also leads to eutrophication

in water
bodies. Trees starve for
aluminum and
other minerals as aluminum
of soil get
converted to aluminum nitrate
or
sulphate when get absorbed
by trees
cause harmful effects. In dry
deposition
sulphate and nitrate ions fall
as small
particles without dissolving in
water,
about 20-60 % of the total
deposition is
dry deposition.
Effects on surface waters
Acid rain releases aluminum
from the soil
into lakes and streams which
is toxic to
many aquatic organisms.
According to
natural surface effects of
deposition about
75% of the lakes and about
50% of the
streams in U.S are acidified as
the pH falls
below 5. Similarly, in eastern
Canada
about 14,000 lakes were
reported as
acidic. Soft waters with low
alkaline metal
ions are more susceptible to
acidification.
Acidification increases the
release of
aluminum from granite rocks.
Aluminum
gives chronic stress lower
bodyweight or
smaller the size thus fish
become
inefficient in competing for
food and
habitat. In addition, most of
the eggs do
not hutch, some adult fish
may die, and
partially sensitive species
such as snails
and clams cannot tolerate pH
below 5.5.
However, in case some
species such as
frog though it can tolerate
lower pH but
their prey species such as
mayfly cannot
and decrease in prey
population
subsequently lower the frog
population as
well. Interconnections and
interdependencies in the food
chain affect
the ecosystem. Release of
toxic heavy
metal ions such as ions of
copper,
cadmium, nickel, chromium,
cobalt, lead
and zinc in the water body
reduces the
development and growth of
the fish.
Acidic condition together with
toxicity of
heavy metals reduced the
growth of the
fish and increases the stress,
this make
the fish less immune, thus
become more
susceptible to diseases, kills the
eggs and
larval stages, reduces
spawning and
reproductive success.
Nitrogen dioxide
deposition in water bodies is
another
major reason for episodic
acidification,
about 10- 45 % of the
nitrogen dioxide
reaching water bodies are
airborne and
they are released to
atmosphere mainly
from anthropogenic sources.
Acidification effects shell
forming
mollusks, shell fish, coral
reefs, sea grass
beds and juvenile stages of
aquatic
organisms. In case of shell fish
and corals
their calcareous shell or
skeleton get
dissolved in acidic
environment. Reduced
pH encourages the growth of
acid tolerant
forms such as some bacteria
and
protozoa. Acid rain is not the
sole cause of
acidification, some swamps,
bogs and
marshes naturally have low
level of pH. In
addition, acid water runoff
from coal
mines could reach the surface
waters
bodies e.g. fish kills in
Pennsylvania, West
Virginia and Virginia surface
waters in US
and Canada
MEGA ASSIGNMENT

Submitted by: Sufi Muhammad

MSc 4th
Roll. No.54307

Submitted To: Dr. Rabia Afza

Subject: Environmental Biology

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
HAZARA UNIVERSITY MANSEHRA
2021
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acid Rain.....................................................................................................................................2
How acidic is acid rain?...............................................................................................................2
Mechanism of Acid Rain:............................................................................................................3
How do we measure acid rain?....................................................................................................4
Components of acid rain..............................................................................................................4
Causes for the formation of acid rain...........................................................................................5
Countries most effected by acid rain............................................................................................6
Scientific Mechanism of Acid rain, Production And Fall............................................................9
Label Diagram of Acid Rain:.....................................................................................................11
Statistics of Acid rain from 2010________2020;......................................................................11
STATISTICAL DATA OF ACID RAIN 2010 -2020...............................................................13
Environmental Effects of Acid rain With scientific logics:.......................................................13
Effects of Acid Rain on Fish and Wildlife.............................................................................13
Effects of Acid Rain on Plants and Trees...............................................................................14
Buffering Capacity.................................................................................................................14
Episodic Acidification............................................................................................................15
Nitrogen Pollution..................................................................................................................15
Effects of Acid Rain on Materials..............................................................................................15
Other Effects of SO2and NOX..................................................................................................16
Visibility.................................................................................................................................16
Human Health.........................................................................................................................16
References..................................................................................................................................18

1
Acid Rain

Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form

of precipitation with acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the

ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail

or even dust that is acidic.Acid rain is a result of air pollution. When any type of fuel is

burnt, lots of different chemicals are produced. The smoke that comes from a fire or the

fumes that come out of a car exhaust don't just contain the sooty grey particles that you

can see - they also contains lots of invisible gases that can be even more harmful to our

environment.

Power stations, factories and cars all burn fuels and therefore they all produce polluting

gases. Some of these gases (especially nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide) react with

the tiny droplets of water in clouds to form sulphuric and nitric acids. The rain from

these clouds then falls as very weak acid - which is why it is known as "acid rain".

How acidic is acid rain?

Acidity is measured using a scale called the pH scale. This scale goes from 0 to 14. 0 is

the most acidic and 14 is the most alkaline (opposite of acidic). Something with a pH

value of 7, we call neutral, this means that it is neither acidic nor alkaline.

Very strong acids will burn if they touch your skin and can even destroy metals. Acid

rain is much, much weaker than this, never acidic enough to burn your skin.

Rain is always slightly acidic because it mixes with naturally occurring oxides in the air.

Unpolluted rain would have a pH value of between 5 and 6. When the air becomes

2
more polluted with nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide the acidity can increase to a

pH value of 4. Some rain has even been recorded as being pH2.

Vinegar has a pH value of 2.2 and lemon juice has a value of pH2.3. Even the strongest

recorded acid rain is only about as acidic as lemon juice or vinegar and we know that

these don't harm us - so why do we worry about acid rain?

Mechanism of Acid Rain:

Acid rain is a broad term used to describe several ways that acids fall out of the

atmosphere. A more precise term is acid deposition, which has two parts: wet and dry.

Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow. As this acidic water flows over and

through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and animals. Dry deposition refers to

acidic gases and particles. About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth

through dry deposition .The wind blows these acidic particles and gases towards

buildings, cars, homes and trees. Dry deposited gases and particles can also be washed

from trees and other surfaces by rainstorms. When that happens, the runoff water adds

those acids to the acid rain, making the combination more acidic than the falling rain

alone. Precipitation that has a pH value of less than seven may contain acidic rain. This

is due to the presence of acidic oxide emissions in the atmosphere from industries and

vehicles. However, a rainfall that has a pH value of less than 5.6 is considered as acid

rain . It is formed when sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, as gases or fine reacts

with rain water. Particles in the atmosphere combine with water vapour and precipitate

as sulphuric acid or nitric acid in rain, snow, or fog. Therefore, the main objective of this

paper was to assess the effect of acid rain on environment and to suggest the methods

3
of preventing acid rain. Moreover, to review what have done on acid rain before and to

forecast what will have done in the future. This is the first phase of the research. It will

continued more on experimental result in the second phase of the paper.

How do we measure acid rain?

Acid rain is measured using pH meter from 1 to 14 value scales with a pH of 7.0 being

neutral, 0 to 7 being acidic, and 7 to 14 basic .When the PH value lowers, the acidity

nature of rain increases. Pure water has a pH value of 7. However, normal rain is

slightly acidic because different acidic oxide emissions react with rain that lowers the

pH value about 5.6. According to 2000 report, the most acidic rain falling in the US has a

pH of about 4.3 This acid rain's pH and the chemicals that cause acid rain are monitored

by two networks that are supported by EPA. The National Atmospheric Deposition

Program measures wet deposition, and its Web site features maps of rainfall pH (follow

the link to the isopleths maps) and other important precipitation chemistry

measurements. The Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNET) measures dry

deposition. Its web site features information about the data it collects, the measuring

sites, and the kinds of equipment it uses.

Components of acid rain

The major components of acid rains are sulphur dioxide/sulphur trioxide, carbon

dioxide and nitrogen dioxide dissolves in rain water. These components are deposited

as dry and wet depositions. When these pollutants are dissolved in water during rain it

forms various acids (Figure 1). The chemical reactions of these pollutants are discussed

as follows.

4
Figure 1: Flow chart that shows the formation of acid rain and its interaction with

environment.

• CO2+H2O → H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

• SO2+H2O → H2SO3 (sulphorous acid)

• NO2+H2O → HNO2 (nitrous acid)+HNO3(nitric acid)

Causes for the formation of acid rain

Natural sources and human activities are the main causes for the formation of acid rain

in the world. Natural source causes are emissions from volcanoes and biological

processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans contribute acid-

producing gases to the atmosphere; and Effects of acidic deposits have been detected in

glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe. Whereas, activities of

5
human beings are burning of coal, using Oil and natural gas in power stations to

produce electricity, cooking purpose and to run their vehicles are giving off oxide of

sulphur, oxides of carbon, oxides of nitrogen, residual hydrocarbons and particulate

matters to the environment. These emissions mix with water vapour and rainwater in

the atmosphere producing weak solutions of sulphuric and nitric acids, which fall back

as acid rain to the ocean, lake and land.

Countries most effected by acid rain

Acid Rain affects many countries around the world. Large number of factories and

power plants in the North-eastern section of the U.S.A. Factories and estimated large

numbers of cars affected the South-eastern section of Canada. British and European

factories heavily affect Central Europe and Scandinavia. Massive amounts of factories

in Asia mostly affect China and India by acid rain. Dense population and many cities

contribute to pollutants occurring in acid rain.

6
7
Scientific Mechanism of Acid rain, Production And Fall.

Acid rain is appropriately described as an old environmental problem with a new

image. Acid rain, more than any other environmental contaminant, has focused societal

concern on ecosystem toxicology. Natural rain, including precipitation in relatively

clean or unpolluted regions, is naturally acidic, with a pH in the range of 5.0 to 6.0. This

natural acidity results from the oxidation of carbon oxides and the subsequent

formation of carbonic acid. Formic and acetic acids, originating primarily from natural

sources, may also contribute minor amounts of acidity to precipitation.

8
In regions downwind from electric-generating power stations employing fossil fuels,

industrial regions, or major urban centers, precipitation can be acidified below pH 5.0.

Precipitation with a pH less than 5.0 is designated acid rain. This human-

caused acidification of precipitation results primarily from the release of sulfur

dioxide(SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) from smokestacks and tailpipes. The

sulfur and nitrogen oxides are subsequently oxidized to sulfate SO42− and

nitrate NO3−, hydrolized, and returned to earth as sulfuric (H 2SO4) and nitric (HNO3)

acids. This additional acidification of precipitation by human activities can readily

reduce the pH of precipitation in downwind regions to between 4.0 and 5.0 on an

annual average basis. Individual precipitation events that have a pH in the 3.0 to 4.0

range are not uncommon.

The atmosphere deposits acidity onto the landscape both during and in between

precipitation events. In the latter case, termed dry deposition in contrast to wet

deposition, the acids are delivered in the gas phase or in association with fine particles

(aerosols). Acid deposition is a term that includes acid delivery in the form of

precipitation (rain, snow, fog, and cloud moisture) plus dry deposition. In view of the

importance of both wet and dry deposition in acid transfer from the atmosphere to

the biosphere, acid deposition is a much more appropriate descriptor than acid rain.

9
Label Diagram of Acid Rain:

 This diagram shows how the process of acid rain works.  First, the acidic gases are

released into the atmosphere.  Then, the gases are carried by the wind and dissolved

into rainwater.  The acidic gases mix with the rainwater to create acid rain.  Finally, the

acid rain kills plantlife, pollutes rivers and streams, and erodes stonework. 

Statistics of Acid rain from 2010________2020;

Acid rain was one of the most important environmental issues during the last decades

of the twentieth century. It became a game changer both scientifically and policy-wise.

For some time, particularly during the 1980s, acid rain was by many considered to be

one of the largest environmental threats of the time. Observations of fish extinction in

10
Scandinavian surface waters and forest dieback on the European Continent were top

stories in the news media. Even in North America acid rain received large public and

policy attention.

During the cold war, with almost no contacts between East and West, acid rain broke

the ice and formed an opening for scientific and political collaboration, resulting in a

treaty under the United Nations’ Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), the

Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (often mentioned as CLRTAP

but in this paper we call it the Air Convention) signed in 1979. Eight protocols have

been signed under the Air Convention committing parties to take far-reaching actions,

not only with respect to acid rain but also with respect to several other air pollution

problems (Table 1). Emissions of all key air pollutants have been reduced significantly

and for the most important acidifying compound, sulphur dioxide, emissions in Europe

have decreased by 80% or more since the peaks around 1980–1990.

11
STATISTICAL DATA OF ACID RAIN 2010 -2020

Environmental Effects of Acid rain With scientific logics:

An ecosystem is a community of plants, animals and other organisms along with their

environment including the air, water and soil. Everything in an ecosystem is connected.

If something harms one part of an ecosystem – one species of plant or animal, the soil or

the water – it can have an impact on everything else.

Effects of Acid Rain on Fish and Wildlife

The ecological effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in aquatic environments, such as

streams, lakes, and marshes where it can be harmful to fish and other wildlife. As it

flows through the soil, acidic rain water can leach aluminum from soil clay particles and

then flow into streams and lakes. The more acid that is introduced to the ecosystem, the

more aluminum is released.

12
Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters and moderate

amounts of aluminum. Others, however, are acid-sensitive and will be lost as the pH

declines. Generally, the young of most species are more sensitive to environmental

conditions than adults. At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some

adult fish die. Some acidic lakes have no fish. Even if a species of fish or animal can

tolerate moderately acidic water, the animals or plants it eats might not. For example,

frogs have a critical pH around 4, but the mayflies they eat are more sensitive and may

not survive pH below 5.5.

Effects of Acid Rain on Plants and Trees

Dead or dying trees are a common sight in areas effected by acid rain. Acid rain leaches

aluminum from the soil.  That aluminum may be harmful to plants as well as animals.

Acid rain also removes minerals and nutrients from the soil that trees need to grow. 

At high elevations, acidic fog and clouds might strip nutrients from trees’ foliage,

leaving them with brown or dead leaves and needles. The trees are then less able to

absorb sunlight, which makes them weak and less able to withstand freezing

temperatures.

Buffering Capacity

Many forests, streams, and lakes that experience acid rain don’t suffer effects because

the soil in those areas can buffer the acid rain by neutralizing the acidity in the

rainwater flowing through it. This capacity depends on the thickness and composition

of the soil and the type of bedrock underneath it. In areas such as mountainous parts of

the Northeast United States, the soil is thin and lacks the ability to adequately neutralize

13
the acid in the rain water. As a result, these areas are particularly vulnerable and the

acid and aluminum can accumulate in the soil, streams, or lakes.

Episodic Acidification

Melting snow and heavy rain downpours can result in what is known as episodic

acidification. Lakes that do not normally have a high level of acidity may temporarily

experience effects of acid rain when the melting snow or downpour brings greater

amounts of acidic deposition and the soil can’t buffer it. This short duration of higher

acidity (i.e., lower pH) can result in a short-term stress on the ecosystem where a variety

of organisms or species may be injured or killed.

Nitrogen Pollution

It’s not just the acidity of acid rain that can cause problems. Acid rain also contains

nitrogen, and this can have an impact on some ecosystems. For example, nitrogen

pollution in our coastal waters is partially responsible for declining fish and shellfish

populations in some areas. In addition to agriculture and wastewater, much of the

nitrogen produced by human activity that reaches coastal waters comes from the

atmosphere.

Effects of Acid Rain on Materials

Not all acidic deposition is wet. Sometimes dust particles can become acidic as well, and

this is called dry deposition. When acid rain and dry acidic particles fall to earth, the

nitric and sulfuric acid that make the particles acidic can land on statues, buildings, and

other manmade structures, and damage their surfaces. The acidic particles corrode

14
metal and cause paint and stone to deteriorate more quickly. They also dirty the

surfaces of buildings and other structures such as monuments.

The consequences of this damage can be costly:

 damaged materials that need to be repaired or replaced,

 increased maintenance costs, and

 loss of detail on stone and metal statues, monuments and tombstones.

Other Effects of SO2and NOX

Visibility

In the atmosphere, SO2 and NOX gases can be transformed into sulfate and nitrate

particles, while some NOX can also react with other pollutants to form ozone. These

particles and ozone make the air hazy and difficult to see through. This affects our

enjoyment of national parks that we visit for the scenic view such as Shenandoah and

the Great Smoky Mountains.

Human Health

Walking in acid rain, or even swimming in a lake affected by acid rain, is no more

dangerous to humans than walking in normal rain or swimming in non-acidic lakes.

However, when the pollutants that cause acid rain —SO 2 and NOX, as well as sulfate

and nitrate particles— are in the air, they can be harmful to humans.

SO2 and NOX react in the atmosphere to form fine sulfate and nitrate particles that

people can inhale into their lungs.  Many scientific studies have shown a relationship

between these particles and effects on heart function, such as heart attacks resulting in

15
death for people with increased heart disease risk, and effects on lung function, such as

breathing difficulties for people with asthma.

16
References

Magaino, S. (January 1, 1997). "Corrosion rate of copper rotating-disk-electrode in

simulated acid rain". Electrochimica Acta. 42 (3): 377–382. doi:10.1016/S0013-

4686(96)00225-3. ISSN 0013-4686. Archived from the original on June 9, 2020.

Retrieved April 22, 2020.

Likens, Gene E.; Keene, William C.; Miller, John M.; Galloway, James N. (1987).

"Chemistry of precipitation from a remote, terrestrial site in Australia". Journal of

Geophysical Research. 92 (D11): 13299. Bibcode:1987JGR....9213299L.

doi:10.1029/JD092iD11p13299. Archived from the original on February 21, 2021.

Retrieved August 25, 2020.

E. S. de Beer, ed. The Diary of John Evelyn, III, 1955 (September 19, 1667) p. 495.

Glossary, United States: NASA Earth Observatory, acid rain, archived from the original

on December 13, 2011, retrieved February 15, 2013

Weathers, K. C. and Likens, G. E. (2006). "Acid rain", pp. 1549–1561 in: W. N. Rom and

S. Markowitz (eds.). Environmental and Occupational Medicine. Lippincott-

Raven Publ., Philadelphia. Fourth Edition, ISBN 0-7817-6299-5.

Seinfeld, John H.; Pandis, Spyros N (1998). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics —

From Air Pollution to Climate Change. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-

471-17816-3

17