of Stability for Grain Ship Form.
16. Loading grain on Panama at the United States ports should refer to the US National Cargo Bureau Inc. Grain Stability
Calculation Form.
17. Pay attention to humidity, repose angle, and free surface effect when loading bauxite.
During navigation at sea
18. Pay attention to the temperature of coal, prohibit flames, and keep unventilated.
19. Pay attention to the ventilation of the cargo holds to prevent grain sweat.
At the discharging port
20. Tender the NOR and confirm the time of consignee’s acceptance when arriving at the discharging port.
21. Before discharge, the draft of the ship is jointly reviewed. Starting unloading is carried out in accordance with the unloading
schedule and the pumping in of ballast water to keep the necessary minimum sailing draft, BM, SF, and GM.
22. Before departure, the draft of the ship should be jointly reviewed. The Draft Survey Record should be made for calculating
the actual unloading quantity.
23. During unloading, pay attention to the temperature of the coal. If necessary, the shore fresh water is used to cool down the
temperature of coal to avoid spontaneous combustion. It is prohibited to use seawater onboard to cool down.
24. Before pumping in the ballast water, check the bottom of the cargo hold to see if any damage caused by the unloading grab.
If there is any cracking, the joint inspection and the damage report should be made for claim compensation.

PSC: Port State Control; NOR: Notice of Readiness; BM: bending movement; SF: shear force; GM: Metacentric Height; IMSBC Code: International
Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes Code.

ore fines is questioned. They used an apparatus on the
samples of iron ore fines. The results showed that a sud-
den loss of shear strength at moisture contents lower
than the transportable moisture limit with indications
that liquefaction had occurred.
Munro and Mohajerani9 found that specific hazards
come with the transportation of solid bulk cargoes on
bulk carriers. There have been 23 bulk carrier-sinking acci-
dents over the past 30 years. The potential cause may be
the liquefaction of the bulk cargo. To realize how the
liquefaction of the bulk cargo affects the stability of the
cargoes, they designed an experiment to test the conditions
under which iron ore fines may liquefy, and to monitor
the changes that occur within the material that may affect
the stability of the bulk cargoes. The concept of liquefac-
tion gives a basis for procedure 17 of the SOP in Table 2.
Paik et al.10 investigated the sinking of the Capesize
bulk carrier M.V. Derbyshire in the Northwest Pacific
in September 1980. She carried fine iron ore from
Canada to Japan on this voyage. The hull structure
computer programs were applied to evaluating the indi-
vidual stiffened panels and hulls of the M.V. Derbyshire
under extreme BMs during its last voyage. Finally, they
concluded that the bulk carrier sinking was initiated by
the failure of hull structures rather than hatch cover
failure subsequent to water ingress into the cargo holds.
The concepts of the hull structure and BM give a basis
for procedures 11 and 21 of the SOP in Table 2.
Lee11 presented a response plan for a handymax
bulk carrier liquefaction incident, with the objective of
reducing the risk of capsizing and reclaim its stability
by redistributing her homogeneous stowage loading on
board into alternate loading. Moisture content below
the transportable moisture limit before loading is the
suggested mandatory standard of IMSBC Code for the
transport of solid bulk cargoes. The laboratory test con-
sidered some important factors, including homogeneous
stowage loading, alternate loading moisture content,
4 Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 00(0)
transportable moisture limit, nature and property of
bulk cargo, particle size, stowage factor, and repose
angle. These concepts give a basis for procedures 8 and
10 of the SOP in Table 2.
Although some previous studies discussed the nature
and hazards of bulk cargoes loaded in bulk carriers dur-
ing marine transportation, few focused on the SOPs for
bulk cargo loading/unloading of bulk carriers. Pratap
et al.12 developed a practice-oriented decision support
model for assisting port planners in making decisions
regarding the unloading operation of coal at the port.
The aim of the decision support model is to minimize
the unloading time of ships at the port, congestion in
the stockyard, and loading time of the rakes at the load-
ing stations.
Relevant provisions on cargo and special
requirements for various minerals, coals, and grains
In addition to the risk factors listed in the literature
above, according to the authors’ practical experiences,
some safety problems with bulk carriers have to be
solved. For example, it is necessary for the captain of
bulk carrier to pay more attention to preparing cargo
safety management guidelines for safely loading/
unloading cargo before the beginning of loading/
unloading operations. The SOP for loading/unloading
cargo and safety requirements have to be strictly fol-
lowed in order to reduce cargo damage and sinking
accidents of bulk carriers.
IMSBC Code and special requirements for grain handling and
transport safety. The IMSBC Code came into effect on 1
January 2011, and has replaced the previous Code of Safe
Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes.13 This is provided for the
handling of bulk solid cargoes such as coal, cement, chem-
ical fertilizers, mineral, and feeds, but the loading/unload-
ing operations of grain are subject to the International
Code for the Safe Carriage of Grain in Bulk.
You14 summarized the characteristics of grain and
the prevention of cargo damage as follows:
1. Type and property of grains
According to maritime transportation and ship
safety opinions, grain characteristics can be roughly
classified into the following seven types: (1) respiratory,
(2) febrile, (3) moisture absorption and wet permeabil-
ity, (4) odor adsorption, (5) susceptible to pests, (6)
sinking, and (7) bulk solid.
In addition, the repose angles of various grains
should be noted, for example, the repose angle for soy-
beans is about 24°–32°. During the period of naviga-
tion, the repose angle of the grain in the cargo hold is
significantly reduced, which is about half of the original
repose angle due to the swaying and lifting movements
of the ship. Experiments have shown that the original
repose angle for the soybean is about 24°–32°. During
the period of navigation, the repose angle for the soy-
beans in the cargo hold is reduced to 12°–16°, and the
soybeans start to move due to the swaying and lifting
movements. In other words, the smaller the repose
angle, the easier the soybeans flow, and the more scat-
tered they are. The concept of the repose angle gives a
basis for procedure 10 of the SOP in Table 2.
2. Impact of grain movement on ship stability during
navigation
After the bulk grains are loaded in the cargo holds,
the grain movements due to swaying and vibration will
affect the stability of the bulk carrier during the period
of navigation. On a rough sea, the ship may capsize due
to grain movements.
The movement of the grain in the cargo hold will
produce the heeling force. As a result, the bulk carrier
will have a heeling angle, which will also affect the GM
of the ship, and then result in a decrease in the initial
stability of the bulk carrier. In severe cases, it will lead
to a shipwreck accident.
It is known from the above theory that the sinking
and scattering of grain will have a great impact on the
stability of the ship. The movements of the grains in the
cargo holds include the following two components: ver-
tical movement and transverse movement. The trans-
verse movement of the grain will affect the ship’s GM
and produce a lateral tilting moment, leading to a heel
angle of ship and a change in the stability of the ship.
Obviously, the safety of bulk grain carriers cannot be
guaranteed until the basic requirements of the stability
of ordinary dry cargo ships are met. The concept of
GM or stability gives a basis for procedures 15 and 16
of the SOP in Table 2.
3. Cargo management during navigation
According to weather conditions and the nature of
the grain in the cargo hold, appropriate ventilation is
necessary in order to keep the low moisture content of
the grain and to prevent sweat from entering the cargo
hold during the voyage. The concept of the ventilation
gives a basis for procedure 19 of the SOP in Table 2.
If possible, duty officers should check the condition
of the grains in the cargo holds during the voyage and
before arrival, so as to find the problem in time to take
remedial measures.
SOLAS and BCSN. Two important issues concerning the
transport of bulk solid cargo and the dangerous goods
in solid form in bulk indexed in the SOLAS are also
included in the IMSBC Code. BCSN is used to identify
the bulk cargo transported at sea. When a cargo is
included in the IMSBC Code, the BCSN of the cargo is
indicated by the English capital letter in the Individual
Schedules of IMSBC Code, Appendix 1 and Appendix
4. If dangerous cargo is defined by the International
Pie-Ya et al.
Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code) and
SOLAS Convention, the Proper Shipping Name (PSN)
for the cargo is the BCSN. The concepts of IMSBC
Code and BCSN give a basis for procedure 10 of the
SOP in Table 2.
Ship strength theories
Guo et al.15 stated the theoretical basis of hull strength,
SF, and BM. Derrett and Barrass16 illustrated the phe-
nomena of SF, BM, sagging, and hogging as follows.
Hull strength. Discussing and calculating ship strength is
a very complicated problem, including many factors
related to the structure, stress, and age of ship. It can
be roughly divided into the following two aspects: static
force and external force.
Static force:
 The weight of the hull structure and its distribution.
 The buoyancy forces, which vary over each unit
length of the ship and are constantly varying in
navigation.
 The direction of hydrostatic pressure.
 The influence of the weight concentration sections
such as main engine, machinery, masts, derricks,
and winches.
External force:
 Rolling, pitching, and heaving.
 Wind and waves.
The above forces are responsible for the hull SF and
BM. The structural effects of longitudinal BM and SF
are shown as follows.
Stresses. SF refers to the sum of the loads acting on the
component, and stress refers to the force acting on each
unit area. It can be divided into the following three
types:
 Tensile stresses refer to stresses that cause a compo-
nent to elongate.
 Compressive stress refers to a stress that shortens a
component.
 of Coal in Bulk Instructions from one Japanese shipping
Shear stresses refer to stresses that cause adjacent
components to slide.
BMs. Usually, the BM of a component is a combina-
tion of the following three stresses: the static forces,
external forces, and longitudinal stresses in still water
and waves. When heavy cargoes are loaded both on the
bow and stern parts of a ship, the phenomenon of hog-
ging will occur. When heavy cargoes are loaded only on
the middle part of a ship, the phenomenon of sagging
will occur (Figure 1). Any hogging and sagging will
5
Figure 1. Hogging and sagging.
Source: Derrett and Barrass.16
possibly result in the fracture of the ship and a marine
accident. The concepts of hull strength, SF, BM, hog-
ging, and sagging give a basis for procedures 9, 10, and
11 of the SOP in Table 2
3D Load Master Cload computer software for cargo
operations of bulk carriers
The 3D Load Master Cload is an important instrument
for bulk carriers. It is a computer software program for
calculating and providing stability, strength, and other
important seaworthiness information for navigation
safety. In the actual loading and unloading process, all
important data such as the instantaneous change of
cargo load and ballast water in each compartment17 are
input into the software by the user. The user can obtain
seaworthiness information about draft, SF, BM, and
other data. Finally, some important forms such as Pre-
Stowage Plan, Loading Sequence Plan, and Loading
Stowage Plan will be shown and printed for providing
relevant parties such as charterers, terminal operators,
shippers, and ship owners with a guide to the loading
operation. There is a close relationship between ballast
water, stability, draft, and the volume of cargo loaded
in the bulk carrier. The concepts of ballast water, stabi-
lity, draft, and cargo volume give a basis for procedures
8, 9, 13, 15, 16, 21, 22, and 24 of the SOP. The concepts
of Pre-Stowage Plan and Loading Sequence Plan give a
basis for procedures 4 and 5 of the SOP in Table 2.
Requirement of the Safe Transportation of Coal in
Bulk Instructions
According to the requirement of the Safe Transportation
company, the captain is required to submit relevant
reports and measurement records to the responsible
persons of the charter after completion of the loading
voyage. If the nature of cargo is different from the
declaration, especially self-heating and methane emis-
sions, the captain should inform the charterer and the
shipper.
Referring to the requirement of the Safe
Transportation of Coal in Bulk Instructions from one
Japanese shipping company, the key points are sum-
marized as follows:
6 Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 00(0)
1. Coal has been shipped in bulk for a long time, and
coal has a hazardous nature which may emit flam-
mable gas and be liable to self-heating. The safe
transportation depends on the precautionary mea-
sures against explosion due to the emission of flam-
mable gas (methane) and spontaneous combustion.
The concept of flammable gas or self-heating gives
a basis for procedure 23 of the SOP in Table 2.
2. Coal is not listed as hazardous goods in IMDG
Code, but it is classified as Materials Hazardous
only in Bulk (MHB). When carrying in bulk, it is
necessary to make specific precautions due to its
hazardous nature. For safe transportation, we
must understand the cargo’s nature and obey
SOLAS, IMSBC Code, Code of Practice for the
Safe Loading and Unloading of Bulk Carriers
(BLU Code), and the other related regulations/
codes/guidelines.
In addition, based on the authors’ navigational
experiences, the authors add the following important
issues to the requirements of the Safe Transportation
of Coal in Bulk Instructions while loading and unload-
ing coal:
 Due to the different loading time for each cargo
hold, the choice of the timing of closing natural
ventilation is very important. If the methane con-
tent of each compartment after closing the cargo
holds is not exceeded, all ventilation (including nat-
ural ventilation) can be immediately turned off.
Because it is difficult to predict the weather within
24 h accurately after departing from the loading
port, in practice, as long as the measured methane
content is not exceeded, the natural ventilation can
be turned off immediately and the hatches of cargo
holds can be sealed by the maritime tape. The cargo
holds 1–3 in front of the ship should be especially
carefully inspected. The concepts of ventilation and
watertightness give a basis for procedures 18 and
19 of the SOP in Table 2.
 Fireworks and flames shall be strictly prohibited on
the deck. Ship’s crew shall not enter the cargo hold
during the voyage. The manhole covers of each
cargo hold shall be completely closed and shall not
be opened.
 After arriving at the discharging port, the terminal
operators and security person should check the
cargo holds first and confirm that it is safe to open
the hatches of holds to start unloading.
Rightship and PSC
Rightship. Rightship is a ship approval system handled
by the following three of the major operators in the coal
and iron ore markets: BHP, Cargill, and Rio Tinto. Its
aim is to identify suitable vessels for the transportation
of bulk cargoes. Major dry bulk operators in Australia
and Brazil require vessels to be approved by Rightship.
Rightship ranks vessels into the following three cate-
gories: (1) Three-, four-, or five-star ratings mean the
ship is an acceptable risk and suitable for bulk cargo
transport, (2) two-star rating means Rightship must be
contacted for further review, and (3) one-star rating
means a more detailed investigation is required. The
concept of Rightship approval gives a basis for proce-
dure 1 of the SOP in Table 2.
The rating procedure takes account of about 50 fac-
tors. These factors include the ship owner, ship age,
PSC inspections, certificates of International Ship and
Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code), and so on.
Vessels over 18 years of age are automatically down-
graded to a two-star rating and require a physical
inspection (Steamship Mutual,18 https//www.steamshi
pmutual.com/articl).
PSC. Lin19 indicated that the PSC is a professional
inspection on foreign ships calling at the ports of other
countries and carried out by port state authorities. Its
main purpose is not only to eliminate the sub-standard
ships, but also to protect the ocean environment, main-
tain navigation safety, and improve the living environ-
ment and working conditions for the personnel on
board. The concept of PSC gives a basis for procedure
1 of the SOP in Table 2.
Charter party
Zhong20 pointed out that there are liner and tramp sea-
borne trade services in the shipping market. There are
three main types of charter party in the tramp service as
follows:
1. Time Charter Party: This is the contract for the
transportation of a certain period of time. The ship
owner is responsible for the crew salary, crew food,
repair and maintenance costs, material supply and
equipment renewal, lubricants, fresh water, insur-
ance, inspection, demolition, claims (partial), and
other miscellaneous items. The charterer is respon-
sible for fuel, port charges, handling charges, clear-
ance charges, commission on cargo, claims
(partial), and fresh water (for the boiler).
2. Voyage Charter Party: This is the contract for the
carriage of a particular voyage. All charges
incurred during the particular voyage are for
account of the ship owner.
3. Bare-boat Charter Party (or Charter Party by
Demise): This is a ship chartering, a type of lease
contract rather than a transportation contract. All
charges and costs during the period of chartering
are for account of the ship charterer.
De et al.21 pointed out that the time window of
loading/unloading operations at the ports is an impor-
tant issue. In bulk shipping in particular, the time
window management must meet the requirements of
Pie-Ya et al.
the charter party. Bulk carriers may arrive early at the
port and/or depart late, leading to certain additional
operational and chartering charges. For a vessel, the
waiting time at the anchorage also affects the time
window. De et al.22 investigated the dynamic ship
berth allocation problem in an Indian port, focusing
on vessel waiting time at the anchorage due to una-
vailability of the berth and insufficiency of the loading
and unloading equipment. The concepts of charter
party and bulk shipping time management give a basis
for procedures 6 and 20 of the SOP in Table 2.
Weather route
Weather route advice is usually provided by interna-
tional marine information services companies specializ-
ing in a wide spectrum of services ranging from weather
routing services to on-board weather information and
route guidance systems (Oil and Gas Online,23 https//
www.oilandgasonline.com/wni-oceanroutes-0002).
Depending heavily on the weather information and
route advices provided by the marine information ser-
vice company, it belongs to the adventurous behavior
and violates the principle that the captain should direct
all navigational procedures. Therefore, the optimal
route depends on the three factors of distance, wind,
and waves, as well as ocean currents. Associated with
the use of the high-altitude 500-mbar weather chart,24
it can easily avoid the vessel entering the bad weather
route and then reach safely the port of discharge. The
mbar is a unit of atmospheric air pressure. The con-
cepts of weather route or sailing plan give a basis for
procedure 2 of the SOP in Table 2.
Case studies
In this section, three failure cases, including Cape size,
Handy size, and Panamax size bulk carriers are dis-
cussed in section ‘‘Failure cases and analysis,’’ and one
successful case is discussed in section ‘‘Handy-size: ship-
wreck case.’’
Failure cases and analysis
Cape size: ship sinking case
1. Accident of ship total loss (Wikipedia,25 http//en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/MV-derbyshire)
(a) M.V. DDD was an ore-bulk-oil combination
carrier built in 1976. M.V. DDD left the port
of Quebec, Canada in September 1980; her
was carrying a cargo of 157,446 tons of iron
ore, and her destination was the port of
Kawasaki, Japan. On 9 September 1980, M.V.
DDD hove-to in Typhoon Orchid about 230
miles from Okinawa and was overwhelmed by
the tropical storm, killing all aboard. M.V.
DDD never issued a Mayday distress message
before she sank near Okinawa, Japan. The
vessel had been following weather routing
7
advice from a commercial weather routing
company.
(b) In June 1994, the wreck of M.V. DDD was
found, and a marine accident survey spent
over 40 days of photographing and examining
the wreck field looking for evidence of what
sank the ship.
Ultimately, it was determined that waves crashing
over the front of the ship had sheared off the covers of
small ventilation pipes near the bow. Over the next
30 h, seawater had entered through the exposed pipes
into the forward section of the ship, causing the bow to
slowly ride lower and lower in the water. Finally, the
bow was completely exposed to the full force of the
rough waves, which caused the massive hatch on the
first cargo hold to buckle inward, allowing hundreds of
tons of water to enter in moments. As the ship started
to sink, the second, then the third hatches also failed,
dragging the ship underwater.
2. The authors analyze the shipwreck
(a) Failure to pay attention to the meteorological
data and mistakenly entered the Typhoon
Orchid. Failure to comply with the guidelines
for the precautions of the bad weather to
avoid the ship entering the dangerous radius
of the typhoon.
(b) Failure to start the sewage well pump in time
to draw out the seawater (entered through the
covers of exposed ventilation pipes) in the for-
ward section (bosun store and forepeak tank)
of the ship. If the officers and crews can
promptly stop the seawater entering through
the covers of exposed ventilation pipes, the
bow could not ride lower and lower in the
water. It would keep the hatches of the first
and second cargo holds intact.
(c) As a rule of thumb, a ship should navigate
slowly to keep the ship’s power and rudder
effectiveness to reduce the impact of the waves
when a ship unavoidably enters and navigates
a bad weather area, so that the ship can sail
into the low-pressure (typhoon) safety radius,
waiting for the low pressure (Typhoon) gradu-
ally to lift.
(d) Sailing at sea, the captain should not be
overly confident that the hull structure is
sturdy, and ignore the terror of nature and
the risks at sea. The captain should under-
stand the ship’s sea resistance, including
surge, sway, heave, roll, pitch, and yaw.
Those are the six dimensions of ship motions
existing in navigation at sea. Failure to pay
attention to the details of these ship motions
will cause marine accidents.
The case study and the analysis by the authors give a
basis for procedures 2 and 19 of the SOP in Table 2.
8 Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 00(0)
Handy-size: shipwreck case
1. M.V. JJJ shipwreck accident (International
Maritime Organization (IMO),26 https//worldmar-
itimenews/172059/ imo-bauxiteliquefaction-sank-
bulk-jupiter)
(a) The ship accidentally sank off the coast of
Vietnam, and only one person was rescued.
The ship carried a 46,400-metric tons (MTs)
load of bauxite mine from Kuantan Port,
Malaysia on 30 December 2014, with 19
Philippine crew members. The Japanese Coast
Guard received the ship’s distress alert, but
repeated attempts to contact the vessel on all
communication channels failed. Finally, she
sank about 150 nautical miles off the coast of
Vung Tau, Vietnam.
(b) The ship accident may have been the result of
the liquefaction of the cargo due to high
moisture content, causing the ship to sink.
Liquefaction may cause the ship to lose the
stability due to the internal movement of the
cargo (free surface) and is considered a possi-
ble cause of the shipwreck. Bauxite is usually
classified as a low-risk ‘‘Group C’’ cargo in
the IMSBC Code, but P&I associations such
as the North P&I Association and the
London P&I Association have warned that
bauxite ore derived from Brazil and Indonesia
has liquefaction characteristics similar to
high-risk ‘‘Group A’’ goods such as high-
grade nickel ore.
2. The authors analyze the shipwreck
(a) The bauxite carried in this voyage was not
derived from Brazil and Indonesia, but from
the port of Kuantan, Malaysia. Therefore, it
is considered the ‘‘Group C’’ low-risk bauxite
mine. The inspection was carried out, and the
cargo hold flooding was found. It was specu-
lated that the only potential reason was the
cargo liquefaction.
(b) The seawater in bad weather went into cargo
holds and resulted in the cargo hold flooding,
which was not treated in time to cause the
liquefaction of the bauxite. The liquefaction
of the bauxite produced a free liquid surface
effect, which caused the stability and GM of
the bulk carrier to change. At the same time,
the ship was inclined to one side due to the
strong wind and the large wave, and then
overturned and sank within a short time.
(c) If the refuge port is not planned in the voyage
plan, it is a serious mistake. When it is found
that the hatch cover is not watertight, the
maritime tape should be used to affix the seam
at the hatch joint to prevent the cargo hold
flooding. In addition, the ship owner should
arrange in time the nearest emergency refuge
port for berthing when cargo hold flooding is
found.
The case study and the analysis by the authors give a
basis for procedures 2, 10, 17, and 19 of the SOP in
Table 2.
Panamax-size: cargo damage case
1. Cargo damage (Taiwanese Ocean Maritime Service
Ltd.)27
This is the case of a Taiwanese Ocean Maritime
Service Ltd, Co., in which soybean damage occurred in
the cargo hold of the ship. The shipping company and
the surveyor are required to survey this cargo damage
incident. The ship arrived at Taichung, Taiwan on 11
August 2015, and the ship was investigated over the
next few days. The findings of the sweat cargo damage
report for bulk soybean cargoes in bulk carrier were as
follows:
(a) Loading in Brazil
The ship’s first port of loading was Itacoatiara port
in Brazil on 5 June 2015, loaded with 48,354.86 MTs,
loaded onto cargo holds 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7, respec-
tively. The second port of loading was completed at
Port Santos, Brazil, on 29 June 2015, loaded with
14,224.22 MTs, and loaded on cargo holds 4 and 7 (on
top).
(b) Unloading at Taichung, Taiwan
The ship arrived at Taichung on 11 August 2015.
After the hatch cover was opened, the surface of the
cargo in the cargo holds 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, was covered
with mold caused by sweat, but the soybeans in the
cargo holds 4 and 7 were in good condition.
2. The authors analyze the cargo damage
(a) The captain is responsible for checking and
recording daily the temperature and moisture
of each cargo hold during the voyage.14 This
article thinks the cause of cargo damage in
this case was caused by sweat. The in-depth
discussion is as follows. Natural ventilation
should be implemented in good weather, but
the natural ventilation pipes are blocked due to
full load. As a result, the cargo holds are not
open in time to enhance ventilation and result
in the expansion of the cargo damage. If the
temperature in the cargo hold can be checked
daily according to the grain transportation
guidelines, and the cargo hold can be cooled
and ventilated in good weather, no damage will
occur. For example, the cargoes loaded in
cargo holds 4 and 7 were as good as ever.
Pie-Ya et al.
(b) The duty officer failed to remind the terminal
operator about the position of the ventilation
pipes, and the space for the ventilation pipes
in the cargo holds must be reserved when
loading. In other words, the filling operation
was not perfect, and the loading operation
was not fully noticed, and was one of the
potential reasons for the damage.
(c) The ISM Code of the shipping company
probably failed to specify the SOP for grain
loading, and the guidelines for cargo safety
management should have been noted during
the voyage.
The case study and the analysis by the authors give a
basis for procedure 19 of the SOP in Table 2.
The successful cargo loading of Cape size ship
required for maximum sailing draft
1. The loading process
(a) The loading port was Dampier, Australia,
and the discharging port was Qingdao,
China. First, it was necessary to make a Pre-
Stowage Plan based on the voyage order and
the loading/unloading information given by
the Australian port agent. Among the pre-
allocation calculations, fresh water was
reported 200 MTs. The ballast water residual
amount was unavailable due to the maiden
voyage, and was only estimated at around
250 MTs.
(b) Make the following two loading plans for two
kinds of cargoes: Pilbara blend lump (PBL)
and Pilbara blend fines (PBF). On 27
September 2017, the captain received infor-
mation about the maximum sailing draught
changes to 16.69 m, so that two load plans
were renewed immediately.
(c) At the last trimming of cargo holds 1 and 9,
the surveyor was informed that the maximum
sailing draught was changed to 17.25 m, and
extra 860 MTs of cargo was loaded. At the
moment, it could only be assigned to cargo
holds 1 and 9. At present, most of the ports in
Australia use the dynamic maximum sailing
draught. In other words, the final sailing draft
could not be determined until the last minute.
In order to meet the Draft Survey Report
requirements, the loading plan probably often
has to be changed before departure.
2. Use 3D Load Master Cload
(a) Receive a voyage order to do a Pre-Stowage
Plan
Based on the mentioned-above requirements, a
Pre-Stowage Plan was made. The maximum cargo
9
capacity of 177,300 MTs was assigned to load into
all cargo holds as follows: No. 1: 19,000 MTs, No.
2: 19,300 MTs, No. 3: 20,000 MTs, No. 4:
20,000 MTs, No. 5: 19,000 MTs, No. 6:
20,000 MTs, No. 7: 21,000 MTs, No. 8:
20,000 MTs, and No. 9: 19,000 MTs.
(b) Doing Loading Sequence
According to the loading plan, input relative
data (cargo volume, fresh water, ballast
water, oil, etc.) into the 3D Load Master
Cload software system for calculating the ship
seaworthiness such as draft, BM, SF, trim,
GM, and other important seaworthiness
information.
(c) Final Loading Plan
According to the actual loading cargo quan-
tity and the adjustment to the volumes of oil
and water listed on Pre-Stowage Plan, the
final Loading Plan was made.
3. The authors analyze the case of successful stowage
(a) First, the cargo loading basically has to meet
the all seaworthiness and navigational safety
requirements of the ship, and maximum cargo
loading requirement from the ship owners or
charterers.
(b) Due to the difference between the natures of
two types of cargoes, it is prohibited to mix
the two types of cargoes. At the same time,
under the maximum sailing draught require-
ment, there is a sagging phenomenon of
0.11 cm, which is within a reasonable safety
range.
The case study and the analysis by the authors give a
basis for procedures 1–5, 7–14, and 22 of the SOP in
Table 2.
SOP for loading/unloading of bulk carrier
Special requirements of bulk carrier charter party
According to the requirements of the charter party in
the bulk shipping market, the ship must obtain the
Rightship Star (preferably five stars) based on the
ship’s characteristic data and the good record of PSC
inspection in the calling ports within 1 year of arrival at
the loading port. There must also be at least three stars;
otherwise, there is a possibility of special inspection by
Rightship. The ballast water exchange record is made
during no-load voyage, including water depth, offshore
distance, time, latitude and longitude of position, gen-
erator in the engine room, and ballast pump used.
Records must not have any irrationality.
General requirements and restrictions
According to important knowledge from the literature,
case studies, international rules/regulations, and the
author’s navigational experience, this article has
10 Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 00(0)
developed a practical SOP for loading/unloading of
bulk carriers as follows:
1. Check the draft limits of loading/unloading ports
in the Voyage Instructions issued by the charterer.
Also, check the draft limits of seasonal loading
zones by reading the Route Guideline. Get an
appropriate Rightship approval and prepare
appropriate documents and certifications for PSC
inspection if necessary in the loading/unloading
ports.
2. The second officer should make a sailing plan
according to the navigation guidelines, calculate
the total navigation distance, and pay attention
to the weather conditions.
3. The chief engineer calculates the required oil
(including the safety oil) according to the sailing
distance to the first discharging port. The chief
officer considers the required oil volume and then
calculates the maximum cargo loading (Cargo
Deadweight Calculation) to pass on to the char-
terer for confirmation.
4. After the charterer agrees to Cargo Deadweight
Calculation, the Pre-Stowage Plan will be fina-
lized after the charterer reviews and agrees to it.
5. The Loading Sequence Plan of cargo operation is
created immediately after the charterer confirms
the loading port and is sent to the charterer, port
agent, shipper, and forwarder for confirmation.
6. When arriving at the loading port, the captain
should pay attention to the time of tendering
Notice of Readiness (NOR). The time depends
on the basis of dropping anchor or entering the
port limited line. According to the requirement of
the Voyage Instructions, the captain should ten-
der the NOR to the shipper and ensure that the
time of the shipper’s acceptance must meet the
requirements of the charter party.
7. The cargo holds must be inspected by the cargo
inspector before loading. If the ship cannot pass
the inspection, the off-hire will occur and result in
great loss and other related expenses for the
owner.
8. At the beginning of loading, the loading operator
must be required to load the cargoes according to
the Loading Sequence procedure. At the same
time, the pumping-out of ballast water should fol-
low the loading operation. That is, the ship must
keep an appropriate Trimming by Stern for
pumping out ballast water in time. If there is any
abnormality, the loading/unloading procedures
should be changed immediately or stopped in
time. In addition, in cases of loading coal, it is
necessary to pay more attention to whether the
space of each cargo hold is sufficient for loading
due to the different stowage factors of various
types of coal.
9. Adjust the loading volumes in cargo holds 2 and
8 or 1 and 9, when the last trimming is used for
the final loading adjustment of the Cape Size bulk
carrier. If necessary, cargo hold 5 should be
installed as little as possible to avoid the sagging
phenomenon. In case of loading iron ore, the
pumping-out ballast water must follow the load-
ing operation due to rapid loading. For a
Panamax bulk carrier, adjust the loading volumes
in cargo holds 1 and 7, when the last trimming is
used for the final loading adjustment.
10. Pay attention to the weight per unit area of the
cargo hold to avoid overweight when loading iron
ore. Also, pay attention to the cargo repose angle
based on the bulk cargo loading/unloading regu-
lations IMSBC Code and the nature of cargoes
provided by the shipper.
11. When loading iron ore on the Cape size bulk car-
rier, the alternating loading is no longer allowed
to avoid the occurrence of BM and sheer force
problems in bad weather at sea.
12. Before the completion of loading, the final adjust-
ment in the last trimming step should be calcu-
lated jointly by the chief officer and the cargo
surveyor, and then the captain should make a
double check to determine the installation of the
last two cargo holds. The inappropriate loading
on the bulk carrier cannot be unloaded in a short
time, and it may be prohibited from departing
from the loading port or entering the unloading
port due to the inappropriate loading and the
wrong volume of cargo loading.
13. The cargo loading at the loading port as many as
possible is premised on meeting the requirements
of draft limits of loading/unloading ports and
seasonal loading zone. Less loading at the loading
port is not allowed by the ship owner or the
charterer.
14. If less loading was caused by the shipper’s cargo
shortage, complaint should be made immediately
and endorsed by the shipper, and sent to all rele-
vant parties before departing from the loading
port.
15. Loading grain on Panamax bulk carrier at the
Australia ports should refer to the Australian
Calculation of Stability for Grain Ship Form and
fill in the details to complete clearance.
16. Loading grain on Panama bulk carrier at the
United States ports should refer to the US
National Cargo Bureau Inc. Grain Stability
Calculation Form and fill in the details.
17. When loading bauxite, pay attention to where the
loading port is, as well as whether the humidity
and the repose angle stated in the cargo declara-
tion are in compliance with safety requirements.
Check whether the hatch covers of the ship is
watertight and the cargo hold flooding exists.
Special precautions must be taken to prevent the
risk of free surface effect caused by the liquefac-
tion of bauxite resulting from cargo hold
flooding.
Pie-Ya et al.
18. After loading coal, the cargo hold should be kept
unventilated. Pay attention to the change in tem-
perature. Fireworks and flames shall be strictly
prohibited on the deck. The crews shall not enter
the cargo hold during the voyage. The manhole
covers of each cargo hold shall be completely
closed and shall not be opened.
19. During the navigation at sea, special attention
should be paid to the ventilation of the cargo
holds to prevent grain from sweating. The cover
of the cargo hold should be kept watertight. No
cargo hold flooding should occur. If necessary,
the cargo hold can be opened to enhance surface
ventilation.
20. After arriving at the port of discharge, whether it
is directly berthing, waiting for anchor, or float-
ing in the safe waters near the port, the captain
should immediately tender the NOR by tele-
graphic message to the charterer and the con-
signee. The captain should confirm that the time
of acceptance by the consignee meets the require-
ments of the charter party.
21. Before discharging, the draft of the ship shall be
jointly reviewed by the chief officer and the con-
signee’s surveyor, and shall be photographed for
use in case of controversy. Starting unloading
should be carried out in accordance with the pro-
cedures of the unloading schedule and the pump-
ing in ballast water to keep the necessary
minimum sailing draft, BM, SF, and GM within
safe ranges for departure permit and navigational
safety.
22. Before departing from the discharging port, the
draft of the ship should be reviewed by the chief
officer and the consignee’s surveyor. The Draft
Survey Record should be made to calculate the
actual unloading quantity to determine whether
there is a shortage of unloading.
23. The ship owner is responsible for the operation’s
safety during the unloading period. When the coal
in the cargo hold has an excessively high tempera-
ture during the unloading, it is not allowed to use
the sea water onboard to cool down. The terminal
operator and the consignee should be informed
immediately, and the shore fresh water from the
terminal should be used to cool down the tem-
perature of cargo holds in order to avoid sponta-
neous combustion of coal.
24. Before pumping in the ballast water, the ship’s
deputy officer should go to the bottom of the
cargo hold to see if any damage has been caused
by the unloading grab. If there is any cracking,
immediately inform the unloading operator to
inspect jointly and take photographs for use in
case of controversy. If the cracking affects the
navigational safety of the ship, it is necessary to
require the consignee to repair it before depar-
ture. If the cracking does not affect navigational
11
safety, fill in the report of the damage of the cargo
hold due to the worker’s operation error. Finally,
ask the operator to endorse the damage report
and then inform the owner and the charterer of
the ship to claim compensation.
Conclusion
The authors found that most marine incidents were
caused by failure to understand the practical SOP for
loading/unloading and the international regulations/
rules for cargo safety and ship navigational safety.
Based on the loading/unloading theories, international
rules/regulations, case studies, a literature review, expert
opinions, practical experience from some captains, and
the author’s navigational experience, the study consid-
ered comprehensively and summarized the SOP for
loading/unloading of bulk carrier at port and the naviga-
tional safety guidelines at sea. The developed SOP can
be offered to the bulk carrier captains (especially the
junior captains), bulk carrier owners and charterers, and
safety management companies for improving naviga-
tional safety and avoiding cargo damages.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Chou Chien-Chang https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
0341-9379
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